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SONNBNSCHEIN'S 

CYOLOPM)IA OF EDUCATION 



PRINTED BY 

SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NBW-STRBBT SQUAEE 

LONDON 



SONNENSCHEIN'S '^ 



CYCLOEEDIA OF EDUCATION 



A HANDBOOK OF EEFEEENCE ON ALL SUBJECTS CONNECTED 

WITH EDUCATION (ITS HISTOEY, THEOEY, AND PEACTICE), COMPEISING 

AETICLES BY EMINENT EDUCATIONAL SPECIALISTS 



THE WHOLE ARRANGED AND EDITED BY 



ALFRED EWEN FLETCHER 





r; N.Y. 

C. W. BAEDEEN, PUBLISHER 

LONDON: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 
1889 



NOV 1 , •■ 



LB 13 

mi 



LIST OF PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS. 



J. Maitland Andeeson, Chief Librarian, 
St. Andrews University. 

Miss A. M. 0. Baxley, Secretary to the 
Froehel Society. 

Mrs. AimiE Besant. 

Rev. Canon Bloeb, D.D., formerly Head 
Master of the Xing'' s School, Canterbury. 

H. COTJETHOPB BOWEN, M.A, 

OscAE BEOWNIN&, M.A., King's College, 
Cambridge. 

W. Feeeland Oaed, Greemvich Hospital 
School. 

J. Spencee Ctjewbn, President of the Tonic 
Sol-fa College. 

Joseph Daee, B.A. 

James Donaldson, M.A., LL.D., Senior 
Principal of St. Andreivs University. 

R. T. Elliott, B.A. 

Mrs. Heney Fawcbtt. 

ElOHAEB GOWING. 

AxEXANDEE H. Geant, M.A. 

J. F. Hbyes, M.A., Magdalen College, 
Oxford. 

J. HowAED HiNTON, M.A., formerly 
Mathematical Master, U-ppingham School. 

Rev. J. Denis Hied, M.A. 

Rev. J. W. HoESELEY, M.A. 

Waltee Low, M.A., Mercers' School, Col- 
lege Hill. 

Rev. E. F. M. MacOaethy, M.A., Head- 
master, King Edward^s School, Five Ways, Bir- 
mingham, and Vice-chairman of the Birming- 
ham School Board. 

Sir Philip Magnus, Principal of the Cen- 
tral Technical Institution, South Kensington. 

P. E. Matheson, M.A., Felloxo of New 
College, Oxford, and Oxford Seci-etary to the 



Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination 
Board. 

Al"PEED Milnes, M. a., Assistant Secretary, 
London University. 

H. Kbatlby Mooee, Mus. Bac. 

Rev. H. Kingsmill Mooee, M.A., Prin- 
cipal of the Church of Ireland Training Col- 
lege, Dublin. 

Professor A, F. Mtteison, M.A., University 
College, London, 

Dr. Newsholme, ikfec^z'mZ Officer of Health 
for Brighton, author of ' School Hygiene.' 

J. L. Paton, M.A., Felloio of St. Johris 
College, Cambridge. 

Rev. H. D. Rawnsley, M.A. 

David Salmon, Head-master of Belvedere 
Place Board School, Borough Road, London. 

Aeththr Sidgwiok, M.A., Corpus Christi 
College, Oxford. 

Rev. A. J. Smith, M.A., Head-master of 
King Edward's School, Camp Hill, Birming- 
ham. 

Professor E. A. Sonnbnschein, M.A., 
Mason College, Birmingham. 

Francis Stoee, M.A., Merchant Taylors' 
School. 

Professor James Sully, M.A., formerly 
Examiner in Psychology in the University of 
London. 

William Whiteley, M.A., Head-master 
Gloucester Road Board School, Cambertoell. 

RoBEET Wilson, author of ' The Life and 
Times of Queen Victoria.' 

Miss Susan Wood, B.Sc, Training College, 
Cambridge. 

RiCHAED Woemell, M.A., D.Sc, Head- 
master, City Corporation Schools, 



PEEPACE. 



The object kept in view by the writers of this work has been to make 
it useful to all who take an interest in educational questions, and espe- 
cially to those engaged in the work of teaching, whether in Elementary, 
Secondary, or the Higher Schools. Within the limits of a small 
Cyclopsedia an exhaustive treatment of the great variety of subjects 
dealt with is not to be expected. It has therefore been the aim of 
the Contributors to give a telescopic rather than a microscopic view 
of the educational facts and questions discussed, and to bring their 
purely pedagogic features into clear outline. 

Eeferences to authorities have been given at the conclusion of the 
more important articles only, as a carefully compiled Bibliography of 
Pedagogy is given as an Appendix to the book. The biographical 
section of the work does not, for obvious reasons, include notices of 

living persons. 

A. E. FLETCHER. 



ADDENDA. 



Ana itti su. See Schools op Anti- 
quity, sec. Assyria. 

Arnauld, Antoine. See Jansenists 
and' Reformation. 

Arnold, Matthew. See Pedagogy, 
Inspectors, and Royal Commissions. 

Assyria, Schools of. See Schools of 
Antiquity. 

Atlases. See Maps. 

Babylonia, Schools of. See Schools 
OF Antiquity. 

Bede. See Middle Ages (Schools 
OP the). 

.Bentham, Jeremy. See Utilitari- 
anism. 

Borsippa. See Schools op Anti- 
quity, sect. Assyria. 

Buchanan, James. See Young Chil- 
dren (Education of). 

Budseus. See Reformation. 

Casaubon. See Reformation. 

Castiglione, Count Baldassare. See 
Renaissance. 

Chaldea. See Schools op Anti- 
quity. 

Chancellor. See Rector. 

Charlemagne. See Middle Ages 
(Schools op the). 

City and Guilds of London Institute. 
See Technical Education. 

Commercial Education. See Tech- 
nical Education. 

Consortium magistrorum. See Rec- 
tor. 

Cranfield, Thomas. See Ragged 
Schools. 

Cuneiform Characters. See Schools 
oe Antiquity. 

Ecole des Arts et Metiers. See Tech- 
nical Education, 

Ecole des bons Enfants. See Re- 
naissance. 

Ecole Centrale. See Technical Edu- 
cation. 

Ecole Diderot. See Technical Edu- 
cation. 



Egypt. See Schools of Antiquity. 

Erech. See Schools op Antiquity. 

Erganzungsschule. See Law (Edu- 
cational). 

Feltre, Vittorino de. See Renais- 
sance. 

Fletcher, Joseph. See Young Chil- 
dren (Education op). 

Fortbildungsschule. See Law (Edu- 
cational). 

Geodesy. See Mathematical Geo- 
graphy. 

Groote, Gerard. See Renaissance. 

Hebdomadal Board. See University 
Reform. 

Hieronymites. See Renaissance. 

HuUah, John. See Sol-Faing. 

Jacotot. See Payne. 

Kunstgewerbeschulen. See Tech- 
nical Education. 

Museums. See Science and Art 
Museums. 

Newcastle Commission. See Royal 
Commissions. 

Newman, Cardinal. See Renais- 
sance and Universities. 

Oberlin, J. F. See Young Children 
(Education of). 

Ober Real. See Law (Educational), 
sect. Saxony. 

Obscurantists. See Renaissance. 

Occam, William of See Scholas- 
ticism. 

Owen, Robert. See Young Children 
(Education op). 

Ramus, Peter (Pierre de Ramee). 
See Reformation. 

Salmasius. See Reformation. 

Spalatin. See Reformation. 

Stow, David. See Young Children 
(Education of). 

Turnebus. See Reformation. 

Waynflete, Bishop. See Middle 
Ages (Schools op the). 

Wilderspin, Samuel. See Young 
Children (Education op). 



CYCLOPEDIA OP EDUCATION. 



Abacus (a/3ai, a board or slab), origi- 
nally any table of rectangular form. The 
term was also applied to a board or table 
on which mathematicians drew diagrams. 
The abacus, as at present used to instruct 
children in the use of numbers, consists of 
a number of parallel wires on which beads 
are strung, the upper wire denoting units, 
the next tens, &c. 

Abbey or Monastic Schools. — There 
were two kinds of schools under the direc- 
tion of the monasteries : (1) schools almost 
exclusively devoted to the higher educa- 
tion of novices and those who, having 
completed their probation, had taken the 
vow ; (2) schools distinct from these, in 
which instruction, either gratuitous or on 
payment, was given to children of all 
classes of society living in the neighbour- 
hood of the monastery. The former were 
the prototypes of the collegiate schools, or 
colleges, which developed into the colleges 
at Oxford, Cambridge, and, later on, those 
at Winchester and Eton. From the latter 
sprang many of the endowed grammar 
schools (q.v.), which, at the dissolution of 
the monasteries, were placed in the hands 
of lay trustees by charter or letters patent 
of the Tudor sovereigns. Cathedral schools 
were similar to this latter kind of mon- 
astic school. 

Abbreviated Longhand.— Schoolmas- 
ters do not generally encourage the prac- 
tice of abbreviated longhand by their 
pupils, but for their own purposes teachers 
could save much time by adopting the 
abbreviations now in general use by 
telegraphists, journalists, and authors. 
Amongst the commoner of these abbrevia- 
tions are I, the ; o, of ; w, with ; c'^, could ; 
h, have ; h'^, had ; bn, been ; jf, for ; fm, 
from ; nt, not ; i, that ; wh, who, which, 
or what ; g, ing ; t", tion or tian ; mf, 
ment ; sh, shall ; abt, about ; circs, cir- 
cumstances ; B^m, Birmingham : L^pool, 



Liverpool, and so on. The general rule 
for abbreviating longhand is to omit the 
vowels, except initial vowels and such as 
it is obviously necessary to retain to pre- 
vent confusion. See Shorthand. 

Abbreviations. — The abbreviations in 
scholastic use are chiefly those employed 
to denote academic attainments, as B.A., 
Bachelor of Arts, M.A., Master of Arts, 
&c., or to facilitate the working of papers, 
&c., in mathematics and other studies. 
In university examinations candidates are 
generally permitted to abbreviate exten- 
sively in working geometrical papers by 
using signs and figures, though many 
teachers object to the adoption of this 
practice by young pupils. 

ABC Method, by which children learn 
all the letters of the alphabet from an 
ABC book, from the blackboard, from 
cards, &c. The pupil is instructed to 
point to the letters singly in turn, and 
thus associate the form with the name. 
This system has now generally been super- 
seded by the Word Method {q.v.). 

ABC Shooters (German ABC 
Schiltzen). — Jocular name for German chil- 
dren learning the ABC. ' Schiitzen ' in 
the Middle Ages were the younger wan- 
dering scholars, who, like fags, were com- 
pelled to find food for the elder boys by 
begging or ' shooting,' i.e. purloining, stray 
fowls, &c. In German students' slang 
schiessen (shoot) still has this sense. 

Abecedarian. — This word, composed 
of the first four letters of the alphabet, 
denotes a pupil in the most elementary 
stage of education. 

Abelard, Peter, b. at Palais, near 
Nantes, 1079, died 1142. He is one of 
the most famous of the early Scholastics. 
His attainments and his eloquence com- 
bined to give him an important place as 
an educationist. His father was wealthy, 
and spared no expense in his son's educa- 



ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE 



tion. Having learnt Hebrew, Greek, and 
Latin, Abelard went to the University of 
Paris, which enjoyed at that time a wide- 
spread fame. There he became the pupil 
of Guillaume de Champeaux, the most skil- 
ful dialectician of the age. Abelard soon 
surpassed his master, and often challenged 
him to public disputations. Abelard re- 
tired to Melun and lectured there, whither 
some of the Parisian students followed 
him. But his health gave way, although 
not yet twenty-two, owing to his severe 
studies ; and for some time he sought 
rest. After many changes we find him 
again in Paris, as professor of divinity, 
surrounded by the most eminent scholars of 
his age. Here it was that he received 
Heloise, niece of the rich canon Fulbert, 
as a pupil. Her philosophic studies, how- 
ever, ended in a romantic attachment that 
has become as celebrated in literature as 
that of Swift and Stella. This disturbed 
the rest of Abelard's life, and caused him 
much trouble and many enemies. In 
Abelard's time there were two courses 
of scholastic instruction : the ' trivium,' 
containing grammar, rhetoric, and dia- 
lectics or philosophy ; the ' quadrivium,' 
comprising arithmetic, music, geometry, 
astronomy. Abelard's contemporaries 
agree in regarding him as an accom- 
plished master in all these. This must be 
understood, of course, with regard to the 
age in which he lived, for it is certain 
that no Greek text of the writings of 
Aristotle existed at that time in France. 
Some MS. copies of his works remain, and 
they may be seen in the British Museum. 
In them and in his printed works all the 
quotations from Aristotle are in Latin. 

Aberdeen University. See Univer- 
sities. 

Absenteeism. See Attendance. 

Absent-mindedness. — This term indi- 
cates that variety of inattention which 
arises from mental preoccupation. This 
may be due to the action of some external 
stimulus, as when a child fails to listen to 
what is said to him because he is watching 
the movements of a fly on the window. 
In a special manner the term refers to the 
withdrawal of attention from the external 
surroundings as a whole, as when a child 
is wholly inattentive to what it sees and 
hears because its thoughts are absorbed in 
the anticipation of some treat. A bent 
to dreamy imagination and reverie is a 
common cause of absent-mindedness in 



children. As a source of inattention it 
must be carefully distinguished by the 
teacher from mental sluggishness, as com- 
monly illustrated in idle wandering of the 
thoughts, or what Locke calls ' saunter- 
ing.' As the history of more than one 
distinguished man tells us, absent-minded- 
ness in relation to school lessons may be 
a sign of intense mental activity otherwise 
absorbed ; and the same fact is still more 
strikingly illustrated in the habitual ab- 
straction of the student from his sur- 
roundings. Absent-mindedness finds its 
proper remedy in the habitual awakening 
of the child's interest in his surroundings, 
in the careful training of the observing 
faculty and the practical aptitudes, and in 
the investing of subjects of instruction 
with all possible attractiveness. See At- 
tention. 

Abstract and Concrete. — These refer 
to a fundamental distinction in our know- 
ledge. We may have a knowledge of some 
particular thing in its completeness, as, for 
example, of water as something at once 
fluid, transparent, &c. This is knowledge 
of things in the concrete. On the other 
hand, we may think about the property 
fluidity apart from water and all other 
particular substances. This knowledge of 
qualities, as distinct from concrete things 
as wholes, is said to be knowledge of the 
abstract. In Logic all names of things, 
whether general or singular, are called 
concrete terms, all names of qualities ab- 
stract terms. It is evident from this defi- 
nition that the region of abstract knowledge 
is that with which science is specially con- 
cerned ; for all science deals with the com- 
mon qualities or properties of things, such 
as form, chemical qualities, &c., and the 
general laws which govern these. It is a 
fundamental maxim of modern education 
that concrete knowledge must precede 
abstract. Before a child can gain any 
abstract ideas, as those of number, force, 
moral courage, some knowledge of con- 
crete examples is indispensable. Hence 
it follows that subjects which deal largely 
with the concrete, as descriptive geography, 
narrative history, &c., should form the 
first part of the curriculum. A concrete 
presentation of the more striking facts of 
physical science by means of object les- 
sons, supplemented by description, is the 
natural introduction to the more abstract 
consideration of its laws. (On the transi- 
tion from concrete to abstract see Herbert 



ABSTRACTION ACADEMY 



Spencer, Education, chap. ii. ; Bain, Udto- 
cation as Science, chap, vii.) 

Abstraction.— In its widest scope this 
term means the withdrawal of the mind 
from one object or feature of an object in 
order to fix it on another. It is in this 
sense the necessary accompaniment of all 
concenti'ation. In a more special sense 
it refers to the turning away of the 
thoughts from the difierences among indi- 
vidual things so as to fix them on the 
points of similarity. It is thus the opera- 
tion which immediately leads to a know- 
ledge of the common qualities of things, 
i.e. to abstract knowledge. Thus, in order 
to gain a clear idea of roundness, the child 
has to compare a number of round things, 
as a ball, a marble, an orange, &c., and 
abstract from the other and distinguishing 
features of each, as the colour of the 
orange. Abstraction of a greater or less 
degree of difiiculty is always involved in 
classification or generalisation, i.e. the pro- 
cess by which the mind forms the notion 
of a general class, as animal, toy, &c. It 
also enters as the main ingredient into 
induction, i.e. the operation by which the 
mind passes from a consideration of par- 
ticular facts to that of the general law 
which they obey. Since in all cases abs- 
traction is a casting aside or putting out of 
sight of much that is present to the mind, 
it calls for an efibrt of will. Hence the 
difficulty attending the study of all gene- 
ralities and abstract subjects in the case of 
young children. The more numerous and 
striking the points of diversity, and the 
more subtle and obscure the points of 
similarity, the greater the effort of abstrac- 
tion required. The faculty of abstraction, 
though appearing in a crude form in young 
children, is the last to reach its full deve- 
lopment. The higher abstractions, as those 
of mathematics, physical science, gram- 
mar, (fee, should only be introduced in the 
later stages of education. The natural 
repugnance of the child to abstraction 
must be met by a careful process of pre- 
paration. This includes the accumulation 
of a sufficient quantity of concrete know- 
ledge, a jiidicious selection of examples 
under each head, and a gradual transition 
from exercises of an easy character per- 
formed on sensible qualities, as weight, 
figure, (fee, to those of a more difficult 
order dealing with recondite qualities. 
(See Sully, The Teacher's Handbook of 
Psychology, chaps, xii. and xiii.) 



Abstract Science. — All science, as 
general knowledge of things, i.e. of things 
so far as they have common qualities, is 
abstract knowledge. At the same time a 
certain group of the sciences are marked 
ofi" as Abstract and another group as Con- 
crete. The former deal with a few pro- 
perties common to a wide s^arieby of things. 
Thus mathematics, the best type of an abs- 
tract science, deals with the most general 
aspect of things, viz. quantity ; for all ob- 
jects, of whatever nature they may be, 
exhibit the attribute of quantity. On the 
other hand, the sciences of description and 
classification, as botany, deal with the 
many common qualities or characters of a 
comparatively restricted region of pheno- 
mena. Hence they are called Concrete. 
In many cases we are able to distinguish 
an abstract or theoretical and a concrete 
branch of the same subject. Thus in me- 
chanics we have a theoretical department 
dealing with the universal laws of equili- 
brium and motion, and concrete applica- 
tions of these to particular forms and 
combinations of matter, as hydrostatics. 
The distinction between Abstract and Con- 
crete science has an important bearing on 
the order in which the sciences should be 
studied. The Abstract sciences, being 
relatively simple and fundamental, should 
precede the corresponding Concrete 
sciences. Thus a certain knowledge of 
mathematics is necessary to the study of 
physics, chemistry, (fee. (See Bain, Logic, 
Deduction, Introduction, and H. Spencer, 
Education, chap, i.) 

Academy (Gr. 'AKaBrjfjLLa). — A recrea- 
tion ground at Athens, believed to have 
been named after Academus, an Athenian 
hero of the time of the Trojan expedition. 
The Academia was the favourite resort of 
Plato. Here he used to lecture to his 
pupils and followers ; hence his school of 
philosophy was called the Academic School. 
After the revival of letters the term Aca- 
demy came to be applied to the higher 
schools of instruction, particularly to such 
as were of a unique and special character, 
as the academies of music, fine arts, the 
naval and military academies, (fee. In 
England the application of the word has 
been considerably extended and appro- 
priated as the appellation of schools of 
various grades. A similar abuse of the 
term is also common in the United States. 
In France, however, as in Russia, Sweden, 
and other European countries, the use of 

B 2 



ACCIDENCE— ACOUSTICS 



the term is now almost confined to the 
learned societies for the advancement of 
literature, science, and art. The Academie 
fran^aise is the final court of appeal on 
questions relating to French philology, 
grammar, &c. The Academie des inscrip- 
tions et belles-lettres is another famous asso- 
ciation of French savants. The desirable- 
ness of establishing an English academy of 
learned men having the authority of the 
Academie franc^aise has been ably advo- 
cated by Mr. Matthew Arnold and others. 

Accidence. See Grammar. 

Accidents. See School Surgery. 

Accomplishments. — This term refers to 
that part of the education of girls {q.v.) 
which includes instruction in those arts 
which for the most part are ornamental. 
Accomplishments include drawing and 
painting of a mildly artistic kind, dancing, 
and that kind of music which finds favour 
in drawing-rooms. Locke attached great 
importance to dancing as a necessary ac- 
complishment even for a gentleman, but 
objected to painting on the ground that 
' ill painting is one of the worst things in 
the world, and to attain a tolerable degree 
of skill in it requires too much of a man's 
time.' See Esthetic Culture. 

Acoustics. — The subject of sound has 
two branches — one purely observational 
and concerned with the vibrations of air 
or of liquids and solids of such a nature 
as to stimulate the sense of hearing. 
These vibrations are different from those 
which excite the sense of sight, inasmuch 
as they are longitudinal and not trans- 
versal ; that is, they consist of condensa- 
tions and rarefactions in the direction in 
which the sound travels, not, as in the 
case of light of vibrations, at right angles 
to the direction in which the disturb- 
ance is propagated. The other branch of 
acoustics consists in a study of the means 
by which it produces sensation in the 
brain, and the physical conditions under 
which those sensations are estimated as 
pleasurable or painful. All substances 
are more or less elastic. When a portion 
of an elastic medium is compressed it 
tends to expand again, and having ex- 
panded it passes through the normal con- 
dition to a condition of rarefaction, and 
before it comes to its original condition it 
passes through many such phases. Thus 
any violent disturbance of the air pro- 
duces an alternate condensation and rare- 
faction called a wave, and this repeats 



itself indefinitely, spreading out into all 
the surrounding air, like the ripples on a 
smooth lake from a stone which is thrown 
in. The rate at which this disturbance 
travels is in air about 1,090 feet a second. 
The distance which a complete wave occu- 
pies varies. The central c of the piano is 
a recurrent wave whose length is about 
4^ feet. Hence the number of waves 
which fall on the ear in a second can be 
calculated. If each takes up 4|- feet and 
there are enough of them in a second to 
cover 1,090 feet, then we approximately 
find the number by dividing 1,090 by 4g, 
which gives us 264. The standard num- 
ber of vibrations for the central c has 
altered in recent times owing to a change 
in the standard of pitch. It is now ex- 
actly 264 vibrations in a second. Any 
concussion or rapid disturbance leads to 
the formation of waves in the air or in 
any medium. These waves are not in 
general musical notes. For the produc- 
tion of the latter regularly recurrent 
disturbances are necessary, and ordinary 
noises consist of an indefinite number of 
musical notes so mingled together that 
their separate existences are undiscernible. 
The chief modes of producing musical 
sounds are by the vibration of a string, 
of a membrane, and of a thin tongue of 
metal in a current of air. The power of 
the note produced is much intensified by 
a resounding board or a closed mass of 
air of such dimensions as to vibrate na- 
turally in accord with the note produced. 
Thus in an organ the sound is produced 
by an insignificant tongue of metal, which 
vibrates with a multitude of notes. The 
organ-pipe takes up that one which it is 
adapted for, and is the cause of the whole 
volume of sound. If vibrations exceed a 
certain number in a second they pass be- 
yond the limits of audibility. This varies 
with different persons. Some can hear 
the cry of a bat ; it is too shrill for others 
to discern. A whistle has been designed 
by Mr. Galton in which the rate of vibra- 
tion can be gradually altered, and a note 
is produced which, gradually becoming 
shriller, passes beyond the hearing first of 
one then of another of a company who 
listen to it. When it is inaudible to any 
one it will still influence a sensitive flame. 
Similarly vibrations pass below the limits 
of audibility when they become slower 
than a certain rate. 

A most instructive experiment, which 



ACOUSTICS ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE 



illustrates many facts of optics as well as 
of acoustics, is the following : We take 
two tuning-forks of different periods of 
vibration. Two small beads are hung by 
a thread so that one just touches the'prong 
of each fork. A third tuning-fork is now 
sounded which is of the same period of 
vibration as one of the forks. The bead 
in proximity to that fork will be thrown 
to and fro, while the bead touching the 
other tuning-fork will remain at rest. This 
shows that the tuning-fork will take up 
from the air the vibration which it itself 
will give out, and the solid mass of steel 
will be set in motion by the extremely 
minute influences of the waves of air. 
The same effect is produced with strings 
when stretched to various degrees of ten- 
sion. Let us imagine a room to be com- 
pletely filled with strings of one length 
and one degree of tension, such that they 
would all give out the same note. Let 
then a set of musical notes traverse the 
room, consisting of the note to which the 
strings are attuned and others as well. 
That note will set all the strings in vibra- 
tion, and as a consequence it will itself be 
absorbed — it will not pass through the 
room, while the other notes will pass on, 
not being taken up in producing an effect 
in the room. Here the room full of 
strings is of the nature of a substance 
which absorbs that kind of vibration 
which it, when itself set in vibration, 
would give out. There are many instances 
of an action of this kind in heat and light, 
and the whole study of spectrum analysis 
rests upon a similar phenomenon in the 
case of light. 

The vibrations of the air are conveyed 
to the brain by a delicate apparatus, con- 
sisting of the following parts : A mem- 
brane which is agitated by the waves 
passing down the passage of the ear. To 
this membrane are attached two bones 
forming a lever and conveying the vibra- 
tions to another membrane. This latter 
membrane encloses a space filled with 
fluid, the vestibule, and from this space 
open out two spiral-formed canals and a 
space shaped like a snail-shell, the cochlea. 
Into the fluid of the cochlea project a 
number of small fibres or rods of varying 
lengths, and it is supposed that vibrations 
of varying rates a.re picked out by these 
fibres, each fibre being set in vibration 
by its corresponding vibration, and con- 
veyed by them to the auditory nerve. 



Although in the air the multitudinous 
vibrations of a piece of music are com- 
pounded into a single complex agitation, 
still the ear has the power of picking out 
each note, and even the particular kind of 
note of every instrument — that is to say, 
there is the power in the ear of dis- 
tinguishing the several vibrations, how- 
ever compounded. The state of the air 
through which a number of musical notes 
is passing is very complicated. We will 
consider two instances. Take the note C 
and the c above it. When the note c 
sounds, the air has its point of greatest 
compression and greatest rarefaction at 
distances of 4 feet from each other. Due 
to the higher c there are compressions 
and rarefactions at distances of 2 feet 
from each other. These will combine into 
a series at a distance of 2 feet, but these 
compressions and rarefactions will not be 
identical ; where the phases of the two 
notes coincide there will be a more marked 
effect than where they differ. Still the 
total series will be regular, and its phases 
will recur, complicated as they are, within 
a short interval. If two notes, however, 
be sounded together, the periods of which 
differ but slightly, they will, if started in 
corresponding phases at one time, augment 
each other considerably, but after a cer- 
tain time, when the faster wave has gained 
sufficiently on the slower wave, they will 
almost neutralise each other. Hence, the 
sound will rise and fall in intensity at 
appreciable intervals, giving rise to an 
effect similar to that of the flickering of 
a candle. This is productive of an un- 
pleasant sensation to the ear, and it is 
found that what are called disharmonies 
in music are notes related in the above 
fashion to each other. For the experi- 
mental and general knowledge of acoustics 
Tyndall's book on Sound may be consulted. 
Airy's and Donkin's books give the more 
mathematical treatment. Helmholtz's 
book on the Sensations of Tone has been 
translated, and is the authority on the 
phenomena of sound in relation to the 
sense of hearing. 

Acquisition of Knowledge, or learn- 
ing in its widest signification, includes 
every operation by which the mind comes 
into possession of a new fact or truth. 
This may take place either by means of a 
new personal observation, through the in- 
struction of others, or finally as the result 
of reflection and reasoning upon what is 



6 



ACROAMATIC METHOD ADAM, ALEXANDER 



already known. In the narrower and 
scholastic sense it refers to the gaining of 
knowledge by the help of others' instruc- 
tion. Hence the acquisition of knowledge 
is sometimes distinguished from the child's 
independent discovery of it. Learning is 
often spoken of as if it were a mere ex- 
ertion of the faculty of memory. But 
wherever new knoivledge is gained there 
is a preliminary process of comprehending 
or assimilating the new materials. Thus 
in grasping a new fact in geography or 
natural history, a child's mind must put 
forth activity in tirst analysing or resolving 
the complex whole into its parts or ele- 
ments, and then synthetically recombining 
these, and viewing them in their proper 
relation one to another. Not only so, the 
new fact presented can only be grasped or 
realised by the mind by the aid of its 
points of affinity with what is already 
known. In other words, the mind has to 
assimilate the new to the old. In the case 
of learning new concrete facts by verbal de- 
scription, this assimilative process assumes 
the form of constructing a new pictorial 
representation out of materials supplied by 
the reproductive faculty. (See Imagina- 
tion.) Where the new fact is not only 
imaginatively realised, but also understood, 
the process of assimilation includes the 
reference of it to some previously known 
class, and to some familiar principle or 
rule. It is thus evident that learnins; is 
never a purely passive process of reception, 
but always involves the activity of the 
child's own mind. There is no gaining of 
knowledge where there is not close at- 
tention and a serious efibi^t to take apart 
and recombine the materials presented by 
the teacher. (See K. A. Schmid's £nci/- 
clopddie des gesammt. Erziehnngs- nnd 
Unterrichtswesen, article ' Lehren und 
Lernen.') 

Acroamatic Method (aKpoafxariKo?, to 
be heard), a term applied to the oral 
method of instruction adopted by Aris- 
totle. 

Activity.— By the activity of a thing 
is meant tlie putting forth of its specific 
and characteristic force. In a wide sense 
nature as a M'hole is constantly active, 
and this activity is a special characteristic 
of living things. In the human being we 
have both a physical or bodily and a 
mental activity. Children, like young 
animals, exhibit a marked tendency to 
spontaneous muscular action, as may be 



seen in their play (see Play). This in- 
stinctive impulse to muscular exertion is 
an important condition of the growth of 
the bodily powers, and of the acquisition 
of the command of the organs of move- 
ment by the will (see Will). Mental ac- 
tivity, as distinguished from bodily, is the 
conscious exercise of mental power. The 
most general name for this is Attention 
(which see). It is now generally admitted 
that all mental development is the result 
of the child's self-activity. A child learns 
just in proportion to the degree in which 
it actively exerts its intellectual faculties. 
This mental activity is in the earlier 
stages of development closely connected 
with bodily. It is by using the organs of 
sense in observation and by experiment- 
ing with the moving organs, more especi- 
ally the hands, that the child's intelli- 
gence is called into play. Hence the 
educational significance of the child's 
spontaneous tendency to movement, a 
significance Avhicli Froebel was the first 
to fully see and utilise. The higher form 
of mental activity sliows itself in the vol- 
untary concentration of attention in re- 
producing former impressions, and in sepa- 
rating and recombining these so as to 
carry out the operations of imagination 
and thought. This so-called intellectual 
activity is immediately dependent on an 
exertion of will, and hence may be said to 
contain a moral ingredient. At the same 
time it is customary to distinguish from 
this intellectual a moral activity, which 
shows itself in an effbi't of will to do what 
is right. Such exertion is the proper means 
by which the will is strengthened and 
character formed (see Ciiaeacter). Thus 
we see that the child's physical, intel- 
lectual, and moral development alike de- 
pend on its self- activity. (See Iv. A. 
Schmid's Encyclopddie, article 'Thatig- 
keitstrieb.') 

Adam, Alexander, a celebrated Scot- 
tish teacher, born in Morayshire in 1741. 
In 1769 he succeeded to the rectorship of 
the High School of Edinburgh, where he 
distinguished himself by introducing the 
study of classical geography and history, 
and by teaching his pupils the dead lan- 
guages by aid of their native tongue, a 
method which he probably borrowed from 
the Port- Royalists (q. v.). Adam pub- 
lished the first Latin grammar written in 
English. Previous to him the whole of 
the text of grammars was written in 



ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY ESTHETIC CULTURE 



Latin. His innovation was condemned 
by many, but soon became popular, and 
edition after edition of liis grammar ap- 
peared with great rapidity. He was also 
the founder of the first organisation of Scot- 
tish tutors for mutual benefit. He died 
1809. 

Adelaide University. See Universi- 
ties. 

Administration. See Education De- 
partment. 

Adult Education. — The promoters of 
the various systems of adult education con- 
tend, in the first place, that the instruction 
received in the day school ought to be con- 
tinued, or that much of the advantage will 
be lost ; in the second place, that some 
provision should be made for adults to 
spend their leisure time in a manner at 
once enjoyable and profitable. The in- 
terests of commerce have led to the esta- 
blishment of technical schools, the main 
object of which is to make the workman 
more intelligent and skilful. In this gene- 
ral activity higher education has not been 
forgotten, and adults of industry and ability 
have abundant opportunities at different 
colleges and schools of studying a univer- 
sity course. The most important institu- 
tions founded for the promotion of adult 
education are : 1 . Mechanics' Institutes, 
initiated by Dr. Birkbeck {q. v.), who de- 
livered a course of free lectures to artisans 
at Glasgow in 1800. The first institute 
was established in London in 1823, and 
since that time they have spread through- 
out the length and breadth of the country. 
The premises usually include a reading- 
room, circulating library, lecture-room, 
and class-rooms. Although originally in- 
tended to be self-supporting, the subscrip- 
tions of the members are generally supple- 
mented by contributions. 2. Night Schools, 
in connection with the different elementary 
schools of the country, are found in nearly 
every town. They are taught by certifi- 
cated teachers, and supported by the fees 
of pupils, and by grants upon examination 
by the Education Department. The sub- 
jects of instruction include the ' three Rs,' 
geography, grammar, French, &c., as spe- 
cified by the Code. 3. Evening Classes. — 
In London, at University College, King's 
College, the City of London College, 
Birkbeck Institutes, Polytechnic (Regent 
Street), South Kensington Museum, Fins- 
bury Technical College, &c., evening classes 
are held. In the provincial colleges {q.v.) 



evening classes constitute an important 
part of the curriculum. A great impetus 
was given to adult education by the re- 
vival of the non- collegiate system at Ox- 
ford and Cambridge, and the establishment 
of London University, for the purpose of 
examining and conferring degrees. Dur- 
ham and Dublin also examine candidates 
without residence, and so stimulate pri- 
vate study. 4. Recreative Evening Glasses. 
— The most recent scheme for promoting 
adult education has been the establish- 
ment of recreative evening classes. Among 
the founders are eminent educationists, 
and many representative working men. 
They allege that previous efforts have been 
unsatisfactory because the programmes 
have not been sufficiently entertaining. 
Their aim is to provide wholesome amuse- 
ment and technical instruction for young 
men and boys who have left school. The 
distinguishing features are modelling in 
clay, wood-carving, calisthenic exercises 
with dumb bells or wands to a musical 
accompaniment, and instruction in instru- 
mental as well as vocal music. 

.ffigrotat. — When a candidate for 
honours in any school at Oxford, or tripos 
at Cambridge, is prevented by illness from 
taking his examination or any part of it, 
the examiners may grant him what is 
called an segrotat degree. (Lat. o^ger, sick.) 

Esthetic Culture. — This concerns it- 
self with the strengthening and develop- 
ing of the aesthetic feelings and judgment, 
which together constitute what is known 
as taste. This faculty includes the capa- 
bility of recognising and enjoying all 
manifestations of the beautiful, both in 
nature and in art. It stands on the one 
side in close relation to the two higher 
senses, hearing and sight. The most rudi- 
mentary form of taste shows itself as a 
refined sensibility to the impressions of 
colour and tone. A fondness for bright 
colours and the combinations of these is 
observable, not only among young children 
and backward races, but even among some 
of the lower animals. In its fuller deve- 
lopment taste involves the activity of tlie 
higher intellectual faculties, and more par- 
ticularly the imagination (q.v.). This 
applies even to the appreciation of the 
sights and sounds of nature, which, as 
Alison has shown, owe much of their 
beauty and charm to suggestion. In the 
case of certain arts, as painting and, pre- 
eminently, literature, the exercise of the 



AFFECTATION AFFECTION 



imagination is the chief source of the aes- 
thetic delight. The education of taste 
aims at expanding and refining the ses- 
thetic feelings, and guiding the judgment 
by providing a fixed standard. It is thus 
at once a development of emotional sen- 
sibility and of intellectual power. In 
order to develop a child's taste it is neces- 
sary to awaken a genuine feeling for what 
is pretty, graceful, pathetic, sublime, &c. 
Hence the educator must be on his guard 
against the mere affectation {q-v.) of 
others' aesthetic sentiments and a mechani- 
cal reproduction of their maxims. This 
evil may be most efiectually prevented by 
carefully attending to the way in which 
taste naturally develops, by not forcing a 
mature standard on the unformed childish 
mind, and by allowing, and even encou- 
raging, a certain degree of individuality 
in taste. The education of taste includes 
first of all the exercise of the faculty 
in distinguishing and appreciating the 
beauties of our natural surroundings. 
This branch connects itself with the 
training of the observing faculties, and 
the fostering of a love of nature. An- 
other branch concerns itself with the per- 
ception of what is graceful, noble, and so 
forth, in human action. And here the 
cultivation of taste becomes in a measure 
ancillary to moral education. Finally, it 
embraces special technical training in the 
fine arts, more particularly music, draw- 
ing and painting, and literary composi- 
tion. Here the object of the educator 
must be both to form the taste by the pre- 
sentation of good models, and also to exer- 
cise the child in the necessary processes 
of interpretative rendering, as in singing 
and recitation, imitative reproduction, as 
in drawing, and original invention. The 
value of a wide gesthetic culture depends 
on the fact that it necessarily involves an 
harmonious development of the feelings 
as a whole, and so a preparation of the 
child for the most varied and refined en- 
joyments, and also a considerable growth 
of the intellectual faculties. Indeed, the 
{esthetic feelings form one important 
sour-ce of interest in most, if not all, 
branches of study. Thus the scientific 
observation of nature is sustained by a 
feeling for its picturesque and sublime 
aspects, and the pursuit of history is com- 
monly inspired by an exceptional suscep- 
tibility to the dramatic side of human life. 
The connection between resthetic and in- 



tellectual education becomes especially ap- 
parent in the study of literature, which is 
at once as a record of thought in words, 
an appeal to the logical faculty, and as 
a variety of art embodying worthy and 
noble ideas in a fitting laarmonious form, 
a stimulus to the aesthetic feelings and the 
critical judgment. The connection be- 
tween sesthetic culture and moral training 
is a question that has been much discussed 
both in ancient and in modern writings. 
(>S'ee Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, xviii., 
and the references there appended ; also 
Schmid's Encyclo'pddie, article ' Aesthe- 
tische Bildung.) 

Affectation. — This refers to the as- 
sumption of the external marks of a 
worthy feeling as the result of a volun- 
tary effort, and not as the spontaneous 
manifestation of the feeling itself. It by no 
means necessarily involves a deliberate in- 
tention to deceive another, as hypocrisy 
always does, and commonly falls short of 
deception as an ' awkward and forced 
imitation of what should be genuine and 
easy' (Locke). It generally implies an in- 
tensified form of self-consciousness. As a 
form of insincerity, and having one of its 
chief roots in vanity, it calls for careful 
watching on the part of the educator. At 
the same time it must be remembered that 
it often arises half-consciously from the 
wish to please and the desire to be in sym- 
pathy with others. According to Locke 
affectation is not the product of untaught 
nature, but grows up in connection with 
management and instruction. It is thus 
a failing which a careless mode of educa- 
tion is exceedingly likely to encourage, as 
where a teacher looks for and even exacts 
the responsive manifestation of feelings 
which belong to a later stage of develop- 
ment, such as the more refined forms of 
sesthetic and moral feeling. (See Locke, 
Thouglits concerning Educatio7i, § 66, and 
Miss Eclgeworth, Practical Education, 
chap. x.). 

Affection. — This term, once used for 
all permanent and constant, as distin- 
guished from transitory and variable, 
states of feeling, has come to be narrowed 
down to one specific variety of these, viz. 
a feeling of attachment to others. It in- 
cludes two elements which it is important 
to distinguish : a pleasurable feeling of 
tenderness showing itself in a liking for 
some particular pei^son, and an element 
of sympathy or kindly sentiment. A true 



AGE IN EDUCATION 



affection is a gradual attainment involv- 
ing fixed relations of a happy kind, an 
accumulation of memories, and a final 
process of reflection. Hence it has been 
said that grateful afiection for a parent or 
a teacher is one of the latest of attain- 
ments. The fact that a feeling of afiec- 
tion prompts the subject of it to seek to 
l^lease and further the happiness of the 
beloved object gives it a peculiar educa- 
tional value. It is now commonly held 
that the most effectual way to influence 
a child is to attach it by bonds of afiec- 
tion. This work, which varies in difficulty 
according to the natural disposition of the 
child, is always much easier in the case of 
a parent than of a school teacher, for the 
latter, as the representative of a govern- 
ment which is wont to appear unnatural 
and excessive, is apt to arouse hostile feel- 
ings. These difficulties can only be got 
over by an habitual manifestation of kind- 
ness, consideration, and sympathy on the 
part of the teacher. See Sympathy. 

Age in Education. — The connection 
between age and education has been the 
subject of much controversy, but, speaking 
of the period up to manhood, it has been 
generally agreed that there are three dis- 
tinct stages in the development of the 
mind corresponding to three clearly marked 
periods in the development of the body. 
The three epochs extend each over seven 
years, and are strikingly distinguished by 
physiological differences in the constitu- 
tion, some of which are external and ob- 
vious. These periods are infancy, child- 
hood, and youth. 

Infancy, which covers the first seven 
years of life, is the time of active physical 
development and of rapid growth. Its 
close is indicated by the shedding of the 
temporary teeth and the appearance of 
the earliest permanent teeth.. Even dur- 
ing the last two or three years of this 
stage a child is capable of little original 
efibrt, and there are few manifestations 
of mental activity beyond observation 
and memory. Instruction during this 
period should hold, therefore, only a se- 
condary place, and the education should 
be rather that of the body than that of 
the mind. The voice of nature should 
rule, and it demands considerable freedom 
from restraint, exercise for the body, 
and for the intellect entertainment and 
amusement which are not too exciting. 
In the application of this principle 



there is, however, much preparatory work 
to be done which will greatly facilitate 
future progress. The child must be 
brought under training and taught obe- 
dience by being induced to rely upon the 
teacher, and so to submit to his guid- 
ance. Advantage should be taken, too, 
of the great interest which is natural to 
children in the objects of everyday life, 
especially animals. Simple descriptions 
of the food we eat and of domestic animals 
afford infinite pleasure to the young, stimu- 
late observation, furnish the mind with 
useful facts, and strengthen the memory. 
The power of imitation is strong at this 
age, and drawing or writing may be a 
source of both pleasure and profit. Read- 
ing and arithmetic are usually regarded 
as tasks, and only the very rudiments 
should be attempted. A remarkable 
transformation has taken place in the in- 
fants' schools of this country by the al- 
most universal adoption of the Kinder- 
garten method {q.v.) of teaching, founded 
by Froebel. Its general aim is to amuse 
the child in such a way as to exercise its 
faculties so. that it may be educated with- 
out being conscious of pressure. The 
gratifying results which are obtained by 
this system prove the excellence of the 
methods employed. 

Childhood extends from the seventh to 
the fourteenth year, or the attainment of 
puberty, and coincides nearly with the 
second dentition. Throughout this period 
the desire for more vigorous physical exer- 
cise is manifested. The child begins to 
feel his strength, and gives evidence of his 
power and tastes by independent thought 
and action, which point to a future career. 
Natural propensities are now quickly 
developed, impressions are received and 
character formed. The desires and aspi- 
rations should be carefully observed by 
the teacher so as to approve and en- 
courage what is good, or to restrain and 
check the evil. 

Yoxdh embraces the period from four- 
teen to twenty-one years of age, during 
which the development of the body is 
completed, and virility is attained. This 
is essentially the time of special prepara- 
tion for the battle of life. Except in the 
case of the wealthy and those intending 
to adopt a profession, the opportunity of 
giving undivided energy to study has ended 
with boyhood. The faculties of the mind 
are now active and vigorous, the imagi- 



10 



AGENTS AGRICOLA, RODOLPH 



nation is quickened, and a youth should 
enter upon the study of his favourite sub- 
ject full of hope and zeal. To ensure 
sound progress and to prepare for respon- 
sibility which is near at hand, the teacher, 
while he still carefully guides, should pro- 
vide less assistance and require greater 
independent exertion and original effort 
on the part of the pupil. 

Legislation in reference to age and 
education varies in different countries, 
and even in different parts of the same 
country. In England, school boards and 
school attendance committees may com- 
pel attendance at school under the Ele- 
mentary Education Act from five to four- 
teen years of age. Between these limits 
the years of school attendance required 
by the bye-laws of different school boards 
and committees vary considerably. As 
a rule the period of attendance is shorter 
in agricultural districts than in towns, 
numbers of children in rural parishes being 
allowed to leave school at ten years of 
age, provided they have passed the fourth 
standard. 

The School Board for London compels 
attendance from five years of age until 
either (1) the sixth standard is passed ; or 
(2) the child is thirteen years of age and 
has passed the fourth standard ; or (3) the 
child is fourteen years of age. In the 
United States the legal school age is from 
five to fifteen ; in France from seven to 
twelve ; in Germany from six to fourteen. 
In Switzerland each canton legislates for 
itself. In Lucerne attendance at day school 
is compulsory from seven to fourteen years, 
followed by two years at an evening 
school. In Zurich the age is from six to 
twelve at day school, and three years at 
an evening school. 

Agents — Scholastic, Medical, and 
Clerical. — There are numerous agencies 
in London and also in the provinces for 
bringing together parties whose educa- 
tional wants are complementary. Some 
restrict themselves to one particular 
branch of educational business — for ex- 
ample, there are ' governess agencies,' 
which bring into communication gover- 
nesses and persons that wish to engage 
governesses ; ' medical agencies,' which 
limit themselves to the satisfaction of the 
needs of medical gentlemen that wish to 
find situations, and medical gentlemen 
that wish to be provided with assistants, 
partners, or new fields of work, and so 



forth. Other agents extend their con- 
nections to all branches. After due in- 
quiry they place on their books the names 
of ladies and gentlemen who wish to find 
situations as assistants in schools, or as 
visiting tutors to private families, or as 
travelling tutors; who wish as principals to 
engage assistants, who wish to enter into 
partnership or to receive a partner, who 
wish to sell or to purchase a school. They 
also recommend to parents and guardians 
satisfactory schools in which to place their 
children, according to the individual re- 
quirements, both at home and abroad. 
The commission charged is very reason- 
able at all respectable agencies — gene- 
rally 5 per cent, on engagements at home, 
and 10 per cent, on engagements abroad, 
and for partnerships and transfers 5 per 
cent, on the money (or money value) tlaat 
passes. In spite of the abuse of their 
position by some agents, and the delibe- 
rate swindling of impostors describing 
themselves as agents, the system is un- 
doubtedly of great assistance to both par- 
ties to each transaction, particularly when 
the agent has a good connection and is 
competent to judge of the qualifications 
and needs of the applicants. It is strange 
that so few agents seem to have had per- 
sonal experience in teaching, or to be of 
such academical standing as to justify re- 
liance on their judgment in the cases that 
come before them. The fact that one 
London agency is personally conducted 
by two graduates of high academical as 
well as educational standing is sufficiently 
noteworthy ; it is especially creditable to 
the system, and affords exceptional assur- 
ance of intelligent guidance. 

Agricola, Rodolph, h. near Groningen, 
in Friesland, in 1443. His first master is 
said to have been Thomas a Kempis. He 
distinguished himself at school, and then 
proceeded to Louvain, where he graduated. 
He subsequently studied Greek under 
Theodore Gaza at Ferrara. Here he also 
lectured on the Boman language and lite- 
rature. He returned to Holland, and was 
professor for a short time in Groningen. 
In 1482 he removed to Heidelberg, upon 
the invitation of the Bishop of Worms, 
and there he was appointed professor. He 
studied Hebrew with great success, and 
gave lectures on ancient history ; but a 
sudden illness put an end to his career at 
the early age of forty-two. Agricola's 
classical attainments were of the highest 



AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION 



11 



order, and he has been greatly praised by 
the elder Scaliger and Erasmus. His 
chief work is De Inventione Dialectica. 
This was ordered by Henry YIII., in 
1535, to be taught in the University of 
Cambridge together with the genuine 
Logic of Aristotle ; and there is the 
same recommendation in the statutes of 
Trinity College, Oxford. Agricola attacked 
Scholasticism with great energy, and this 
alone would entitle him to a position 
amongst the pioneers of modern education. 
He was probably the first man who sought 
a means of educating the deaf and dumb. 
He was also the first to introduce the Greek 
language into Germany. 

Agricultural Education. — Agricul- 
ture, with its various subdivisions and 
allied pursuits, including the tillage of the 
fields, horticulture, floriculture, forestry, 
and pastoral, dairy, and poultry farming, 
is the most useful and universal of all 
branches of human industry. It is the 
main source of all products employed as 
food for men and domestic animals, or as 
the raw materials for clothing and many 
branches of manufacturing industry. Being 
a practical art, involving a multitude of 
applications of the principles of most of the 
physical sciences (such as geology and che- 
mistry, illustrating the qualities of soils 
and manures, meteorology, mechanics as 
applied to agricultural machinery, veteri- 
naiy medicine and surgery as applied to 
domestic animals, zoology and botany, &c.), 
agriculture cannot be pursued with advan- 
tage in the present day without a sound 
theoretical as well as practical training. The 
recognition of this truth, which has been 
brought home to the dullest comprehension 
by the vast progress made in agricultural 
chemistry through the labours of Liebig, 
Lawes, and others, has led to the esta- 
blishment in all the civilised countries of 
the world of numerous special institutions 
for the training of young men intending to 
take up farming or any of its allied pur- 
suits as the business of their lives. 

Before the rise of chemistry the pre- 
cepts of agriculture were necessarily em- 
pirical ; but in this pre-scientific period the 
English farmer, proceeding by the ' rule of 
thumb ' and ancestral traditions, succeeded 
in bringing practical farming to a wonder- 
fully high state of perfectioii. The varie- 
ties of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses bred 
in England surpassed anything of the kind 
produced elsewhere throughout the world. 



To this practical success is probably to be 
attributed the fact that Avhen agricultural 
theory was revolutionised by the progress 
of chemistry the necessity of a theoretical 
training was less quickly recognised in 
England than in some foreign countries. 
One of the first attempts in the way of a 
scientific school of agriculture was made 
in 1795 by Thaer, at Celle, in the kingdom 
of Hanover, then part of the dominions of 
the English Crown. The success attained 
by this gentleman was such that he was 
invited by Frederick William III. of 
Prussia to establish a higher agricultural 
college in that kingdom, and the institu- 
tion he founded in 1806, at Moglin, in the 
province of Brandenburg, in combination 
with a model farm, has been the pioneer of 
a host of similar establishments in all parts 
of Germany. The agricultural academies 
at Hohenheim in Wiirtemberg, Proskau in 
Silesia, Weihenstephan in Bavaria, Waldau 
in East Prussia, and others, were all mo- 
delled on that of Moglin. At Jena Sturm 
founded an institute whose pupils attended 
the university classes in the winter, and a 
course of practical training on well-man- 
aged farms in the summer. At Poppels- 
dorf and at Eldena there were special 
agricultural academies connected with the 
Universities of Bonn and Greifswald re- 
spectively, while other academies were as- 
sociated with the Polytechnic High Schools 
of Brunswick, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, and 
Munich in Germany, and Zurich in Swit- 
zerland. Nearly all the Prussian univer- 
sities now have agricultural institutes con- 
nected with them, special attention being 
paid to agricultural chemistry. In addi- 
tion to this highest collegiate class there 
exist in Germany two other grades of in- 
stitutions — the middle agricultural schools 
and the elementary or lower grade schools. 
Of the last mentioned there were fifty- 
three in Prussia alone in the year 1878, 
comprising twenty-six agricultural schools 
open winter and summer, fourteen winter 
schools, three schools of pastoral farming, 
and ten schools of horticulture and fruit 
culture. The Prussian Government grants 
to these establishments nearly 50,000^. 
annually. In several other parts of Ger- 
many agricultural educational institutions 
are, if anything, relatively more numerous 
than even in Prussia. In Wiirtemberg, 
besides the higher establishments, there 
are 783 agricultural continuation schools, 
attended by upwards of seventeen thousand 



12 



AHN, JOHN FRANK 



scholars. In Russia, in France, and in 
Belgium, as well as in most other Conti- 
nental countries, agricultural instruction 
has also received great attention. Austria 
possessed in 1879, in addition to the Agri- 
cultural College at Vienna (with nearly 
five hundred students), as many as sixty- 
eight institutions devoted to agriculture, 
horticulture, and forestry; and the national 
budget in that empire, as well as in other 
countries of the Continent, every year sets 
aside large sums for the support of these 
institutions. 

In Great Britain there are no Govern- 
ment institutions of this class, the field 
being still left to private enterprise. Chairs 
of agriculture, however, have been founded 
in some of the British universities. The 
Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester 
was founded in 1845. The students, who 
go through a course of two years' instruc- 
tion, are partly resident, partly non-resi- 
dent, the fees amounting to from 4:01. a year 
for the latter to 80/. for the former. The 
curriculum embraces a thorough scientific 
and practical training in the college classes 
and laboratories and on the extensive farm 
attached to the college. 

The authorities of several provincial 
colleges of the United Kingdom have in- 
troduced the principles of agriculture into 
the course of training, and instruction in 
the subject is encouraged and aided with 
grants in the elementary schools. Under 
the Code, the principles of agriculture may 
be taken up — (1) by the scholai^s in ele- 
mentary schools, as a branch of elementary 
science, which is recognised as a class sub- 
ject ; (2) by the older scholars, in the three 
highest Standards, as a specific subject ; 
(3) by pupil-teachers and assistant-teach- 
ers, as an optional subject, during the 
course of their engagement. If they do 
take it up and pass successfully at one of 
the (May) examinations held by the Sci- 
ence and Art Department, grants are made 
on their behalf by that Department, while 
their success is registered and marks al- 
lowed for it in any examination they 
subsequently attend as candidates either 
for admission to a training college or for 
a certificate of merit ; (4) by students in 
tx-aining. as a special science subject, dur- 
ing either or both of the two years of 
their residence in a training college. (For 
full information relating to the examina- 
tions in the principles of agriculture, in- 
stituted by the Committee of Council on 



Education, see the Directory for Estab- 
lishing and Condiicting Science and Art 
Schools, annually issued by the Education 
Department : Eyre & Spottiswoode, East 
Harding Street, Fleet Street, London, 
E.G. Price 6d.) 

In Ireland the Commissioners of Na- 
tional Education have paid much atten- 
tion to this department of education, and 
twenty years ago there were 166 farm- 
schools in active operation, all with land 
attached ranging from two to a hundred 
and twenty acres. Of these nearly half 
(seventy- six) were workhouse agricultural 
schools, while forty-eight were ordinary 
agricultural schools. The instruction given 
in these, however, is only of the most 
elementary description, training ordinary 
school children in the common operations 
of gardening and the field. Of higher 
pretensions than these are the thirty- seven 
model agricultural schools in various parts 
of the island. Besides these there is one 
superior establishment, the Model Train- 
ing Farm at Glasnevin, founded in 1838, 
where a hundred young men selected from 
the minor schools receive a more complete 
course of instruction. A considerable 
number of the students here receive board, 
lodging, and two years' education gratui- 
tously, with a view to becoming farm ma- 
nagers or steAvards ; while another section 
consists of school-teachers, who in their 
later career have to conduct the lower 
classes of agricultural schools. At Temple- 
moyle, in Derry, there is another agricul- 
tural seminary, which has turned out a 
thousand well-trained agriculturists in the 
first thirty years of its existence. The 
total number of pupils in all the agricul- 
tural schools and academies in Ireland is 
upwards of three thousand, and the ex- 
penditure involved is upwards of ten 
thousand a year. (See Forestry.) 

Ahn, John Frank (b. 1796, d. 1865).— 
In 1824 he abandoned commerce for study, 
and spent two years at the college at Aix- 
la-Chapelle. He subsequently founded a 
commercial school, which was the first 
attempt at a professional school in the 
Rhenish provinces. It proved a great 
failure, and after two years he shut it up.' 
In 1834 he published, in German, his 
Practical Method for the Rapid and Easy 
Study of French. The woi'k was an im- 
mense success, and was translated into 
many languages. His principle was to 
apply to the leai'ning of foreign languages 



ALCUIN ALLEYN, EDWARD 



13 



the same method which a child follows in 
acquiring its mother-tongue. There was 
to be no grammar to begin with, and the 
whole was arranged in a plan of three 
courses. His method, no doubt, gave an 
impulse to the study of modern languages. 
Alcuin(735(?)-804), an eminent ecclesi- 
astic and reviver of learning in the latter 
part of the eighth century, was born in 
Yorkshire. He was invited by Charlemagne 
to assist him in his educational schemes, 
and was placed at the head of the Palace 
School attached to the Court, where he 
instructed Charlemagne and his family, 
amongst others, in rhetoric, logic, mathe- 
matics, and divinity. Under Alcuin's di- 
rections a scheme of education was drawn 
up, which became the model for the other 
great schools established at Tours, Fonte- 
nelle, Lyons, Osnaburg, Metz, &.c. — insti- 
tutions which ably sustained the tradition 
of education on the Continent till super- 
seded by the new methods and new learn- 
ing of the commencement of the university 
era. In 801 Alcuin obtained leave to re- 
tire from court to the abbey of St. Martin 
at Tours, of which he had been appointed 
the head. Here he remained and taught 
tni his death in 804. A life of Alcuin by 
Lorenz was published in 1829, and was 
translated into English by Slee in 1837. 

Algebra, to use Newton's expression, 
is ' universal arithmetic' Whereas arith- 
metic deals with particular numbers, al- 
gebra deals with numbers in general ; and 
whereas the former treats of numbers in 
connection with concrete things, the latter 
treats of number in the abstract. These 
are only two of the most marked distinc- 
tions, stated broadly. There is another, 
which 'is even more fundamental. The 
operations of arithmetic are capable of 
direct interpretation ^er se ; those of algebra 
are often only to be interpreted in relation 
to the assumptions on which they are 
based. For example, in arithmetic proper 
the operations denoted by indices are very 
limited ; but within those limits the inter- 
pretation is perfectly definite — they refer 
to certain areas, certain cubes, &c. — and it 
is clear that these indices must be whole 
numbers, with regard to which the ideas of 
positive and negative are inapplicable. In 
algebra we go beyond this, and work with 
indices which are fractional, and to which 
we do apply the ideas of positive and 
negative; and the operations performed can 
be and are interpreted ; but only in rela- 



tion to the assumption on which the whole 
theory of indices is based, viz. that the mul- 
tiplication of a'"- by a" shall alivays give «'"+" 
as a result, whatever a, and r)i and n may 
denote. It is true that it is very common 
in schools to divorce the arithmetic from 
concrete reality, and to work with the 
symbols merely as symbols. But even then 
the operations employed are only the 
writing in symbols of certain particular 
definite operations, which might be under- 
stood all along, and which can be at once 
interpreted by themselves. In algebra, on 
the other hand, we look upon our opera- 
tions mainly as the manipulation of symbols 
pure and simple ; and when we have arrived 
at results we seek interpretations of them 
by comparing them with our assumptions. 
The treatise written by Diophantus in 
the middle of the fourth century may be 
taken as the foundation of Greek algebra ; 
and from him and other Greeks the Ara- 
bians probably gained much of their know- 
ledge. But it is to the Arabians themselves 
that Europe directly owes its knowledge of 
algebra, as the name implies \al — the, and 
jabr= consolidating] . Their methods were 
introduced into Europe by Leonardo, a 
merchant of Pisa, in 1202 a.d. The first 
printed Algebra was by Lucas de Burgo, a 
Minorite friar, in 1494 a.d. The first 
English treatise on Algebra was by Robert 
Recorde, teacher of mathematics and prac- 
titioner in physic at Cambridge. It was 
called the ' Whetstone of Wit,' and was 
published in 1557. As regards the method 
of teaching algebra important develop- 
ments have taken place, and new depar- 
tures have been adopted recently. On the 
subject of the new algebra the reader may 
consult Professor Chrystal's and Mr. W. 
Steadman Aldis's excellent text-books. 

AUeyn, Edward. — A celebrated actor, 
who devoted his wealth to the foundation 
of Dulwich College, in 1619. The college 
was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 
1858. It consists of an educational and 
eleemosynary branch, a chapel, library, 
and a fine picture-gallery, the last be- 
queathed, in 1810, by Sir P. F. Bourgeois. 
The educational branch comprises the up- 
per school and the lower school. In the 
upper school there are eight exhibitions of 
50?. a year each, tenable for four years at 
the universities, or by any student of a 
learned or scientific profession or of the 
fine arts; also thirty-six scholarships of 
20?. a year each, awarded to boys between 



14 



ALMA MATER ANALOGY 



twelve and fourteen years of age. In the 
lower school gratuities of 20^. and. 101. are 
granted, at the annual examination, to 
the most deserving boys then leaving the 
school. 

Alma Mater (Latin, ahmcs, cherishing, 
dear), the name applied in England to the 
particular university which a student has 
attended. 

Alphabet is the term applied to a col- 
lection of symbols used to express the 
sounds that occur in a language. The 
term is derived from the first two letters 
of the Greek alphabet. Alpha Beta, which 
took the Latin form Alphabetum, but that 
word does not occur in any prose writer 
before Tertullian. All alphabets may be 
traced back to five forms — the Egyptian, 
cuneiform, Chinese, Mexican or Aztec, 
Yacutan, and Central American. The 
Egyptians seem first to have invented the 
alphabetical system, and their earliest form 
was the hieroglyphics. These hierogly- 
phics were pictorial, and indicated words. 
They are sometimes spoken of as ' the 
sacred letters'; and there seem to be some 
cases where the hieroglyphs were used to 
represent articulate sounds. Derived from 
the hieroglyphics by a process of degrada- 
tion is another set of characters, called 
the Enchorial (i.e. of the people). These 
Enchorials seem first to have been phonetic 
powers, perhaps syllables, then mere letters. 
The Phoenicians are said to have derived 
their symbols from the Egyptians. Our 
alphabet is derived from the Phcenician ; 
and the same is true of Hebrew, Syriac, 
Arabic, Greek, Latin, and German. But 
the names given by Phcenicians to letters 
did not represent the sounds. The Ro- 
mans seem first to have named their letters 
from sounds, and probably the order of 
the letters is based on a classification of 
sounds, though it is now difficult to trace 
its development. 

Alumiiat (alere, to nourish, med. Lat. 
alumnatum), the appellation of institu- 
tions in Germany where, in addition to 
education, board and lodging are provided 
for students. In the Middle Ages such 
institutions were connected with monas- 
teries, and the pupils, in return for their 
gratuitous instruction and board, per- 
formed various services for the church and 
school. Maurice of Saxony founded some 
of the more celebrated of these schools in 
the sixteenth century. 

Alumnus is really a Latin adjective, de- 



rived from ah, to feed, to bring up ; but it 
is chiefly used as a substantive : (1) lite- 
rally = a nursling, in this sense chiefly by 
Latin poets : (2) trop. = a pupil. Cicero 
appears first to have used it in this way 
in reference to the disciples of Plato. It 
passed from that source into our own lan- 
guage when Latin was so commonly used, 
and it still remains, whether applied to a 
student of his college or to a pupil of a 
professor or tutor. 

America, Education in. See Law 
(Educational). 

American Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Amoross, Don Francisco (6. in Spain 
1770, d. at Paris 1848), spent his early 
years in the army, and saw active service. 
In 1803 he superintended the direction of 
a military institute at Madrid for the re- 
formation of public education in Spain. 
He adopted the method of Pestalozzi. 
He was taken prisoner in 1808, at the close 
of the revolution, but soon released. Later 
he fled to France, and ofi'ered his services 
to Napoleon. He was made a member of 
the ' Society for Elementary Education ' in 
Paris, and published a work on the method 
of Pestalozzi. Soon he was able to com- 
mence a course of teaching in the capital. 
He had many pupils, and received govern- 
ment support. In 1819 a military college 
was founded, and he was appointed di- 
rector. His method consisted in graduated 
exercises for full physical development, 
and was especially noted for the fact that 
this physical development was made to 
contribute to the unfolding of the moral 
faculties. 

Analogy. — Reasoning by analogy com- 
monly means inference from one case to 
another on the ground of resemblance. 
It differs from the stricter forms of logical 
reasoning, inasmuch as we are not certain 
that the points of resemblance observed 
are necessarily connected with the matter 
inferred. In many cases, too, of argument 
from analogy the resemblance is only 
slight and superficial, and this makes the 
reasoning still more precarious. This 
applies to all reasoning from facts and 
laws of the physical world to analogical 
processes in the mental and moral world, 
as when we illustrate the operation of 
acquiring knowledge by analogies with 
the physiological processes, digestion, assi- 
milation, ttc. Children's reasonings, before 
they become capable of the more exact 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 15 



logical forms, are grounded on the percep- 
tion of resemblance, and so may be de- 
scribed as analogical. In illustrating new 
subjects to children, the teacher frequently 
finds it necessary to resort to analogy. 
Great care should here be taken to choose 
suitable analogies, and not to strain them, 
so as to make them prove more than they 
are capable of proving. Since analogy is 
a defective foi'm of reasoning, only useful 
where the more perfect forms are inapplic- 
able, it should be resorted to less and less 
as the child's reasoning faculty develops. 
(On the logical use of analogy, see J. S. 
Mill, Logic, bk. iii. chap. xx. The use 
of analogy in illustrating subjects of in- 
struction is dealt with by Isaac Taylor, 
Home Education, chap, xi.) 

Analysis and Synthesis. — By Analysis 
is meant the resolving of a complex whole 
into its parts or elements ; and by Syn- 
thesis, the reverse process of combining 
parts or elements into a whole. Physical 
analysis and synthesis are best illustrated 
in the chemical processes. As applied to 
intellectual operations the terms are some- 
what ambiguous. One clear instance of 
analysis is supplied by abstraction, in 
which the mind breaks up the concrete 
whole given in perception into a number 
of constituent properties. {See Abstrac- 
tion.) As supplementary to this we have 
a process of synthetic construction, as when 
the mind through the medium of verbal 
description forms an idea of an unknown 
chemical substance by a new combination 
of known qualities. In a somewhat loose 
manner, Analysis is used to denote induc- 
tion. Synthesis deduction. A stricter 
employment of the term ' analysis ' in con- 
nection with reasoning confines it to the 
resolution of complex effects into their 
separate parts, and the reference of these 
to their proper causes. The terms have 
come to be employed in education to denote 
a contrast of method. Thus it is customary 
to distinguish between an analytical and a 
synthetical way of teaching a language, 
and the meaning of the phrase ' gram- 
matical analysis ' has become well defined. 
In geometry, again, which is largely an 
illustration of the synthetic building up of 
complex ideas out of simple ones, analysis 
also occupies a subordinate place. While 
the antithesis has thus a certain signifi- 
cance and utility, its vague and fluctuating 
meaning seems to render it unfit to serve 
as a fundamental distinction in educational 



method. (See Jevons, El. Lessons in 
Logic, xxiv. ; Bain, Ed. as Science, chap, 
iv., and Compayre, Cours de Pedagogic, 
pt. ii. le9on i.) 

Analysis of Sentences. — Two different 
processes are often comprised under this 
term : (1) 'grammatical' analysis (pars- 
ing) ; (2) 'logical' analysis. The difierence 
between them is essentially one of the 
degree of detail to which the analysis of the 
sentence is carried. Logical analysis deals 
with groups of words and assigns the part 
played by each in the structure of the 
sentence ; parsing directs attention to the 
part played by each separate word and the 
various characters which may be ascribed 
to it. It follows that analysis ought to 
precede parsing ; the broad outlines of 
the sentence should be marked out before 
the question of the function of each word 
is raised. Thus it is difficult to define a 
noun except in relation to the ideas of 
subject (or object) ; adverbs, prepositions, 
and conjunctions cannot be truly distin- 
guished except by consideration of their 
function in the sentence. Experience 
seems to show that children deal more 
naturally with groups of words ('thought- 
units') than with individual words, and 
find their way without serious difficulty 
through the outlines of the analysis of 
simple and compound (complex) sentences. 
A noun clause is to them a many-worded 
noun. To be able to recognise 'when I 
come ' as an adverb clause is certainly 
easier than to assign its precise func- 
tion and character to 'when.' This is 
especially applicable to the teaching of 
English. Owing to the loss of inflections 
in modern English, words do not any 
longer bear their character stamped upon 
them or tell their own tale. A large 
number of words may serve as various 
parts of speech, as Dr. Abbott has shown. 
The treatment of words in groups is thus 
imposed by the genius of the modern 
language, and to this fact the wide-spread 
adoption of analysis in English-speaking 
countries bears witness. Parsing may 
easily become an exercise worse than use- 
less in English teaching, if it degenerates 
into a tedious enumeration of all the cha- 
racters which may be assigned to any 
single word ; still more if it leads to the 
discovery of characters in words which 
they do not really possess {e.g. gender in 
nouns) ; and the protest which has arisen 
on many sides is thoroughly justified. But 



16 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 



parsing when not thus vitiated by false 
methods is a necessary and useful adjunct 
of analysis. A word of caution : Much 
time would be saved if teachers, instead 
of asking the pupil to ' parse ' every word 
about which any question arises, would 
direct his attention to the particular point 
at issue — e.g. by asking, ' What is the 
tense of this verb ? ' ' What is the case of 
this pronoun 1 ' ' What is the perfect par- 
ticiple of this verb 1 ' 

The method of so-called ' logical ' ana- 
lysis is of comparatively recent date. It 
was originated in Germany by K. F. 
Becker [Deutsche Sprachlehre, 1827). In 
opposition to the empirical methods then 
in vogue, he based his grammar upon 
thought relations and logical distinctions. 
Becker's system exercised a great influence 
not only upon the teaching of German, 
but also upon that of Latin and Greek ; 
it was introduced into England by Dr. 
Morell, and various improvements in de- 
tail were made by Mr. C. P. Mason. It 
has been much criticised from various 
points of view, but not superseded. Pro- 
bably its defects have arisen from a mis- 
taken view of the relation of grammar to 
logic, from which Becker himself was not 
free. Grammar and logic are not coin- 
cident, though they have their points of 
contact. Thus logic is justified from its 
own point of view in casting every judg- 
ment into the mould of subject, copula, 
and predicate. But logic neglects many 
finer shades of meaning which are gram- 
matically of the highest interest (' Birds 
fly ' is not=' Birds are flying ') ; and in 
many other ways grammar may be vitiated 
by the intrusion of logic. For logic con- 
cerns itself only with the import of pro- 
positions ; grammar with their import as 
expressed in a certain form of language. 
Hence an analysis which contents itself 
with stretching every sentence upon the 
Procrustean bed of the logical judgment 
may easily do violence to language. A 
warning is needed against analysing in the 
way in which ' a butcher analyses sheep ' 
(Mr. H. Bradley, Academy, January 
1886). The process of sentence analysis 
must be conducted on true grammatical 
lines ; so conducted it forms a sound 
basis of rational grammar teaching, not 
merely in English, but in foreign languages 
too. 

The grammatical division of the sen- 
tence is into two parts, corresponding to 



the two elements in every ' complete 
thought ' : 

Subject. Predicate. 

The mail is a traitor. 

Birds fly. 

Whether every sentence can be thrown 
into this form is a matter of opinion. The 
question is admirably discussed in Paul's 
Principien der Sprachgeschichte (translated 
by Professor Strong), in connection with 
the views of Miklosich as to ' subjectless 
sentences ' (e.g. speak, pluit) and the difii- 
culties involved in defining the term ' sen- 
tence.' The terms ' subject ' and ' predi- 
cate ' are incapable of definition except by 
reference to one another. The ' subject ' is 
the word or group of words denoting that 
of which the action denoted by the predi- 
cate is declared ; the ' predicate ' is the word 
or the group of words denoting that which 
is declared of the thing denoted by the 
' subject.' Any more confined definition 
of these terms must be imperfect ; if we 
say, as is very commonly said, ' The sub- 
ject is the word or group of words denot- 
ing that of which something is declared,' 
or ' The subject is the word or group of 
words denoting that which is spoken about,' 
the definition may practically answer the 
purpose ; for experience will show the 
pupils what is really meant. But, strictly 
speaking, ' something ' is declared of other 
parts of the sentence besides the ' subject.' 
For instance, in such sentences as ' This 
ambition I do not share,' ' At lovers' per- 
juries Jove laughs,' ' something ' is said of 
' this ambition ' (i.e. that I do not share 
it), and of ' lovers' perjuries ' (i.e. that 
Jove laughs at them) ; and these notions 
being in fact the emphatic parts of the 
sentence naturally present themselves to 
the mind when the question is asked, 
' About what is something said in this 
sentence ? ' Children before they have ac- 
quired grammatical experience are apt to 
assign the same word as subject of the fol- 
lowing sentences, 'Wellington conquered 
the French at Waterloo,' and ' The French 
were conquered by Wellington at Water- 
loo.' To sum up : the subject cannot be 
defined except by reference to the full 
predicate. Whether the clumsy definition 
which results is of any use for teaching 
purposes opens up a question too wide for 
discussion in this place. See Definition. 
Grammarians are not agreed as to the 
best way of using the terms ' subject ' and 
* predicate.' The general method is to dis- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 



17 



tinguish logical {ov full) and grammati- 
cal subject, and logical (or full) and 
grainmatical predicate, and to use the 
terms subject and predicate in parsing as 
equivalent to grammatical subject and 
grammatical predicate. Thus in the sen- 
tence ' The fair breeze fanned my cheek 
softly,' breeze would be the (grammatical) 
subject a.T\di fanned the (grammatical) pre- 
dicate. This method has the advantage 
of providing convenient terms for the 
cardinal words of the sentence ; the objec- 
tion to it is that it sacrifices the words 
suljject and predicate as names for the two 
parts into which the sentence primarily 
falls (compare, too, what is said below 
about qualifying parts of the sentence). 
It is open to those who think that subject 
and predicate should be kept for this sense 
to distinguish breeze as the ' subject-word ' 
and to callfanned simply ' verb ' ; though 
it would doubtless be desirable, if possible, 
to find for the verb some term which was 
not a term of parsing. With regard to 
the proper use of certain other terms of 
analysis, divergencies of opinion exist. It 
is one of the chief merits of Mr. Mason to 
have given a definite and useful meaning 
to the term ' complement,' which has been 
so vaguely used in France (co'inplement 
direct ; complement indirect) ; this term 
is now generally understood to denote the 
part of the sentence which completes the 
meaning of a verb of ' incomplete predica- 
tion ' (i.e. a verb which does not make 
complete sense by itself). 

As the infinitive (used after another 
class of ' incomplete ' verbs) plays a very 
different rdle in the sentence from the ad- 
jectives and nouns, called complements, 
some grammarians have thought it desir- 
able to mark this use of the infinitive by 
a special name — ' prolative infinitive' (i e. 
infinitive which extends the meaning of 
the finite verb) is the term employed in 
the Public School Latin Primer; when 
first introduced in that book it met with 
a storm of opposition, but is now widely 
used. The term ' supplementary infinitive ' 
has also been suggested. But whatever 
term is employed there would seem to be 
obvious advantages in recognising by a 
separate term this characteristic feature of 
the Aryan languages ; in such a sentence 
as ' He seems to be rich,' the complement 
is rich (compl. of the infinitive to be), not 
to be rich. 

The term ' indirect object ' is used very 



variously, and the question arises whether 
indirect object should be analysed as 
coming under the ' object column ' or the 
' adverbial adjunct column.' The question 
is complicated by the oblil/eration in mo- 
dern English of the distinction between 
dative and accusative. It is undoubtedly 
true that in modern English we may say 
not only ' I told him the story,' but also 
' He was told the story ' — i.e. the indirect 
object may become the subject of a pas- 
sive verb. But in languages which pre- 
serve the distinctive case inflections, this 
is impossible ; and it is urged with force 
that the indirect object is as adverbial in 
character as any prepositional phrase (He 
sent it to the post). 

The classification of noun (substanti- 
val) clauses presents considerable difficulty 
in regard to details. But the main classes 
generally accepted are : (1) indirect state- 
ments ; (2) indirect petitions (commands) ; 
(3) indirect requests. There is a diffi- 
culty in regard to such a sentence as ' It 
is strange that such things shoidd be '; this 
differs from ' It is strange that such things 
are^ as containing not a statement of fact, 
but rather an expression of contingency. 
Such a clause is called by Mr. F. Ritchie 
{English Grammar and Analysis, 1886) 
an ' indirect thought.' 

The qualifying parts of the sentence 
(attributes, adverbial adjuncts) are very 
commonly treated as enlargements, by 
which the naked sentence is clothed. This 
is open to serious objections, such as those 
urged by Dr. F. Kern {Deutsche Satz- 
lehre, 1883) and by Mr. J. Spence {Jour- 
nal of Education, 1884). In such a sen- 
tence as ' Birds that are web-footed swim 
in water,' it is certainly misleading to 
speak of the clause that are web-footed as 
an ' enlargement ' ; the statement is made 
not about birds, but about birds that are 
web-footed. These objections do not apply 
to the method of breaking up sentences 
into parts, if it be recognised that the 
process is an abstract one, and that at 
every stage of analysis we get farther and 
farther away from the actual sentence be- 
fore us ; they apply only to the synthetic 
reconstruction of the sentence out of the 
elements which result from the process of 
analysis. 

The most common form in which sen 
tences are analysed is a ruled table con- 
taining headings for subject, predicate, &c. 
Dr. Bain {Teaching of English, 1887) 



18 



ANSWER ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 



objects to the derangement of the order of 
words in the sentence which results, and 
this is certainly felt as a difficulty, especi- 
ally in analysing French and German. In 
some schools the sentence to be analysed 
is written out vertically and the descrip- 
tion of the parts (subject, object, &c.) are 
written opposite. This is the method 
adopted by Mr. Fitch {Lectures on Teach- 
ing, p. 268). There are two points of im- 
portance to be kept in view : (1) the best 
method of indicating the relation of the 
words in each group ; (2) the best method 
of indicating the relation of each group to 
the others. For the latter purpose the 
generally employed form of a tree is useful. 

Answer. See Question and Answer. 

Aporti, Ferante, the celebrated founder 
of infants' schools in Italy, was born in 
1791, in San Martino, in the province of 
Mantua. From childhood he was destined 
for the priesthood. Yet, whilst pursuing 
the usual studies eagerly, he never ceased 
to interest himself in the progress of his 
nation, especially in the education of the 
children, for by this means only did he 
think it possible to save Italy, He was 
professor of history in Cremona, and was 
also appointed inspector of schools there. 
He soon discovered that the great defect 
in the national education was the absence 
of any early culture. Italy had at that 
time many little schools, which were con- 
ducted by ignorant old women, very much 
like our dames' schools of forty or fifty 
years ago. Aporti felt that education 
should commence from the cradle, and 
devised a plan of education to precede 
that of the ordinary school. In 1827 he 
made his first attempt, and opened a small 
school in Cremona for the children of the 
rich. His method has been described as 
' development of the body by means of a 
sound regime, frequent recreation, short 
hours of work, and gymnastic exercises 
suitable to the age of the children ; for- 
mation of the heart by good examples and 
wise precepts ; culture of the spirit by 
teachmg of a kind fitted to their intellec- 
tual capacities, so that it resembled play 
rather than a task.' Brilliant success 
crowned his effort, on all sides he met 
with praise, and in 1829 the government 
of Milan approved his method by public 
decree. 

Numerous other places followed the 
example of Cremona, and in 1833 Aporti 
published a manual to serve as a guide to 



the promoters of these infants' schools. 
Not satisfied with this, he spent any time 
that could be snatched from his many 
duties to go and visit these schools. He 
was accused of introducing a spirit of ir- 
religion and revolt by his method, but he 1 
pursued his course without relaxation till y 
thousands of schools bore witness to the 
success of the system he had inaugurated. 
By special invitation he opened a school 
at Turin, in the heart of the university, 
and thus efiected a complete reformation 
in Italian teaching. Distinctions were 
showered upon him. The French Govern- 
ment bestowed on him the title of ' Knight 
of the Legion of Honour.' Though he fled 
to Piedmont as a refugee, Victor Em- 
manuel raised him to the rank of a sena- 
tor in 1848. In 1855 he was elected with 
every mark of dignity to be President of 
the University of Turin. There he died 
in 1858, but he still lives in the memory 
and speech of his countrymen as ' the 
Father of Childhood.' 

Apparatus. — Catalogues containing 
price lists of apparatus, instruments, dia- 
grams, &c., to illustrate the following 
sciences, and obtainable from various 
manufacturers, have been prepared, and 
can be had on application: — 1. Practical 
Geometry, Machine and Building Con- 
struction, Mechanics and Steam. 2. Ex- 
perimental Physics. 3. Chemistry and 
Metallurgy. 4. Geology and Mineralogy, 
Natural History (Physiology, Zoology, 
and Botany), Physiography and Agricul- 
ture. A skilful teacher will be able to 
save much expense, and to make his subject 
increasingly attractive to his pupils, by 
constructing his own apparatus where pos- 
sible. The greatest discoverers in science 
have worked with rough apparatus of their 
own invention and construction. 

Approbation. See Praise and 
Blame. 

Architecture of Schools. — Conspicuous 
among the questions which the universally 
awakened interest in education has brought 
up for discussion is that of the architec- 
ture and planning of school buildings. 
When the curriculum of secondary schools 
was confined to Latin and Greek grammar 
and translation, and of primary schools to 
reading, writing, and ciphering, the struc- 
ture of the school in which these com- 
paratively simple operations were only 
too mechanically performed was only too 
mechanically simple. However imposing 



ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 



19 



might be the external appearance — and 
some of these old schools very creditably 
reflected the ecclesiastical origin of their 
foundation — the interior coidd boast of 
very little accommodation for school pur- 
poses beyond one large schoolroom. In 
this all the scholars were taught all the 
subjects, the masters' desks being dotted 
about the floor, with a clear space round 
each desk, in which the class stood for 
' lesson,' and then was relegated for ' pre- 
paration ' or ' writing ' to desks placed 
either against the walls, or face to face, or 
in other ways determined by no higher 
consideration than that of convenience or 
close packing. But the day of these things 
has gone by ; the extensions of the curri- 
culum to include subjects requiring more 
space, greater quiet, or special arrange- 
ments for their adequate treatment ; the 
improvements in methods of instruction, 
coupled with the introduction of a greater 
variety of methods ; and, beyond this, a 
far higher conception of the parts which 
good order, decency, and considerations 
of health should play in the education of 
youth, have completely altered the aspect 
of the architectural question. From being 
a very simple one it has now become one 
of the most complex. The adaptation of 
school buildings to their diverse purposes 
has made infinite attention to details su- 
premely important. These details, their 
efiect upon the discipline, comfort, and 
efficiency of a school, it has become part 
of a schoolmaster's professional duty to 
study and to master. In designing school 
buildings his services, as the only possible 
expert in these matters, are indispensable 
side by side with those of the professional 
architect. 

A school, like every building, ought to 
have a character of its own, and to bear 
upon its exterior the marks of the purpose 
for which it was erected. Being neither 
a church, nor a town-hall, nor a post-office, 
nor an asylum, nor a workhouse, it should 
not suggest any of these to the eye. By 
its approaches, its facade, its ornament, 
it should reflect the quiet dignity as well 
as the practical utility of the work carried 
on within its walls. 

The site should, whenever possible, be 
a large open piece of ground, not hemmed 
in by houses, but free to the four winds 
and the direct action of the sun. Its area, 
including playgrounds, should be at least 
five square yards per scholar ; or more, if 



the whole school has its recreation at the 
same time. Its boundaries should be no 
higher than is absolutely necessary. In 
the country or quiet suburbs of a town, 
low walls, surmounted by iron palisading 
about six feet high, make the best boun- 
daries. In the middle of a town the 
necessity of avoiding distractions from the 
streets demands higher walls, but they 
need not exceed six feet. 

The buildings. — The whole of the sur- 
face soil should be removed from the site 
to be occupied by the buildings, and the 
ground under the floors should be covered 
with a uniform layer of concrete. A space 
of at least a foot should be left between 
the top of the concrete and the under-side 
of the floor joists, and this space should 
be thoroughly ventilated. The ideal school 
contains no staircases, so that the building 
should consist of only one storey, where the 
site is large enough for the purpose ; and 
should never, under any circumstances, 
exceed two storeys. The main building 
should have at least two entrances from 
the public thoroughfares. It should con- 
sist of an assembly hall, and a number of 
class-rooms sufficient to accommodate the 
whole school without using the assembly 
hall. This leaves the hall free, as it should 
be, for examinations, when the accommo- 
dation of the class-rooms would obviously 
be insufficient, for collective lessons, reci- 
tations, singing, &c. The assembly hall 
should, whenever possible, be a ' central ' 
hall — i.e. should have the majority of the 
class-rooms arranged round it, and com- 
municating with it, either directly or, 
better still, with an intervening corridor. 
In a two-storeyed building the hall would 
run up to the height of the upper storey ; 
and a gallery round the hall at the level 
of the first floor would make communi- 
cation with the class-rooms on that floor 
easy. 

The advantages of the ' central hall ' 
arrangement are : (1) the whole school 
can meet and disperse to the several class- 
rooms with the least possible delay or dis- 
turbance ; (2) the head-master and the 
various school officials can visit or take 
round notices with the least possible waste 
of time and energy ; (3) the central hall 
can be made a reservoir of fresh warm air, 
which can supplement the other means of 
ventilating the class-rooms and corridors, 
and, on the other hand, when the hall 
itself is full of people, as on ' speech days 

c2 



20 



AECHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 



it can be ventilated from them ; (4) eco- 
nomy in the matter of cost is effected, as 
the main walls serve a double purpose. 
Intervening corridors have the great ad- 
vantage of enabling examinations and 
other collective teaching to be continued 
without interruption from the movement 
of the scholars from class-room to class- 
room or to the playground. The difficulty 
of adequately lighting the central hall 
may be overcome by placing cloak-rooms, 
masters' rooms, and other rooms not run- 
ning up to the same height as class-rooms, 
at each end of the central hall, thus per- 
mitting large windows high up at each 
end. Sky-lights or dormer-windows in 
the roof would further contribute light. 
The corridors, if parallel with the side 
walls, and therefore long, would be lighted 
at each end, or, if at right angles between 
every pair of class-rooms, and therefore 
short, would be lighted from one end. Sky- 
lights are to be avoided, whenever possible, 
as a storm of rain or hail produces noise, 
and of snow, darkness. 

The capacity of the central hall should 
be calculated at six square feet for each 
person to be seated on public occasions. 

Glass-rooms. — If the class-rooms are 
lighted on one side, as would mostly 
be the case, the room should be arranged 
so that no shadow shall be cast by the 
pupil's body on his book or paper, and for 
this purpose the light should fall on his 
left hand. There is no objection, and in 
fact a distinct advantage, where ventila- 
tion is taken into account, to having win- 
dows on two adjacent sides. No class- 
rooms should be placed on the north side 
of the building unless some of the windows 
can be placed so as to afford direct sun- 
light. The area of window surface should 
never be less than one-sixth of the area of 
the floor, and may be one-fifth with ad- 
vantage. The window-sills should be 
4 ft. 6 in. above the floor. The area of 
the floor should be calculated, in elemen- 
tary schools, at ten square feet to each 
pupil, and should never be less than this ; 
in secondary schools, it may reach fifteen 
or sixteen feet with advantage. The height 
should be, in all schools, at least fourteen 
feet. 

The master's desk and dais should be 
in the middle of the long side of the room, 
with the light (necessarily) on his right. 
When at his desk, or at the blackboard 
behind it, he should have the whole class 



well in view, and therefore be well back 
from the front row of desks ; and the 
longer the rows, the further back must 
his desk be placed, and therefore the wider 
must the room be. Consequently an ar- 
rangement which permits of eight pupils in 
each long row (in single or dual desks, and 
allowing twenty-four to twenty-six inches 
' elbow room per pupil) is usually more 
economical of floor space than one for ten 
pupils in each row. If the dais is suffi- 
ciently high (eighteen or twenty inches) a 
stepped or sloping floor is quite unneces- 
sary ; and there is an obvious economy in 
the principle of raising the master above 
the pupils for purposes of supervision, as 
against the opposite one of raising the 
pupils in tiers above the master. Besides, 
the noise of the pupils' movements and 
the fatigue to the master in moving about 
among his class, when on a stepped floor, 
are good pedagogic reasons for a sparing 
use of such an arrangement. The most 
appropriate place for a stepped floor (where 
it is most required, i.e. in an elementary 
school) is one extremity of the central 
hall. The class-room walls should be 
lined inside, to a height of from 2 ft. 6 in. 
to 3 ft. 6 in. (according to the average 
height of the scholars using the room), 
with a dado, which may be of wood, tiles, 
or painted cement. The height of this 
dado should be varied as stated in order 
to allow of that most effective piece of 
school apparatus known as the ' con- 
tinuous blackboard' being placed round 
at least three of the walls immediately 
above the dado, on which the scholars can 
work in the presence of the teacher. 

Corridors and staircases. — The corri- 
dors should be at least five feet wide, so 
as to allow two streams of scholars to be 
moving in opposite directions without risk 
of inconvenience or disturbance. The 
flooring may be of wood-blocks or asphalte. 
Staircases in schools are open to nume- 
rous objections. They are noisy, they are 
dangerous, they are a fruitful source of 
breaches of good discipline, and they seri- 
ously add to the labours of supervision. 
If, as in a two-storeyed building, they are 
necessary, they should be of the same width 
as the corridors, they should on no account 
be spiral, but should have short flights 
with wide landings, and the flooring should 
be of wood-blocks. Care should also be 
taken in two-storeyed schools to have the 
floors of the class-rooms on the upper 



ARCHITECTURE OF SCHOOLS 



21 



story constructed of sound-proof mate- 
rials, such as girders and brick or concrete 
arching, which have the advantage of 
being non-conducting both to sound and 
fire. 

Science-rooms. — The position of sci- 
ence in the curriculum of all secondary 
schools being now fully established, the 
proper construction of the lecture-rooms, 
laboratories, apparatus-rooms required for 
the teaching of chemistry, physics, and 
physiology, has become a matter of prime 
importance. The recommendations of the 
Royal Commission on Technical Instruc- 
tion are forcing the question of elementary 
scientific and technical instruction upon 
the attention of the managers of elemen- 
tary schools ; but, in the case of this latter 
class of schools, it will probably be found 
convenient, especially in large centres of 
population, to erect a special school-build- 
ing to which pupils would be drafted from 
the other schools : though the time is pro- 
bably not far distant when a laboratory and 
workshop will be considered necessary ad- 
juncts of all elementary schools in artisan 
neighbourhoods. Science-rooms, to what- 
ever kind of school attached, should be in 
a separate block, near the main building, 
and readily accessible by a covered way. 
Otherwise the rest of the school will run 
the risk of being incommoded by fumes, 
and the chemical and physical students, of 
being disturbed in their investigations by 
the vibrations accompanying the move- 
ments of large numbers. The rooms should 
not be lighted on the south or west side, 
but should face either north or east, in 
order to avoid, as much as possible, the 
ill effects of direct sunlight upon chemicals 
and apparatus. The warming and venti- 
lation of the science-rooms should be on 
the same principle as for the main build- 
ing, only the areas of the inlets and outlets 
of air should be much larger. 

Cloak-rooms. — The extent to which 
accommodation for caps, great-coats, um- 
brellas, (fee, is required varies considerably 
with the character of the school. In a 
boarding-school, where the boarding-houses 
are clustered round the school, or in a day 
school, where the pupils live within short 
distances of the school, hardly any cloak- 
room accommodation is required ; the cor- 
ridors or covered ways may be fitted with 
pegs, and little else would be wanted ex- 
cept, perhaps, a drying-room connected 
with the hot- water apparatus, to receive 



the great-coats after a heavy downpour of 
rain. But in a day school of any kind, 
especially in towns where the schools are 
large, too great importance cannot possibly 
be attached to the supply of sufficient cloak- 
rooms. On this (together with the proper 
arrangement of the latrines) rests the very 
foundation of school morals. Health, dis- 
cipline, tidiness, respect for personal pro- 
perty are all encouraged at this point — on 
the very threshold of each school day — 
by effective arrangements, or discouraged 
by the reverse. There should be a sepa- 
rate cloak-room for every 150 scholars, 
with, if possible, ingress at one door and 
egress at another. The cloak-rooms should 
not be altogether at one part of the build- 
ing, but each should be as near as possible 
to the classes to which it is assigned. In 
this way perfect order can be maintained 
at assembly and dismissal, and the build- 
ings be cleared of scholars at the end of 
each school session in a few minutes. The 
fittings of the cloak-rooms should be de- 
signed in order (1) to isolate each scholar's 
outdoor clothing, so that the risks of the 
spread of infection may be largely dimin- 
ished, and that the wet coat of one boy 
may not saturate the dry coat or stain 
the light coat of his neighbour ; (2) to 
provide a system of umbrella-drainage, by 
which the fetid and discoloured drippings 
of many (cheap) umbrellas may be at once 
carried outside the building ; (3) to sub- 
ject each separate coat and umlbrella to a 
current of hot air, and, at the same time, 
to obtain such a length of hot- water pipes 
as will raise the temperature of the room 
sufficiently to dry wet clothes in the inter- 
val between assembly and dismissal ; (4) 
to reduce to a minimum the temptation to 
pilfer ; (5) and, by giving each boy's um- 
brella a place for deposit in his own com- 
partment, to prevent delays and confusion 
at dismissal, and to check changes of 
ownership, accidental or otherwise. All 
these objects can be accomplished by fit- 
ting the cloak-rooms with wooden parti- 
tions round the walls, and additional back- 
to-back partitions projecting into the room 
at equal distances at right angles to one 
of the walls. Hot- water pipes should be 
carried round and under all the partitions, 
so as to create a current of air direct up to 
and through each coat as it hangs. ^ The 
following detailed dimensions are given : 
Height of partition, 5 ft. 4 in.; width , 
1 ft. 2 in. ; depth, 8 in. ; height of ledge 



22 



ARISTOTLE 



for gaiters, 1 ft. ; height of hook for um- 
brella, 2 ft. 6 in. ; width of drainage- 
trough, 3 in. ; length of hot-water pipes 
for 150 partitions, about 150 ft. 

Drainage-troughs. — On an asphalted 
floor these should be formed by sinking 
runnels in the asphalte. On a wooden 
floor the side troughs should be made by- 
two beads cased with zinc, and the main 
trough should be sunk in the boarding of 
the floor, and also cased with zinc. The 
main channel should communicate with 
the outside drainage. The lower panels 
of the door of the cloak-room should be 
flitted in with perforated zinc, in order 
that a current of colder and drier air from 
the corridors may be kept up through the 
room to cany off' the vapour arising from 
the wet clothes when heated by the hot- 
water pipes. The cost of the above (ex- 
clusive of hot- water piping) need not ex- 
ceed 65. per scholar. 

Aristotle or Aristoteles, the famous 
Greek philosopher and teacher, was h. 384 
B.C. in the colonial town of Stageira, and 
hence is frequently spoken of as the ' Sta- 
girite.' His father, Nikomachus, was a 
physician, and a friend of Amyntas II. and 
Philip, King of Macedon, the grandfather 
and father of Alexander the Great. Having 
lost his parents very early Aristotle was 
brought up by Proxenus of Atarneus, in 
Asia Minor, to pursue medicine and sur- 
gery as a profession ; but in his eighteenth 
year he went to Athens, and somewhat 
loiter became a pupil of Plato, who was so 
impressed with Aristotle's mental jDowers 
that he called him ' the intellect of the 
school.' Aristotle remained twenty years 
in Athens, where he established a school 
of rhetoric, or oratory, a kind of edu- 
cational institute in which the youth of 
Athens obtained the mental training fltting 
them for the public life of their day. On 
the death of Plato (347 B.C.) Aristotle re- 
moved again to Atarneus, and subsequently 
to Mitylene, and it was about this time 
he was invited by King Philip to edu- 
cate his son. In the period 343 to 340 
B.C. Aristotle acted as tutor to Prince 
Alexander from the thirteenth to six- 
teenth year of the age of the latter. The 
young prince became greatly attached to 
his tutor, but they subseqviently became 
estranged, owing to Alexander's ambition ; 
and, on Alexander entering upon his great 
campaign in Asia (334 B.C.), Aristotle re- 
moved again to Athens. Here, at the age 



of fifty, he opened the ' Lyceum ' (q.v.), 
so called from its being near the temple 
of the Lyceian Apollo (Apollo Lyceius). 
It was while at this school that Aristotle 
matured his philosophy and attained his 
unsurpassed reputation as a philosophical 
writer and teacher. From his habit of 
walking about the garden of the Lyceum 
with his pupils when teaching, his was 
called the peripatetic philosophy (Greek, 
TreptTraret?/, to walk about). In this con- 
genial occupation he passed twelve years ; 
but in 322 B.C., after Alexander's death, 
Aristotle had to fly from Athens, his 
enemies having brought against him an 
absurd charge of godlessness or atheism. 
He died the same year at Chalcis in 
Euboea, at the age of sixty- two. One of 
the greatest achievements of Aristotle was 
the creation of the science of deductive 
logic, which has undergone no material 
modiflcation since it left his hands. His 
other writings embrace all branches of 
speculative philosophy — i.e. metaphysics, 
or the science of real being ; ethics, or the 
science of morality ; and politics, or the 
science of government, and social science ; 
these, and his treatises on rhetoric and 
poetry, on animals, and various other 
subjects, are amongst the greatest monu- 
ments of the human intellect. Aristotle, 
being himself a teacher by profession, also 
wrote upon education, considered from the 
point of view of general ethics, as well as 
in its social and political relations. If 
man is to attain the greatest human good, 
happiness, he must, according to Aristotle, 
be trained to the knowledge and practice 
of virtue — in the flrst place to theoretical 
or diagnostic, and in the second place to 
practical or ethical virtue. Having to 
live in a material world, however, man 
must not be alloAved in his education to 
neglect the useful, but he must pay atten- 
tion to this only within due limits, so that 
he does not become absorbed in the pur- 
suit. As virtue is a regular habit or 
attitude of the soliI, and not simply a 
capacity, human beings can only acquire 
it by proper teaching, ti-aining, and habi- 
tuating in its ideas and practice. Accord- 
ing to Aristotle, the guidance of the busi- 
ness of education is the duty of the State. 
The flrst thing necessary is to take care 
that infants shall be properly fed, and 
that they shall be brought up with healthy 
bodies. Up to their flfth year children 
should be provided with amusement, and 



ARITHMETIC 



23 



their play should be so guided as to de- 
velop more particularly their muscular 
system . From the fifth to the seventh year 
the child should receive oral instruction, 
listening to the words of his teacher, 
and looking at objects or other modes of 
illu-strating the oral lessons. From the 
seventh to the fourteenth year the boy 
goes through the elementary course of 
education at school, and from the four- 
teenth to the twenty-first year the ad- 
vanced course at the higher school and 
academy, coming out at the end a man 
fully developed mentally, morally, and 
physically. The leading departments in 
the education of the ancient Greeks were 
called (1) grammar, (2) music, and (3) gym- 
nastics, answering respectively to (1) lite- 
rary, (2) sesthetic, and (3) physical culture. 
On all these points there are many valu- 
able observations to be found in Aristotle's 
various treatises. It was characteristic 
of Greek civilisation that Aristotle should 
teach that deformed and hopelessly weak 
infants should not be permitted to live. 
Nor did Aristotle allow that slaves, or 
even women, had the capacity of being 
fully trained to virtue. Wisdom is the 
highest object of the highest education, 
but this, according to Aristotle, was un- 
attainable until man had reached the 
pitch of culture entitling him to be called a 
philosopher. {See Athenian Education.) 
Arithmetic (Gr. apLOiMqnKrj, from apcd- 
fi6<i, number) is the science of the expres- 
sion of number by symbols, and the appli- 
cation of rules relating to them. These 
symbols are called numerals. The earliest 
known system of numerals was that of the 
Egyptians. In their hieroglyphs the digits 
up to nine are simply sti'okes (III = three, 
and so on), ten is fi up to a hundred, thus 
thirty-one is written 0001; the signs 
for hundred and for thousand are also dis- 
tinct. Now here there is not the remo- 
test attempt to assign value to 2^osition. 
Following this earhest form we find the 
hiei'atics, and the enchorials or demo- 
tics. These have been traced out with 
marvellous skill by ChampoUion the 
younger. If we look at the Roman method 
of notation, it seems difl&cult to say that 
I, II, &c., did not arise in this simple 
' way of repetition. The Hebrew, Greek, 
i and Latin systems each employed letters. 
The Arabic numerals, which have had so 
much to do with the progress of arithmetic 
in the Western world, appear to have been 



known to the Hindoos as early as the fifth 
century. They were certainly introduced 
by the Arabians into Spain, though the 
precise date is not known. Gerbert, after- 
wards Pope Sylvester II., who died 1003, is 
said to have carried these numerals from 
the Moors of Spain into France, 960 ; and 
they were known in England early in the 
eleventh century. 

It is supposed that the Greeks and 
Romans at first used pebbles as cotinters, 
and the very word ' calculation ' points to 
the calculus or small stone as employed for 
counters. In confirmation of this are the 
facts that the Indians are very expert in 
reckoning by means of their fijigers, with- 
out pen and ink ; the natives of Peru will, 
in making calculations by an arrangement 
of maize grains, surpass in speed Europeans 
aided by many rules. The Chinese, too, 
calculate by means of balls on rods, which 
they manipulate with such amazing dex- 
terity that the most intricate exchanges are 
calculated in their banking-houses in the 
shortest possible time. In our own coun- 
try also Napier's rods and Babbage's cal- 
culating machine were once familiar. Even 
in the reign of Charles II. Sir Samuel 
Morland invented two machines which 
he called ' arithmetic instruments,' and 
from his book it would seem that the fun- 
damental rules can be easily worked, as 
he says, 'without charging the memory, 
disturbing the mind, or exposing the ope- 
rations to uncertainty.' About 1780 Earl 
Stanhope invented two machines which 
perform the operations of multiplication 
and division with remarkable accuracy. 
It is probably owing to the mechanical 
habit of our primitive ancestors of count- 
ing on the five fingers of each hand that 
we owe the discovery of the decimal sys- 
tem of notation, because, as Mr. Peacock 
observes, ' Natural scales of numeration 
alone have ever met with adoption,' mean- 
ing by natural scales those adopted from the 
hands or from the hands and feet. These 
methods we call quinary (by fives) or vi- 
cenary (by twenties). This is further seen 
by their name, the simple symbols of num- 
bers being in Latin called digits, ov fingers. 
The Caribbees call the number ' ten ' by a 
phrase which means ' all the children of 
the hand ' (Peacock, p. 390). So that we 
can well understand Mr. Peacock's state- 
ment that ' amongst all nations practical 
methods of numeration have preceded the 
formation of numerical language.' 



24 



ARITHMETIC 



But no mechanical device has been at 
once so simple and so effective as the in- 
vention of a local value for figures, i.e. the 
fixing the first line for units, the second 
for tens, the third for hundreds, &c., so 
that 444 does not stand for three fours 
simply, but for four units, four tens, and 
four hundreds. This now appears so sim- 
ple to us from long practice that it seems 
scarcely possible for it ever to have been 
otherwise. But if we remember that the 
Greeks used letters for their arithmetic, and 
yet had fraction sums, we see how very 
cumbersome such a system must have been. 
Apparently this invention of local value 
is quite recent. The Egyptians sometimes 
arranged their ' straight strokes ' in two 
columns to save space, but, as we have 
said, they had no idea of local value, 
neither had any other nation of antiquity. 
Pythagoras, who lived from 570 to 504 B.C., 
is reported to have invented the multipli- 
cation table — the Abacus Pythagoricus — 
but there seems no trace of the Greeks 
having advanced in any real science of 
arithmetic beyond the Egyptians from 
whom they received it. Diophantus, an 
Alexandrian, who flourished about the 
beginning of the Christian era, made a 
remarkable advance in arithmetic by the 
discovery of the indeterminate analysis, a 
species of algebra, on account of which he 
is called the inventor of algebra. Six 
books of his, in Greek, were published on 
arithmetic. Beyond this step there is 
little to record for the first six centuries 
in the Chi-istian ei-a, and in the middle of 
the seventh the Mohammedans practically 
swept away philosophers with their books 
and their inventions. It is, therefore, 
striking to find the means of mathematical 
progress coming from these same Arabs, 
as we have seen above, by furnishing the 
"Western world with a system of numerals 
which ofiered every facility for ready com- 
bination. But even this system must have 
remained practically inoperative, but for 
the invention of local value. And here it 
is interesting to note that towards the dis- 
covery of local value the most important 
step was the invention of the cipher. ' Ci- 
pher' is from an Arabic word meaning 
vacant, and in the old systems they had 
not a symbol for vacuity. The absence of 
this symbol probably prevented them from 
arriving at the notion of local value, for 
without it any numbers written in columns 
would constantly be deranged. And of 



course, in the case of letters where the 
value of each was absolute, there was 
nothing to suggest such a contrivance as 
local value. After its discovery there were 
several courses open, and we might have 
had a binary, quinary, or duodenary scale 
instead of our decimal notation. We have 
already referred to the probable cause of a 
system of tens being adopted, viz. that the 
fingers on both hands form such a ready 
reference and easy explanation in cases 
of early counting. This will not sound 
strange if we bear in mind that there are 
tribes who have never risen to a quinary 
scale because they have never wanted 
numbers as high as five. Aristotle men- 
tions a tribe of Thracians who never 
counted higher than four. Darwin quotes 
Sir John Lubbock (Descent of Man, p. 
180), and remarks how improbable it is 
that our earliest ancestors could have 
' counted as high as ten,' considering that 
so many nations ' now in existence cannot 
get beyond four.' If we add to these facts 
the part the fingers played in the earliest 
mathematical investigations of most of us, 
we shall be prepared to admit that the 
decimal system may have been suggested 
by a natural arrangement. 

The essence of our present ' decimal 
notation ' is that, in a row of figures pro- 
ceeding to the left, each column increases 
the value of the figures tenfold. We trace 
the origin of this system to the Hindoos, 
and they ascribe to it a divine source. 
The date of its introduction into Europe 
is not clear. We have already referred 
to the statement respecting Pope Sylves- 
ter II,, which is doubted by many. The 
more probable account is that Leonard 
of Pisa introduced it in 1202 in a work 
entitled Liber Ahhaci, &c. Others have 
supposed that the Alonsine tables (or 
Alphonsine tables, constructed by the 
Moors at the court of Alonso) first con- 
tained this system. Certain it is that the 
system was in the hands of the Persians 
and Arabs before the twelfth century, and 
that they ascribe it to the Hindoos. There 
seems to have been no general use of 
Arabic numerals in Europe before the in- 
vention of printing, and the works of Cax- 
ton do not contain them except in wood- 
cuts. Merchants continued to keep their 
accounts in Boman numerals till the six- 
teenth century. 

The next great step in arithmetic was 
the discovery of compound proportion and 



ARITHMETIC 



25 



decimal fractions in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. The Hindoos use fractions and 
write very much as we do, but without 
any peculiarity of notation. The first 
fractional notation found amongst the 
Greeks wrote the denominator above and 
to the right of the numerator, as 20*^, 
where ^ shows the position of the de- 
nominator. Ptolemy was the first to make 
any advance on this. He applied the 
method of dividing the circle to all units, 
and this is known as the sexagesimal no- 
tation. The degree of the circle is divided 
into sixty minutes, the minute into sixty 
seconds, and so on. We have still re- 
tained in our division of the circle the 
minutes, seconds, &c., used by him, and un- 
til the spread of Arabic numerals his sexa- 
gesimal method did much service. Stevinus 
is said to have been the first who advocated 
and showed the use of decimal fractions in 
a paper written about 1585. But he and 
Stifelius used the sexagesimal system, at 
least for some time, with circumflexed 
digits. Albert Girard, about 1590, first 
applied this method to the decimal system, 
which he wrote by placing the number in 
brackets over the digits, the exponents 
of the power of ten, used as denominator. 
Here the benefit of local value really 
asserted itself. It only remained to re- 
ject the cumbrous method of circumflexed 
digits for the simpler foi'm of our present 
denominator and decimal fractions. This 
rejection was partly made by Wright in 
1616, and the system was formally intro- 
duced by Napier in 1617. Oughtred ex- 
tended the use of it in 1631, and from 
that time the modern form of Indian arith- 
metic has been established. 

Whatever is capable of increase or 
diminution is called a magnitude. A 
magnitude may be continuous, i.e. whole 
and undivided, like water in a bottle, or 
made up of separate and distinct indi- 
viduals or parts, like a flock of birds. A 
unit is either a clearly defined magnitude, 
of the kinds that are continuous, or it is 
one object, of the kinds that are separate. 
Ten gallons or five hundred birds are quan- 
tities ; ten and five hundred are numbers. 
Numbers are concrete or abstract ; thus, 
ten gallons, fifty birds, &c., are called con- 
crete numbers, but ten and fifty are ab- 
stract. By means of the nine significant 
digits, together with the symbol 0, called 
zero or cipher, we can represent numbers 
of any magnitude. Each of these significant 



digits taken in the order 1 to 9 represents 
a number greater by one than the number 
represented by the digit that precedes it. 

Other arithmetical symbols are + 
(plus), = (equal to), — (minus), X (multi- 
ply by), -i- (division by). Each figure has 
two values : one from its form, which may 
be called its intrinsic value, another from 
its position — thus, 2 represents two units, 
but if written 2000 it represents two thou- 
sands, because the fourth column contains 
only thousands, as the first contains only 
units. To write in words the meaning of 
a number expressed in figures is called 
numeration. To represent by figures a 
number expressed in words is called nota- 
tion. The number of units of a given 
order taken to form a unit of the next 
higher order is called the base of the 
system. In our system the base is ten, 
and it is hence called the decimal system 
(decern = ten). 

The four fundamental operations are 
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division. Or the same statement may be 
made another way, by saying the funda- 
mental opei'ations are addition and its 
opposite, and multiplication and its op- 
posite. When any given numbers are 
added together the result is called their 
sum. This apparently simplest operation 
has but one difficulty, which is called 
' carrying' — i.e. if the sum of the units in 
any Ime exceeds nine, the tens are carried 
as units to the next highest line or order. 
When a smaller number is taken from a 
greater the greater is called the minuend, 
the smaller the subtrahend, and the num- 
ber left the remainder, the whole opera- 
tion being called subtraction. Subtrac- 
tion is performed in two ways — either by 
the English method, in which when we 
take a greater from a less we borrow one 
from the next order and then pay it back 
by adding one to the subtrahend ; or the 
French method, in which it is usual to 
borrow absolutely from the next order in 
the minuend, so that no paying back is 
necessary. 

Multiplication is the operation by 
which we find the sum of a given number 
repeated as many times as there are ones 
in another given number. The number 
to be repeated is called the multiplicand, 
the other the multiplier, and the sum 
found the product. The discovery of mul- 
tiplication was one of the great steps of 
progress in arithmetic. It is manifest that 



20 



AmTHMETIO 



tui opoDilioii \\'lil(!li i'ouiid lit ojioo tlio pro- 
ducit of 7x10 WMH II gi*at ocotiomy com- 
parod wiUi tlu» labour of writing (lowii 7 
ton tiiiioH and tJioii «,dding tlidiii up. Nor 
was it a jiiattor oi: ooouoiiiy meroly, i'or 
many opora^tions in advanced tu-itlnnetic 
could never liavo Ixion diHcoverod ho 1oii<,' 
aH tlio cunduirHoiiio j>lfi,n of adding re- 
mained. One of the tewtn of a good aritli- 
metio is wlietlier it te<i,oli(^H liow to ofist 
tlh* nintw out of niultipliiviiid, niuitipliei', 
a,nd product so aH to test the accuracy of 
th(i operation in caw^H wliei-(< the niiiltipli(M- 
couHiHtH of Hev(iral ligurcH. ThiK ttsst in 
of tilt* highest servitMi in exaudiifil ion work, 
and, though very old, m often ondtted in 
teaching. 

Division is the operation by which we 
iiiid how niMiiy times one giv(ni number is 
contaiiu^d in another given number. The 
first of t.hese numbers is called the divi- 
dend, the Hc^cond the divisor, and the re- 
sult or answer the (piotient. It' any two 
of these three terms bo given we can find 
the third, thus : Dividend -f- divisor = 
quotient ; dividend -f- quotient = divisor ; 
divisor x quotient =dividend. When the 
student has mastenid thoroughly these four 
rultiy, which furnish th(^ meiuisof all arith- 
mtitical calculations, it is of the highest 
im]iortai\ce to Iteconn^ vei'y familifir with 
the process (Sidled 'resolution into factors ' ; 
thus, the factors of Ili ai'o 4 a.nd 3, or 6 
and 2. 'I' his metluxl often enal>l(\s us to 
t(^ll nt sight whether two or morenun\biM\s 
a.re divisible by one connnon nund)t^r, and 
is frtxpiently of gnvit aid in simplifying 
fractions. Having proceedtul thus far, 
modern t(*achers of arithmetic at once 
introduce the ]>upil to fractions. The old 
method of defeiring fractions to a late 
jitM'iod in the systt^nl nvsulttnl in students 
seldom being fanuliar with them. 

When the student has mastered the 
principles of pure arithmetic he comes 
rt'udy-armt^d to the n»or(* practical branch 
of commercial arithmetic. Tht> first real 
step in this branch is ' rule of three,' or, 
as it is now generally taught, ' the unity 
method,' which rests on a siinple, intelli- 
gent basis, fi'om which it takes its nan»e, 
thus — h*t t ht* qut^stion bo, ' if 20 liorses 
draw 25 tons, liow numy tons will 50 
horses draw 'i ' Statement is, If 20 horses 
draw 25 tons, it is dear that one horsci 
draws the t\v*»ntit^th part of 25 tons, and 
50 horst*s 50 1 imes tliis amount, which may 
be stfitcd thus : 



20 liorsos draw 25 tons. 
.'. I liorse draws ""^ tons. 

. r.A I 1 25 X 50 . 

,'. 50 Jiorses draw — m - ^°"^''' 

Hums comprising 5, 7, or 9 (piantities may 
l)(? worked out by this method. I>y an a})- 
plicatioii (titherof ordinary I'ule of tlireoor 
the unity nusthod, interest, discount, pre- 
sent w<jrth, percentages, profit and loss, 
nwiy idl be worked. The same is true of 
stocks, but the young mind starts in dread 
from deiding with tluise large iinaginaiy 
sums of money. J n many cases it is found 
simpler to teach slocks by formulu^; but a» 
these fornudai are nothing more than a 
rule of three statement written fraction- 
wise, we need not insert them. 

J/i'<i,stiro of area and solidity. — To 
liiid the S(iuare surface of any ai'ea we 
multiply length by breadth. If this simple 
point is grasped it will greatly aid in clear- 
ing up the mysterious ditFereuce between 
75 yarda square and 75 square yards. 
Tlie former is a square whose side is 75 
yards and whose area is 5,625 s(juaro 
yards ; the latter is a surface whose area 
is 75 s<pui.re yards. To iind the cubic 
(contents of a block, or room, W(i sinq)ly 
nudtiply the thre(i dimensions of length, 
breadth, and depth togt^ther. 

Th(i most common .ind the most difficult 
op(iration is to find the square area of the 
four walls of a room. As tiie two side walls 
and the two end walls must corr(^spond, it 
is simpler to double these, thus — 2 (length 
-|- bnvidth) X heiglit = S(piare area of 4 
walls, '['his square area divided by width 
of ])ap(n' will always give length of paper 
rt>(piired. The simplest way of working 
these sums is to reduce the inches to frac- 
tions of a foot, and tlum as far as possi- 
ble Avork them all fractionally. Tliere is 
another method of doing all these sums, 
which is intei-esting from some of the sur- 
vivals of antiquity which remain in it. It 
is called from its metliod ' duodecimals.' 
I Jut it is now rarely used. 

Ratio and proportion. — The ratio of 
'M. to 5/. expresses the relative gi-eatness 
of 3/. with regard to 5/., and this ratio is 
represented by Avriting the fraction j^, and 
tlun-efoi'e ratios can be compared by com- 
paring the fractions which repri^sent them. 
Proportion consists in the equality of two 
ratios. Wci can state it thus — 3 : 9 : : 
5 : 16. Tlie truth of tliis can always bo 



ARITHMETIC 



27 



verified by multiplying the two extremes 
and the two means, wliich must be equal, 
thus 3 xl5=9 x5. {See Kaestner, Ge- 
schichte der Mathematik^'P eacock's ' History 
of Arithmetic ' in the Encyclopcedia Me- 
tropolitana ; and a paper on ' Approximate 
Arithmetic ' read by Mr. G. Heppel, M.A., 
at the College of Preceptors, and printed in 
the Educational Times for October 1887.) 

Mental arithmetic. — Although, apart 
from the employment of arithmetical ma- 
chines, every problem in arithmetic must 
necessarily be performed by the mind, it is 
only within certain limits that the opera- 
tion is exclusively mental. In most cases 
the memoiy is not powerful enough to 
dispense with the aid of writing. There 
is, however, a large class of arithmetical 
problems, and those not of the simplest 
chai'acter, connected especially with the 
various depaii:ments of trade and com- 
merce, which may with proper training and 
sufficient practice be solved by the mind 
alone, without the assistance of pen and 
paper or slate and pencil. This so-called 
mental arithmetic is • an art of such wide 
utility, that it has long formed an impor- 
tant branch of arithmetical teaching in 
elementary and secondary schools. Even 
young pupils of ordinary ability are, when 
properly taught, capable of attaining a re- 
markable degree of proficiency in this prac- 
tical branch of arithmetic, and a boy thus 
equipped will, on leaving school, commence 
life at considerable advantage over youths 
without such training. 

To sound progress in mental arithmetic 
a thorough grounding in the first and 
simplest elements of the science is indis- 
pensable. The teacher, for instance, who 
follows the course recommended by Pro- 
fessor De Morgan in training scholars 
quickly to count backwards and forwards, 
will carry his pupils forward with far 
greater ease than one who fails to pursue 
tins method. De Morgan, in fact, strongly 
advises every student of arithmetic to 
pursue the practice of counting arithme- 
tical series like the following untU they 
become perfectly familiar and can be run 
through mechanically with the greatest 
rapidity. In the Appendix to his Arith- 
metic De Morgan enters fully into this sub- 
ject. Teachers who have never attempted 
this method are recommended to begin the 
experiment in the form of simultaneous 
oral repetition with young pupils in classes. 
The fii'st group of series is as follows : 



-Q 



o 
o 



pi 



0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, &c. 

0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, &c. 

0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, &c. 

0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, &c. 

0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, &c.| 

0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, &c. 

0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, &c. 

0, 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, &cJ 

The series above given all begin" at zero, 
but the initial number should be varied, 
and other equally useful series will result. 
Thus, with the common difierence 2, we 
have the additional series : 

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, &c. 

With the common difierence 3, we get 
two additional series : 

1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, &c. 

2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, &c. 

With the common difierence 4, we have 
three additional series : 

1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, &c. 

2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 26, &c. 

3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, &c. 

With the common difierence 5 we have 
four additional series ; with common dif- 
ference 6 we have five more series, and so 
forth. These series should be counted 
both forward and backward. Children 
thus trained in counting rapidly obtain 
complete mastery over the more compli- 
cated operations of arithmetic. For the 
series they thus learn to count really con- 
tains or involves all the four simple rules 
of arithmetic. Counting forwards is simple 
addition, and counting backwards sub- 
traction, while the progress by common 
difierences makes the series only a multi- 
plication table written out in full, and will 
obviously facilitate the learning of that 
table and of the reverse process of division. 
Mental arithmetic, in the narrower 
sense of the term, is a practical art. It 
consists of a body of rules for the rapid 
working (without the aid of writing) of 
problems involving chiefly the ordinary 
weights and measures and divisions of 
money. As these are all purely conven- 
tional, there is no problem involving them 
that can be worked mentally, except by 
pupils who have thoroughly committed the 
tables to memory. Where, as in France, 
such tables are throughout on the decimal 
system, the figures give the pupil no trouble 
to learn. He knows them as soon as he 
has learnt the common multiplication table 
up to 10 times 10, and there is nothing 



28 



ARMY SCHOOLS ARNOLD, THOMAS, D.D. 



further whatever of a numerical nature to 
learn in decimal weights and measures 
except mere names. Among the Conti- 
nental nations, therefore, mental arith- 
metic is incomparably easier than with 
Englishmen, Our tables of weights and 
measures are an anachronism. Compared 
with the decimal tables, the English weights 
and measures are as clumsy, unphiloso- 
phical, and unscientific as is the Roman 
system of notation compared with the 
Arabic. They necessitate an enormous 
amount of otherwise absolutely unnecessary 
labour, and multiply the difficulties of 
mental and ordinary arithmetic a hundred- 
fold. Under the decimal system there are 
no compound rules of arithmetic, whether 
performed mentally or in writing. The rules 
of mental arithmetic in English schools are 
consequently enormously more complicated 
than in most Continental schools. But 
the simple fact that our weights and 
measures are so complex renders the art 
of mental arithmetic so much more impor- 
tant and useful with us than with our 
neighbours. The more unpractical our 
divisions of money, time, space, weight, or 
of solid or liquid capacity, the more urgent 
the necessity of teaching mental arith- 
metic, and the greater the practical utility 
of the art. 

Army Schools. See Education (Army). 

Arndt, E. M. (b. at Schoritz, Isle of 
Riigen, 1769, d. I860).— In 1787 he went 
to the gymnasium at Straslund. Here he 
studied two years, and then proceeded to 
the University of Greifswald, and after- 
wards to Jena, where he was a pupil of 
Fichte. After travelling for a considerable 
period, he settled at Greifswald as privat- 
docent in 1800. There he was made pro- 
fessor extraordinary in 1806. By his 
writings he probably abolished serfdom, 
and roused his country to shake off the 
yoke of Napoleon by his patriotic pamph- 
lets and songs. After Germany was free, 
he was made professor at Bonn, but he 
demanded such bold reforms of the consti- 
tution that he offended the Diet, and was 
deprived of his chair, though he retained 
his salary. He passed twenty years in 
retirement, and devoted himself to litera- 
ture. In 1840 he was reinstated as pro- 
fessor at Bonn, and in 1841 was made 
rector of the university. 

Arnold, Thomas, D.D., made a great 
reputation as a teacher by the success 
with which for the last fourteen years of 



his life he discharged the duties of head- 
master of the great public school of Rugby. 
Arnold was the son of a collector of cus- 
toms at West Cowes, Isle of Wight, where 
he was born on June 13, 1795. Losing 
his father while still a child, he received | 
a careful preparatory education from his ■ 
mother and aunt, and after spending four 
years (1803 to 1807) at Warminster School, 
Wiltshire, entered the public school of Win- 
chester, where he remained from 1807 to 
1811, under the successive head-masters Dr. 
Goddard and Dr. Gabell, of whom he speaks 
with gratitude as excellent teachers. In 
1 81 1 he became a student in Corpus Christi 
College, Oxford. He was elected Fellow 
of Oriel in 1815, and won the Chancellor's 
prize for a Latin and an English essay in 
1815 and 1817. At this period Thucy- 
dides — whose history of the Peloponnesian 
War he at a later period edited with valu- 
able notes and commentary — Aristotle, 
and Herodotus wei'e his favourite authors; 
but his studies embraced not only classics 
and history, but an earnest investigation 
of the Christian Scriptures, and the great 
principles of religion and philosophy in 
their application to daily life. Entering 
on these problems, somewhat unsettled in 
his opinions, Arnold, who was constantly 
discussing them with his contemporaries 
at college, including men like Keble, 
Whately, Copleston, Davison, and Hamp- 
den, ended by becoming thoroughly im- 
bued with the Christian spirit, convinced 
that the noblest life was to be found in 
the Christian ideal — in the endeavour to 
live in the spirit of Christ. It was to the 
fact that he was himself profoundly pene- 
trated with the religious spirit that his 
success as a teacher was due. Having 
taken deacon's orders in 1818, he settled 
in 1819 at Laleham, near Staines, where 
he was for some time chiefly engaged in 
preparing young men for the university. 
After ten years spent in teaching, occa- 
sional preaching, persevering study, and 
the maturing of his own character, he was 
at length elected to the head-mastership 
of Rugby School, and entered upon the 
duties of his post in August 1828. In 
one of the testimonials given to Arnold 
on becoming a candidate for this position, 
the writer used the prophetic words : ' if 
Mr. Arnold is elected he will change the 
face of education through all the public 
schools of England' — a prediction quite 
justified by the issue. Arnold's distinc- 



ART EDUCATION ASCHAM, ROGER 



29 



tion as a teacher was not that he invented 
any new form of discipline. His success 
was wholly due to his own earnest endea- 
vour to apply the principles of Christianity 
to life in the school as well as out of it. 
The mere fact of his own genuine devotion 
to Christian principle had an irresistible 
influence with the boys under his care; 
the amiability of his heart, the justice of 
all his dealings with them, the transparent 
honesty of his own character, made him at 
once loved and feared. His method may 
be illustrated by the way in which he 
trained boys to truthfulness. In the 
higher foi'ms of the school, if a boy, in 
replying to a question on some point of 
conduct, was not satisfied simply to give 
his reply, but attempted to support it by 
other statements, Arnold at once stopped 
him with the words, ' If you say so, that is 
quite enough. Of course I believe your 
word.' The feeling at once grew up in 
the school that it was disgraceful to tell 
the head-master a lie, and thus truthful- 
ness became habitual. In this and other 
ways Arnold gained a complete mastery 
in directing the public opinion of the 
school — and there is no more powerful aid 
to discipline, no more effective instrument 
for controlling a company of boys as well 
as the society of men at large, than public 
opinion, or the general standard of moral 
conduct. Arnold could act with severity 
where he found it necessary. Once he 
made an example of several boys by ex- 
pelling them from the school for gross 
lareaches of truthfulness and order, and, 
in doing so, he said, ' It is not necessary 
that this should be a school of three hun- 
dred, of one hundred, or even of fifty boys. 
It is necessary that it should be a school 
of Christian gentlemen.' In June 1842 
Arnold was suddenly cut short by an 
attack of angina pectoris at the early age 
of 47. Besides his labours in the school 
Arnold was a prolific writer. In addition 
to his edition of Thucydides, he wrote a 
History of Home,' in three volumes, a 
work based on the then popular sceptical 
theories of Niebuhr. He also published 
five volumes of sermons, and contributed 
numerous articles to the encyclopaedias, 
reviews, and periodicals of the day. In 
1841 he was appointed by Lord Mel- 
bourne to the Professorship of Modem 
History in the University of Oxford. He 
only lived to deliver one short course of 
lectures, which were attended by numer- 



ous audiences, and were published after 
Arnold's death. 

Art Education. See Esthetic Cul- 

CURE. 

Art (Schools of). See Science and 
Art Department. 

Arts (Liberal). — Art is derived from 
the same root as aro, to plough, because 
ploughing was the first art (Max Miiller); 
or more commonly from a root ar, mean- 
ing to fit things together. In itself it is 
a wide term often used to denote every- 
thing not a direct product of nature, and 
in this sense we speak of nature and art. 
In a more restricted sense it is opposed to 
science on the one hand, and to manufac- 
tures on the other. Its meaning is made 
fairly clear in the old definition that 
' Science is to know that I may know ; Art 
is to know that I may teach.' There is a 
more limited sense still, including a group 
of arts, whose end is not use but pleasure. 
These are called the fine, the liberal, or 
the polite arts — ' liberal ' here meaning 
only such as the leisured classes (freemen 
as opposed to slaves) could follow. These 
are sometimes spoken of as art, as if they 
only were the arts. By common consent 
the five principal fine arts are — architec- 
ture, sculpture, painting, music, poetry. 
(See Esthetic Culture.) 

Ascham, Roger, b. 1515. — One of the 
earliest of English educational reformers, 
whose claim to that distinction is estab- 
lished by the new method of teaching he 
unfolded in his celebrated Scholemaster 
published in 1570, two years after his 
death. This work, in the opinion of Dr. 
Johnson, ' contains perhaps the best advice 
that was ever given for the study of lan- 
guages.' Ascham advocates the adoption 
of the natural in preference to all artificial 
methods, and maintains that the dead 
languages must, like mother tongue, 'be 
gotten, and gotten only by imitation. For 
as ye used to hear, so ye used to speak.' 
He expresses his willingness to venture a 
good wager that an apt scholar who will 
translate some little book in Tully on the 
frequent repetition method, will in a very 
short time learn more Latin ' than the most 
part do that spend from five to six years 
in tossing all the rules of grammar in 
common schools.' Like Locke, Ascham 
spoke from successful experience as a pri- 
vate tutor, and he tells us that his illus- 
trious pupil Queen Elizabeth, ' who never 
took yet Greek nor Latin grammar in her 



30 



ASSIMILATION ASTRONOMY 



hand after the first declining of a noun 
and a verb, but only by this double trans- 
lating of Demosthenes and Isocrates daily, 
without missing, every forenoon, and like- 
wise some part of Tully every afternoon, 
for the space of a year or two, hath attained 
to such a perfect understanding in both 
the tongues,' as to be a more remarkable 
example of the acquisition of great learning 
and utterances than even Dion Prussseus, 
whom Ascham instances as haAdng accom- 
plished this feat with the assistance of only 
two books, the Phcedo of Plato and the 
de Falsa Legations of Demosthenes, Roger 
Ascham was a native product of the new 
learning of the sixteenth century which 
marked the decline of monkish Latin and 
the rise of a more liberal scholarship with 
the introduction of Greek into the school 
curriculum. Ascham publicly read Greek 
at Cambridge in 1536, published Toxo- 
philus, the ScJiole of Shootinge, 1545, and 
was Latin secretary to Edward YI., Mary, 
and Elizabeth. For ten years previous to 
the accession of Elizabeth he was her 
preceptor. 

Assimilation. See Discrimination. 

Association of Ideas. — This expression 
refers to the well-known laws which govern 
the succession of our thoughts. Whenever 
one thing reminds us of another, this pro- 
cess of suggestion is due to a law of asso- 
ciation. The first and principal one, known 
as Contiguity, tells us that ideas recur to 
the mind in the order in which the original 
objects and impressions presented them- 
selves. In this way we associate events 
that occur together or in immediate suc- 
cession, as the movement and sound of a 
bell, objects and events with places, one 
place with another, and so forth. All ac- 
quisition of knowledge, whether by direct 
observation or through the medium of 
instruction, involves the building up of a 
group of such associations. Thus, a child's 
knowledge of a particular animal includes 
associations between the several charac- 
teristic features, between the animal as a 
whole, and its proper surroundings, its 
habits of life, &c. In studying geography 
and history, complex associations of place 
and time have to be built up. Since, more- 
over, all verbal acquisition implies the 
working of this law, both in the coupling 
of names with things and in the connec- 
tion of words in a given order, it is evident 
that the whole process of learning is con- 
cerned to a large extent with the fixing of 



associations in the mind. In addition to 
the law of Contiguity, it is customary to 
specify two other principles governing the 
succession of our ideas, viz. Similarity and 
Contrast. It is a matter of common 
observation that natural objects, persons, 
words, &c., often recall similar ones to the 
mind. Here, however, it is evident that 
the connection is not due to the fact that 
the things were originally presented in this 
order, but rather to the action of the mind 
in bringing together what is similar. This 
law has an important bearing on the pro- 
cess of acquisition (q.v.). By discovering 
points of resemblance between new facts 
and facts already known, we are able 
greatly to shorten the task of learning, 
as is seen in the rapidity with which an 
accomplished linguist masters a new lan- 
guage. All assimilation of new knowledge 
evidently involves the working of this 
principle, since it proceeds by joining on 
the new acquisition to old ones which are 
seen to have some analogy or affinity to 
the first. The law of Contrast, which says 
that one idea tends to call up its opposite, 
as good, bad, seems to be by no means 
universal in its action, and is not a prin- 
ciple co-ordinate in independence and dig- 
nity with the other two. So far as it is 
valid, it represents a tendency of thought 
which springs out of the essential condi- 
tions of our knowledge of things. We 
begin to know common objects by distin- 
guishing one thing from another, and the 
broader difierences or contrasts among 
things are among the first to impress the 
childish mind. In this way a child learns 
to think of opposites together, as sweet 
sour, good naughty. The well-known ef- 
fect of contrast on the feelings renders it 
a valuable instrument for giving greater 
vividness to impressions, and so stamping 
them more deeply on the mind. The con- 
trasts of climate, scenery, social condition, 
and so forth, are a great aid in the more 
descriptive and pictorial treatment of geo- 
graphy and history. (For a fuller expo- 
sition of the laws of association see Bain, 
Mental and Moral Science, bk. ii. chap, 
i.-iii. ; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap, 
ix. ; and Spencer's Principles of Psycho- 
logy, i. 228. 

Association for Extension of Female 
Teaching. See Education of Girls. 

Astronomy (aa-rpov, a star, and I'o/xos, 
a law) is the science of the heavenly bodies. 
It does not form an adequate part of the 



ATHEN^UM ATHENIAN EDUCATION 



31 



course of general instruction in this coun- 
try, though some of the elementary parts 
are included in the higher standards of 
the Educational Code. Yet it is a subject 
that can be made highly interesting to 
children, and requires little expenditure 
in the way of apparatus. Every child can 
be brought to observe that the heavenly 
bodies appear to move from east to west 
around the earth, and can thence be led 
to conclude that the earth rotates from 
west to east. Then they can be easily 
interested in noticing that most of the 
heavenly bodies keep their relative posi- 
tions with respect to each other, but that 
some do not, viz. the sun, moon, and 
planets. How pleased are children when 
they can point out any of the constella- 
tions, as Orion or the Great Bear, or any 
remarkable star, as the Pole Star. By 
drawing their attention to Venus — now 
rising before the sun as the morning star, 
now setting after it as the evening star, 
gradually moving until a short distance 
from it, then standing still, then drawing 
nearer — they can be shown that Yenus 
must most probably be moving around the 
sun at a less distance from it than we are. 
Again, from the apparent motion of the 
sun amongst the stars the real motion of 
the earth around the sun can be made 
known. Tliis will lead to a general de- 
scription of the solar system. Then the 
earth can be more particularly dealt with 
— its globular shape demonstrated, its me- 
ridian and other lines explained, the me- 
thod of denoting the positions of places 
by latitude and longitude made known — 
as well as the way to determine its di- 
mensions by measuring a small part of a 
meridian. Afterwards the phenomena of 
day and night and of the seasons can easily 
be explained with the help of a small globe. 
Most interesting is the explanation of the 
phases of the moon. Eclipses of the sun 
and moon should not be allowed to pass 
without the attention of the children being 
drawn to them and their causes being 
shown. These phenomena may also be 
made of use to show that all the heavenly 
bodies are not at the same distance from 
us, and also that the earth and moon are 
spherical. As far as this only the naked 
eye, protected at times by a piece of co- 
loured glass, is required for observation ; 
but if a telescope were among the scliool 
apparatus what further subjects for thought 
would be opened out to the pupils ! — 



Jupiter's moons, Saturn's rings, the sur- 
face of the moon, the spots on the sun, the 
different clusters of stars. All this can 
be made to draw out a child's powers of 
observation and to lead him to right con 
elusions. 

Nautical Astronomy is taught to mer- 
chant-seamen at schools and training-ships 
at most of the principal ports, and to the 
Royal Navy at the Greenwich School, on 
board the ' Britannia,' and at the Royal 
Naval College. It also forms one of the 
subjects of examination by the Science 
and Art Department. The pupils are 
taught to measure with the sextant the 
altitudes of the heavenly bodies, noting 
the times by the chronometer, and from 
the data thus obtained to work out the 
latitude and longitude of the place of ob- 
servation. In England lectures on Ma- 
thematical Astronomy are delivered at 
the universities, and there are observato- 
ries where the students may learn to use 
the different instruments ; but the num- 
bers making use of these opportunities are 
very few. In the universities, colleges, 
and high schools of the United States, 
however, this advanced study is very 
general. 

Athenseum. — The name given to a 
temple at Athens dedicated to Athena. 
In it poets and scholars were accustomed 
to meet and read their productions. Used 
in the present day to designate a scientific 
association, or the building where such 
an association meets. A school of higher 
grade in Holland and Belgium is called 
an Athenaeum. 

Athenian Education. — From times be- 
yond the records of history, the first im- 
pressions of Athenian children must have 
been derived from the tales and sayings of 
their mothers, nurses, and other attend- 
ants. ' Know you not,' says Socrates in the 
Repiiblic of Plato, 'that first of all we 
teach children fables ? ' In particular, the 
basis of their moral and religious feelings 
must have been strongly laid by the narra- 
tion of legends regarding the marvellous 
actions of gods and demigods ; and these 
were handed on from generation to gene- 
ration, not least effectively in the shape of 
ballads. Plato, in the organisation of his 
model Republic, was much concerned that 
there should be a safe selection of such 
educational instruments in the plastic days 
of early youth. ' First of all then, as it 
seems, we must exercise control over the 



32 



ATHENIAN EDUCATION 



fable-makers ; and whatever beautiful fa- 
ble they may invent we should select, and 
what is not so we should reject ; and we 
are to prevail on nurses and mothers to 
repeat to the children such fables as are 
selected, and fashion their minds by the 
I fables much more than their bodies by 
. their hands. But the greater number of 
■ the fables they now tell them must be cast 
aside.' Homer and Hesiod, and the other 
poets, would therefore require to be se- 
verely expurgated. Plutarch, also, was in 
favour of restraining nurses from telling 
children fables indiscriminately, on ac- 
count of the ruinous moral effects. Aris- 
totle would place these matters under the 
supervision of the Psedonomi, or magis- 
trates who exercised a certain superinten- 
dence over the education of youth. The 
fables of -^^sop appear to have stood 
highest in popular esteem, ^sop was a 
contemporary of Solon, and lived about 
570 B.C. By the opening of the fourth 
century before the Christian era — a date 
rendered ever memorable by the death of 
Socrates — there seems to have been widely 
diffused over the Grecian world a certain 
amount of elementary education. At what 
age childi^en commenced going to school 
we are not definitely informed ; Plato 
and Aristotle agree that there was no good 
in attempting formal mental instruction 
before the age of five. At the end of the 
sixth year, boys and girls were separated. 
The children were conducted to school, to 
the gymnasium, and indeed everywhere out 
of doors, by a pi'ivate tutor, or pedagogue 
(TratSaywyos, child-leader) — a slave usually, 
who did not necessarily possess much 
knowledge or polish, and who generally 
carried the boys' books, musical instru- 
ments, and other school necessaries, and 
governed their conduct by the conven- 
tional rules of propriety. At the gym- 
nasium, the pedagogue attended his pupil 
all the time he remained there ; but it is 
hardly probable that he stayed in like man- 
ner at school during school hours. In- 
deed, about the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury B.C. there was a law forbidding persons 
over school age (except the son, or daugh- 
ter, or son-in-law of the schoolmaster) 
to enter the school during school hours, 
on pain of death ; but this law appears 
to have been abrogated soon afterwards. 
When a youth entered on his seventeenth 
year, the occupation of his pedagogue was 
gone. The literary education of youth 



was in no way controlled by the State,. 
but depended on the opinion and discri- 
mination of the parents. ' Did not the 
laws enacted on tliis point,' asks So- 
crates in the Crito, ' enjoin rightly, in re- 
quiring your father to instruct you in 
music and gymnastic exercises ? ' But 
these laws seem to have been practically 
in abeyance. Public institutions, main- 
tained at the expense of the State, do not 
appear to have been founded till a late pe- 
riod ; and although Plato talks of appoint- 
ing teachers, to be paid at the public cost, 
this was only his own speculation, to which 
there was no corresponding actuality for 
long afterwards. Still, the idea of edu- 
cation strongly commended itself to the 
public mind. The total neglect of the edu- 
cation of one's children was exceptional, 
and disapproved ; Plutarch relates how 
the people of Trcezen not only supported 
Athenian fugitives, women and children, 
at the time of the Persian invasion, but 
also paid teachers for the children ; and 
^lian tells us that the Mitylenfeans 
thought they inflicted the severest pos- 
sible penalty on their revolted allies when 
they prohibited the education of their 
children. But there was no real State 
intervention to secure a good quality of 
education. The teachers followed the pi'o- 
fession, not because they were specially 
qualified, but because it offered a fairly 
ready means of livelihood ; and the Psedo- 
nomi limited their superintendence to the 
administration of certain laws respecting 
morality. The profession of elementary 
schoolmaster, indeed, was not in high re- 
pute. School opened early in the morning. 
Solon enacted that the schools should not 
open before sunrise, and should close before 
sunset. There was certainly an afternoon 
meeting. The great branches of instruc- 
tion were — gramriiata (ypa/A/xara), mou- 
siM (fxovcTLKy), gymnastike {yvjxva(TTiKri) ; 
Aristotle gives a fourth, graphike {ypa<piKri, 
drawing or painting). Vpa/xfjiaTa may be 
taken as including reading, writing, and 
arithmetic. In reading, the pupils were 
first exercised on syllables, then on the 
component parts of the sentence, after 
which they commenced reading, properly 
so called. In writing, copies were set by 
the teachers. In arithmetic, the fingers 
were freely employed, or apples or coun- 
ters were used for concrete presentation. 
When the pupils were able to read with 
facility and intelligence, they were intro- 



ATHLETICS. 



33 



duced to the works of the poets, and 
committed to memory selected passages 
and even whole poems. The poems of 
Homer, in particular, were read and trea- 
sured in memory, as containing worthy 
sentiments and gi'eat examples, and as 
calculated to rouse the energies of youth 
and determine them to noble purposes. 
This study of Homer was long continued 
into later times. — Music was commenced 
later, about the thirteenth year. It was 
not a compulsory portion of the instruction 
of youth (there was no such thing as com- 
pulsory instruction of any sort), nor was 
it even regarded as essential, but it was 
considered to be a noble and liberal occu- 
pation for leisure moments. So says Ari- 
stotle. Grote, in describing the training of 
Epameinondas {Hist, of Greece, ch. Ixvii.), 
says : ' He also learned music, vocal and 
instrumental, and dancing ; by which in 
those days was meant, not simply the 
power of striking the lyre or blowing the 
flute, but all that belonged to the grace- 
ful, expressive, and emphatic management 
either of the voice or of the body ; rh^fc^ ^ „ - >_, 

mical pronunciation exercised l^'fep^-rtn^o.sing personality, who directed their 

professional eijprgies to the practical end 
of qualifying yiaung men ' to think, speak, 



tion of the poets — and discip^ed^bve- 
ments, for taking part in a ^^oric festival^ 



with becoming consonance amidst ae^b^d..aaid ko^'^i^h ei|ect. — There were no girls' 
of citizen performers. Of su'e^ gymnastic 
and musical training, the coi^fnaLtion of 
which constituted an accomplished firecian 
citizen, the former predominated at ThelBeS, 
the latter at Athens. Moreover, at Thebes, 
the musical training was based more upon 
the flute ; at Athens, more upon the 
lyre, which admitted of vocal accompani- 
ment by the player.' The lyre and cithara 
— there can have been but little difierence 
between them — were indeed the only in- 
strtiments thought proper for a free citizen 
of Athens. The flute, although at one time 
a great favourite, was at length given up 
at Athens, partly because it distorted the 
features, partly because it precluded the 
player's own vocal accompaniment. — The 
exercises of the Gymnasiit^vi (q.v.) for the 
development and strengthening of the body 
were regularly entered upon at the age of 
sixteen, and continued till eighteen. Ad- 
vanced instruction, beginning at eighteen 
or twenty, was given by the Rhetors and 
SoTphistSj/or 23ay, mostly to the sons of the 
wealthier citizens ; Socrates alone taught 
in the streets and the market-place with all 
who cared to discuss with him, and without 
reward. The special object of the Sophists 



was to prepare their pupils for success in 
public affairs, particularly by exercises on 
the more usual commonplaces of practical 
life, and by sharpening the oratorical and 
dialectic skill of the young men ; some of 
them also taught mathematics and astro- 
nomy, as well as philosophy and morals. 
There has been hot controversy over the 
character and conduct of the Sophists, 
Grote's view may be accepted as most in 
accordance with the evidence. The odious 
part of the connotation of the term ' So- 
phist ' was stamped upon it by Plato, who, 
like Socrates, had a vehement repugnance 
against receiving pay for teaching. There 
is really no proof that any of the reputable 
Sophists were 'peculiarly greedy, exorbi- 
tant, and truckling,' or that, as Plato has 
been misinterpreted to convey, they ' poi- 
soned and demoralised, by corrupt teach- 
ing, the Athenian moral character.' The 
difference of attitude of Plato and the 
Sophists must be carefully observed : 
Plato was a great and systematic theo- 
rist ; the Sophists were men of wide 
ge, great intellectual force, and 



schools at ^thens. The education and 
culture of' "^he^female sex was not provided 
%r by law ; it was left to custom and to 
;::=&e-pef§onal notions of the household and 
the family. Girls picked up whatever in- 
struction they received from their mother.' 
and from the women-servants. The sub- 
jects were, for the most part, of purely 
feminine concern — spinning, weaving, sew- 
ing, and the like ; in the better households 
also reading and writing. The duties of 
religion, with the popular beliefs respect- 
ing the gods, and the general rules of proper 
and becoming behaviour would be incul- 
cated as opportunity offered. About fifteen 
the Athenian girl usually got married, and 
might obtain further instruction, in an 
incidental way, from her husband, or she 
might not. He would take her to see 
tragedy at the theatre ; he would, almost 
certainly, not permit her to see a comedy 
acted. 

Athletics. — According to Herodotus 
the Lydians believed that their ancestors 
invented games and pastimes during a 
famine to divert their minds from the 
pangs of hunger they suffered in their 
bodies. This ingenious theory, however, 



34 



ATHLETICS 



will hardly be accepted in these days with 
more credence than the assertion that 
Cfesar's soldiers taught the ancient Britons 
football when they grew tired of slaughter. 
Whatever may have been their origin, it 
is an undoubted fact that games of skill 
and endurance have exercised a healthy 
and beneficial influence upon the human 
race. It is a much debated question 
whether too much attention is not paid 
to athletics in our public schools in the 
present day. Pessimists hold that youth 
is robbed of many valuable hours by 
' play ' which might be with better advan- 
tage devoted to study. The trite adage 
about the ' dull boy ' is quoted as an an- 
swer to this argument by those who take 
the opposite view and hold with the 
maxim Mens sana in corpore sano. The 
best argument in favour of sports and 
pastimes as auxiliaries to education is 
found in the fact that they engender in 
the young a spirit of emulation which 
once implanted in the mind extends to 
every action of life. The boy whose am- 
bition it is to be able to run a mile in 
less time than his fellows, to leap a greater 
height or throw a cricket-ball further 
than any other lad, would also have a 
desire to be at the top of his class and to 
show better results at his periodical ex- 
aminations. It will be found, at any rate, 
that this is generally the case. Many in- 
stances might be quoted of men who have 
distinguished themselves in law, litera- 
ture, science, or art, who in youth were 
known as the foremost in the cricket-field, 
or apt with the oar. The record of the 
Oxford and Cambridge boat-race bristles 
with such instances. Apart from the 
desirable spirit of rivalry fostered, boys 
gain a store of health which grants them 
a lease of life seldom given to the book- 
worm. Open-air sport also endows the 
rising generation with manly indepen- 
dence, fills their minds with a love for 
fair play, exterminates petty meannesses, 
and fits them to take their part fearlessly 
in the great struggle of life later on. 
There is no doubt that the element of 
danger entering into many of our outdoor 
pastimes as played at school fosters a 
spirit of daring and enterprise in youth 
•which in after years gives men the phy- 
sique and courage which have gained for 
Englishmen the proud title of pioneers of 
civilisation. The love of adventure and 
the dogged determination displayed by 



those who were the first to push forward 
into the trackless deserts and jungles of 
Africa, or to plumb the fearful secrets of 
the North Pole, were but the outcome of 
many a hard-fought game at school. It 
is of course possible to err on the wrong 
side even in the matter of athletics, and 
to push training and exertion too far 
until they become mentally and physically 
harmful. There is often a tendency to do 
this where the master himself has been a 
distinguished athlete. Greater publicity, 
too, is now given in the daily and weekly 
press to reports of matches played at dif- 
ferent schools. The anxiety of both prin- 
cipal and boys to figure well in ' print ' 
sometimes leads to a desire to stretch a 
point and to trespass over that faint line 
which divides judicious relaxation and 
neglect of study. What may be called 
the regime of sport varies greatly in dif- 
ferent schools. In many cricket and foot- 
ball only are encouraged as being the 
standard English games, whereas in others 
pedestrianism and athletics pure and sim- 
ple are given premier honours. Since the 
institution of the volunteer movement, 
too, cadet corps have been established at 
many public schools, such as Eton, Har- 
row, Dulwich, Cheltenham, Whitgift, 
Glenalmond, and others, and the formid- 
able annual parade of juvenile corps on 
Wimbledon Common during the meeting 
of the National Rifle Association is evi- 
dence of the popularity of this movement. 
Amateur soldiering has an enormous at- 
traction for the boys, and the skilful way 
in which they shoot shows that the prac- 
tice of musketry has occupied no incon- 
siderable portion of their leisure time. 
Volunteering is one of the best forms of 
play schoolboys can have, provided care 
be taken to prevent its fostering the mili- 
tary spirit in its objectionable manifesta- 
tions. The drill sets boys vip wonderfully, 
teaches them how to walk briskly and up- 
rightly, and gives them notions of method 
and precision which are never forgotten. 
Further, it furnishes a nursery for citizen 
soldiers who might be called upon in time 
of urgent national need, and has none of 
the objectionable features of the compul- 
sory systems of Germany. Cricket re- 
cords show a steady increase of skill in 
that noble game on the part of school- 
boys. It is the most innocent and bene- 
ficial form of recreation, and cannot be 
too warmly encouraged. Where the funds 



ATTENDANCE 



35 



admit, a professional player should be 
engaged to teach the schoolboys. Such 
a man can be engaged at a very moderate 
salary per week, and a very good return 
for the outlay would be gained, as the 
man would not only teach how to bowl 
and bat, but would keep the ground in 
order and look after the implements of 
the game. Schools where a professional 
is engaged show the best results so far as 
scoring is concerned, and turn out the 
best cricketers. Football cannot by any 
means be classed as an innocent game. 
On the contrary, it is full of pitfalls and 
dangers, especially when played under 
Rugby rules. Many a man has been in- 
jured for life through football. It is never- 
theless growing in popularity, the element 
of danger seeming to commend it in the 
eyes of the vigorous youth of this island. 
The Canadian game of Lacrosse, which is 
not so well known in Great Britain as it 
should be, is one of the best and most at- 
tractive of outdoor games. It has all the 
elements of excitement to be found in 
football without the kicking, while mar- 
vellous skill and dexterity are required 
by the players. In the metropolis and the 
North of England Lacrosse teams have 
been formed, and there is little doubt that 
in course of time the game will take a 
firm root in this country. The violent 
and sudden exertion required in foot- 
racing, especially for short distances, does 
not permit medical men to recommend 
that pastime, and the same remark will 
apply to rowing, which is said to be a 
fertile source of heart-disease in after- 
life. Few schools, however, are favour- 
ably situated in the matter of rivers or 
lakes, so that rowing is possible only in 
few instances. Swimming {see Bathing), 
'the purest exercise of health,' cannot be 
too greatly encouraged. Every boy should 
be taught to swim as he is taught to write, 
for where no river exists public baths can 
be utilised at a trifling cost, which includes 
the services of a competent teacher. In 
London Board schools the recreations of 
the children chiefly consist of drill, or 
rough romping in the playground. In 
many of the palatial erections which are 
now dotted about in the thickly popu- 
lated districts, the managers have erected 
parallel bars, swings, and trapeze ap- 
pliances, and these are always well patro- 
nised by the children. 

Attendance. — Without regularity of 



attendance satisfactory progress is impos- 
sible. The thorough mastery of one lesson 
generally depends upon the preceding les- 
son having been learned ; consequently 
the child who misses the first is likely to 
be incapable of benefiting by the second. 
Nor is the evil confined to the individual, 
for the whole class has to wait while the 
teacher is helping the pupils who have 
been absent to overtake the rest. The 
mischief does not end even with loss of 
lessons or waste of time. Education is 
concerned with the formation of good 
habits as well as with the acquisition of 
knowledge, and it is impossible for a child 
who is often kept away from school to 
form a habit of regularity — a habit not 
only valuable in itself, but the foundation 
of many others that are valuable also. The 
chief causes of absence from day schools 
are : absence from home ; illness ; bad 
weather ; truancy ; poverty, resulting in 
want of boots and clothes ; petty employ- 
ments, such as ' minding baby,' ' taking 
father's dinner,' ' fetching mother's work,' 
&c. ; the apathy of parents ; their desire 
that their children should be earning some- 
thing. As the last four causes, perhaps the 
last five, operate only in schools for the 
poor, it is only in such schools that irre- 
gularity of attendance is a serious evil. 
How serious it is the figures furnished by 
the Committee of Council show. The re- 
port (1885-86) states that there were on 
the registers of public elementary schools 
in England the names of 4,412,148 chil- 
dren, but that the average attendance for 
the year was only 3,371,325. Thus the 
average attendance was only 76-4 of what 
it should be ; in other words, nearly one- 
fourth of those who ought to be in school 
were permanently absent. 

Good attendance may be promoted : 
(1) By making school pleasant physically. 
The rooms should be clean, light, well 
ventilated, and (in winter) well warmed. 
The walls should be bright with pictures 
and the windows with flowers. (2) By 
making school pleasant morally. The whole 
tone should be kindly and cheerful. The 
teachers should never shout, or speak 
harshly ; the discipline, though necessarily 
firm, should be mild ; and work, though 
necessarily hard, should be agreeable. 
(3) By cultivating friendly relations with 
the parents and interesting them in the 
progress of their children. ' Speech days,' 
breaking-up parties, prize distributions, 

d2 



36 



ATTENTION BACON, FRANCIS 



and ' public examinations ' have been found 
very useful in this respect. (4) By send- 
ing notes to, or requiring notes from, the 
parents in all cases of absence. This is a 
very effective method of preventing tru- 
ancy, for it renders immediate detection 
certain. (5) By giving rewards for good 
attendance. {See Rewards and Punish- 
ments.) (6) By a steady, consistent, and 
discreet use of the power of compulsion. 
{See School Boards.) 

Attention. — This term refers to a spe- 
cial degree of mental activity called forth 
by the action of some particular stimulus 
at the moment. The state of attention 
thus contrasts with that of mental relaxa- 
tion, in which there is no special direction 
of the thoughts upon a given object. We 
may attend either to some external object 
or to some internal thought. As used by 
the teacher, the word ' attention ' is com- 
monly confined to the former direction of 
mental activity, the latter being marked 
off by the term 'reflection.' The act of 
attention assumes one of two unlike forms 
according as the stimulus springs out of 
the object itself or is supplied by the mind 
that attends. The former is illustrated 
in a child's responsive attention to a bright 
light, the song of a bird, and so on. This 
crude and early form of attention is known 
as reflex or non-voluntary. The higher 
and more perfect form of attention, which 
is illustrated when a child tries to fix its 
mind on a subject, is called voluntary, 
because it implies an independent wish 
and purpose. The full development of 
this power of voluntary attention is seen 
in what is known as concentration — i.e. 
the resolute keeping of the mind fixed on 
one subject and what is relevant to this, 
and the turning away from all distracting 
objects and suggestions. All prolonged 
attention implies the presence of a feeling, 
which feeling is the source of what we call 



interest {q.v.) In educating the atten- 
tion the teacher must aim at enlarging 
the sources of interest, and at gradually 
strengthening the power of voluntarily 
concentrating the thoughts. The obstacles 
to attention difier according to the nature 
of the child. Some are indisposed to at- 
tend from mental dulness and indolence. 
It is obvious, too, that any falling off 
in vigour of brain through ill-health or 
fatigue must induce a lethargic condition 
which is unfavourable to the exercise of 
attention. Many children, moreover, wha 
are by no means dull and inactive, prove 
bad subjects for that sustained attention 
required by the school-teacher. Thus 
there is the familiar butterfly type of 
mind that flits unwearyingly from subject 
to subject, yet finds any prolonged effort 
of attention irksome. Then, too, there is 
the dreamy imaginative mind which tends 
to be absorbed in its own inner world, 
and to grow dull and seemingly stupid in 
relation to external impressions {see Ab- 
sent-mindedness). In building up the 
habit of attention, care must be taken at 
the outset to remove as far as possible all 
sources of distraction and mental pre- 
occupation, and not to exact too long and 
fatiguing an effort at one time. Variety 
of occupation and a certain measure of 
relaxation should thus be introduced into 
school life. Any form of occupation 
which has become thoroughly familiar 
and easy by repetition may serve as a 
relief to the attention. {See Sully's Hand- 
book, chap, vi., and the references there 
added.) 

Australia (Education in). See Law 
(Educational). 

Australian Universities. See Uni- 
versities. 

Austrian Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Authority. See Discipline. 



B 



Bachelor. See Degrees. 

Backwardness. See Dull Scholars 
and Stupidity. 

Bacon, Francis (Lord Yerulam) (6. 
1561, d. 1626), the famous English chan- 
cellor, philosopher, and essayist, was the son 
of a distinguished lawyer, and his mother 
was eminent for learning and piety. He 



went to Cambridge in his thirteenth year, 
and in his sixteenth began to question the 
philosophy of Aristotle. He left Cam- 
bridge to study law in Gray's Inn, and sub- 
sequently spent considerable time in Paris. 
He was called to the bar in 1582, and soon 
had a considerable practice. He was a 
relative of Cecil's and a friend of the Earl 



BACON, ROGER BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNHARD 



37 



of Essex, and as these were sworn foes 
he soon got into trouble. Bacon's con- 
duct towards Essex, later on, is a fruitful 
source of apology and censure. In 1618 
he was made Lord High Chancellor of 
England, and created Baron Verulam ; 
hut was subsequently disgraced and de- 
prived of his high office on conviction of a 
charge of corruption. In the height of his 
power he published his great work, the 
Novum Organon, which had occupied his 
thoughts for many years, and its publica- 
tion aroused considerable interest at home 
and abroad. Mr. Spedding says our philo- 
sophy ' was born about Bacon's time, and 
Bacon's name has been inscribed upon it.' 
But others regard Roger Bacon {q.v.) as 
the father of experimental philosophy and 
the originator of the Inductive Method. 
Though the points of similarity between 
these two great men are many, there are 
not lacking wide differences. Roger ex- 
erted little influence and founded no school 
of philosophy, whereas Francis produced 
a profound impression upon all thought 
and changed the methods of investiga- 
tion. Bacon (like Descartes) led men away 
from scholasticism, to investigate nature 
by observation, experiment, and induction. 
He lirst perceived a philosophy of the 
sciences, and proclaimed that physics was 
' the mother of all the sciences,' and thus 
takes important rank in the history of 
education. His Advancement of Learning, 
which appeared in 1605, discovered the 
scientific basis of educational method, and 
it was to this work that Comenius was in- 
debted for much of his educational doc- 
trine. As Professor Laurie points out, 
however (Comenius, in trod. p. 11), 'Bacon 
was not aware of his relations to the sci- 
ence and art of education ; he praises the 
Jesuit schools (q.v.), not knowing that he 
was subverting their very foundations. 
We know inductively that was the sum of 
Bacon's teaching. In the sphere of outer 
nature, the scholastic saying, Nihil est in 
intellectit, quod non prius fuerit in sensu, 
was accepted, but with this addition, that 
the impressions on our senses were not 
themselves to be trusted. The mode of veri- 
fying sense-impressions and the grounds 
of valid and necessary inference had to be 
investigated and applied. It is manifest 
that if we can tell hovi it is we know, it 
follows that the method of intellectual in- 
struction is scientifically settled.' 

Bacon, Roger (6. near Ilchester about 



1214, d. 1292).— He was educated at 
Oxford and Paris, where he was so suc- 
cessful in his studies that the degree 
of D.D. was conferred upon him. He 
returned to Oxford and took the vows of 
a Franciscan. These vows were poverty, 
manual labour, study. His reputation for 
learning was extraordinary, and Dr. Jebb 
classes his writings under the heads of 
'grammar, mathematics, physics, optics, 
geography, astronomy,' &c. Hallam says 
of him that he had ' almost prophetic 
gleams of the future course of science, 
and the best principles of the inductive 
philosophy.' He is the reputed discoverer 
of gunpowder and the telescope. The ring 
of a true education is heard in passages of 
his Opus Majus, where he says that ' most 
students have no worthy exercise for their 
heads, and languish and stupefy upon bad 
translations.' ' There are four stumbling- 
blocks in the way of arriving at knowledge 
— authority, habit, appearances as pre- 
sented to the vulgar eye, and concealment 
of ignorance with a show of knowledge.' 
' We must prefer reason to custom.' Yet 
this man was treated as a magician, and 
supposed to have the help of infernal spirits, 
and after he was sixty -four years of age was 
allowed to remain in a French prison ten 
years. Roger Bacon's great merit is that 
he was the first in England to clearly teach 
that experience is the basis of knowledge. 
He thus anticipated his great namesake by 
four hundred years. Mr. Stanley Jevons 
maintains that Roger Bacon is more enti- 
tled than Francis to the honour of having 
introduced the Baconian or Inductive Me- 
thod. 

Bangor Training College. AS'ee British 
AND Foreign School Society. 

Basedow, Johann Bernhard (1723- 
1790), the celebrated German educational 
reformer, was born in Hamburg, educated 
at Leipsic, and subsequently spent some 
time as a tutor in Hoi stein to a boy of the 
age of seven, for whom he worked out a 
new method of teaching language. In 1 753 
he was nominated professor of ethics at 
Soroe ; but in 1761 he retii^'from this 
post on account of his theological opinions, 
and removed to Altona, where he published 
his heterodox Methodical Instruction, both 
in natural and biblical religion. Six years 
later he left off his theological speculations 
and devoted himself with ardour to edu- 
cation, of which he conceived the project 
of a general reform in Germany. He pub- 



38 



BASHFULNESS BATHING 



lished in 1768 his Address to the Friends 
of Himianity on Schools and Education, 
in which he called for the reform of schools 
and of the common methods of instruction, 
and advocated the establishment of an in- 
stitute for qualifying teachers. In his next 
work, the Eletnentary Book, he developed 
his scheme for the education of the young, 
which is practically an encyclopaedia of 
everything worth knowing by children, as 
comprehensive, indeed, as the Orhis Pieties 
of Comenius. The pupil was first to re- 
ceive instruction in the knowledge of words 
and things ; he was next to be taught to 
read without weariness or loss of time by 
an incomparable method founded upon ex- 
perience ; then he was to be instructed in 
natural knowledge, followed by a know- 
ledge of morals, the mind, and reasoning 
— all instruction in natural religion to be 
thorough and impressive, and all beliefs 
to be described impartially, so that it 
should not at all appear of what belief is 
the teacher himself ; finally he was to re- 
ceive a knowledge of social duties, of com- 
merce, &c. The woi'k was received with 
great favour, and Basedow soon obtained 
the means to establish an institute for 
education, which he termed the Philan- 
thropinon, at Dessau, in order that he 
might apply his principles in training men 
who might spread them throughout Ger- 
many. That was in 1771. In 1774 he 
brought out the first number of Archives, 
the organ of the Philanthropinon, in which 
he demonstrates that the aim of all educa- 
tion is that the student may endure little 
grief, trouble, or sickness, and that he may 
learn to take real pleasure in what is good. 
The wisdom of all wisdom is virtue and 
peace. The useful part in each science 
should only be learned. In 1 774 he brought 
out a pamphlet entitled The Fhilanthro- 
pxno'n, founded at Dessau, containing the 
details of his plan. In itself the Philan- 
thropinon was not a success. Few scholars 
ever came, and Basedow soon lost all spirit 
in the enterprise. He had, besides, an 
ungovernable temper, and he quarrelled 
with his colleagues one after another. The 
Philanthropinon was closed in 1793. From 
it, however, a great pedagogical excitement 
and agitation spread over Germany and 
Switzerland, and, indeed, over a great part 
of Europe ; and the most thinking educa- 
tionists openly advocated his plan. Rath- 
mann in 1792 and Meyer in 1791-92 
brought out editions of his life and works. 



Bashfulness, or shyness, is a particular 
form of timidity, and as such is a well- 
marked characteristic of childhood. Its 
proper exciting cause is the presence of a 
stranger. This appears to evoke, in the 
case of the infant, a distinct form of inhe- 
rited feai-. (AS'ee Fear.) Bashfulness shows 
itself later, and presupposes a certain de- 
velopment of self-consciousness. It may 
be defined as a feeling of timidity arising 
from distrust in one's own powers when 
under the observation of another. The 
feeling is thus nourished by the general 
timidity of childhood, and in a special way 
by the child's sensibility to others' opinion 
and the desire to please. In its intenser 
degrees it constitutes an acute form of 
suffering, and in the case of more than one 
distinguished child has been a source of 
real misery in early years. It tends to 
produce awkwardness of manner, inability 
to converse with others, &c. In the case 
of children who are specially eager to please, 
though the victims of self-distrust, it often 
engenders an unnatural and affected man- 
ner. In extreme instances it may even 
lead to a morbid shrinking from society. 
It is a quality which calls for the special 
consideration of the educator. A certain 
measure of shyness is proper to childhood, 
and the anxiety of which it is an expres- 
sion has its moral value, since it favours a 
nice care in behaviour. At the same time 
it must clearly be kept within due bounds 
The educator should remember in dealing 
with bashful children that the feeling is 
deepened and fixed by every form of re- 
pression and discouragement. Its proper 
corrective is the gi-adual accustoming of 
the child to the society and conversation 
of others, and the encouragement of it in 
the natural exercise of its powers under 
these circumstances. School education, 
with its greater publicity, commonly acts 
as a corrective to the shyness due to the 
exclusion of the home. Yet just because 
of this publicity, and the severe demand 
which it makes on the child's self-confi- 
dence, the school teacher has a specially 
difficult task in the treatment of shyness. 
(On the nature of the feeling, see Bain, 
Mental and Moral Science, bk. iii. chap, 
iv. § iv. On its educational aspects, see 
Locke, Education, § 70 ; article ' Blodig- 
keit,' in Schmid's Encyclopddie.) 

Bathing. — The addition of a swimming 
bath to every large school would be a most 
potent factor in leading to increased 



BELGIAN UNIVERSITIES BENTLEY, RICHARD 



39 



healthiness of school children. Failing 
this, the managers of each school should 
get admission for the scholars to public 
baths in the neighbourhood, or in country 
schools a neighbouring stream or pond (not 
too deep) should be chosen for the purpose. 
It should always be remembered that run- 
ning water has a more benumbing effect 
than stagnant water, owing to the fact 
that in the former case different layers of 
water are constantly coming in contact 
with the body, rapidly abstractmg heat, 
and increasing the danger of cramp or 
fainting. Wherever the bath, scholars 
should only be allowed to frequent it 
under strict supervision, and the following 
rules should be carefully followed : 1. The 
bath should not be taken within two hours 
of the last meal. 2. Children should not 
be allowed to loiter in undressing. A 
sharp walk before entering the bath is ad- 
visable, in order that the skin may be 
warm and glowing at the time the bath is 
taken. 3. Children should not be allowed 
to remain in the bath too long, nor in any 
case until chattering of teeth or blueness 
of the lips or nails is produced. The 
person in charge of the swimming-bath 
should undex'stand how to use the proper 
restoratives in case of accidental immersion, 
and these measures should be vigorously 
and steadily employed. {See School Sur- 
gery.) No boy should be allowed to row 
until he has learnt to swim. The temper- 
ature of the water in the swimming-bath 
should be from 65° to 70° Fahr., when it 
is intended that children should remain in 
it beyond a few minutes. Where this tem- 
perature is artificially kept up, the hot 
water must be introduced at the lowest 
level of the bath, for, being specifically 
lighter than cold water, it tends to rise to 
the surface. In addition to its effect on 
cleanliness, and in improving the general 
tone of the system, bathing combines, in 
the form of swimming, both exercise and 
bathing. Swimming tends to expand the 
chest and enlai'ge the lungs, at the same 
time strengthening the muscles of the 
trunk and limbs. 

Belgian Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Bell, Dr. See Monitorial System. 

Belles-Lettres is the French equivalent 
for polite literature, and includes poetry, 
fiction, aesthetic criticism, and all that kind 
of literature written in accordance with 
the principle of art for art's sake {Vart 



pour Vart). The term is sometimes used 
in association with those studies which 
treat of the oral as well as the written ex- 
pression of beauty. Hence in the Scottish 
universities there are joint professorships 
of rhetoric and belles-lettres. 

Beneke, Friedrich Edward (6. 1798, 
d. 1854). — A German philosopher who ren- 
dered considerable service in establishing 
the true principles of the art of teaching. 
He was professor of philosophy at Got- 
tingen and Berlin from 1822. He was 
the author of a large number of philoso- 
phical treatises, and, in opposition to the 
popular idealist or a priori school of his 
day, whose chief representative was Hegel 
{q.v.), Beneke adhei'ed to a form of the 
Experience Philosophy very similar to that 
of Locke, Hume, J. S. Mill, and the prin- 
cipal English philosophers of the same em- 
pirical school. That part of his system 
to which Beneke attached most import- 
ance was his psychology, which bears a 
considerable resemblance to the doctrines 
of Herbart (q.v.), and the results of which 
he applied to education. The chief works 
in which he developed his ideas in this 
department are : (1) his Doctrine of Edu- 
cation and Instruction (JErziehtcngs- und 
Unterrichtslehre, 3rd edit, by Dressier, 
1864) ; (2) his Logic as the Doctrine of the 
Art of Thinking {Logik als Kxmstlehre 
des DenkenSj 1842) ; and (3) his Pragmatic 
Philosophy, or Psychology in its App>lica- 
tion to Life (Pragmatische Philosophic 
oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf 
das Leben, 1850). The development of 
intellectual consciousness, according to 
Beneke, depends entirely on the fact that 
the human mind is endowed with the ca- 
pacity of receiving impressions from ex- 
ternal material phenomena. His theory, 
which had been anticipated by the Eng- 
lish philosophers like Locke and James 
Mill, is capable of very fruitful applica- 
tion in education, and attracted great at- 
tention amongst German pedagogues. (See 
Schmidt's ' Biography of Beneke' in Dies- 
terweg's Pddagogisches Jahrbiich, 1856, 
and Dressler's monograph on Beneke and 
his Writings, or in the 3rd edit, of the 
Lehrbuch der Psychologic, 1861.) 

Benevolence. See Sympathy. 

Bentley, Richard (6. at Oulton, near 
Wakefield, 1662, d. 1742), the son of a 
small farmer, was educated at Wakefield 
Grammar School and at St. John's College, 
Cambridare. In 1682 he became head- 



40 



BIBLE BIOLOGY 



master of the grammar school at Spalding, 
After a year there he became private tutor 
to the son of Dr. Stillingfleet, and accom- 
panied his pupil to Oxford. In 1 69 1 Bent- 
ley published his dissertation on the chro- 
nicler Malalas, which won for him a place 
amongst the greatest ci itics of Europe. In 
1692 he preached the first series of the 
Boyle Lectures. In the following year 
he was appointed keeper of the king's li- 
brary, and this was the accidental cause 
of his Dissertation on the Epistles of Pha- 
laris. Boyle of Christ Church edited these 
epistles, and spoke disparagingly of Bentley 
in the preface. Bentley had determined 
in his own mind that the epistles were 
spurious, and in 1697 he wrote to this 
effect. Boyle and his friends were aroused, 
and the greatest scholars and wits of Christ 
Church joined to refute and lampoon Bent- 
ley, who in 1699 published his enlarged 
Dissertations, in which he conquex'ed for 
all time his array of opponents. In 1700 
he was appointed Master of Trinity Col- 
lege, Cambridge. Here he soon came in 
collision with tlie senior Fellows by his ar- 
bitrary conduct. A most serious litigation 
followed for more than a quarter of a 
century, in which Bentley outwitted all 
comers. A detailed and highly amusing 
account of this can be found in De Quin- 
cey. Works, vol. vi. All through the long 
years of litigation he continued his work 
as a scholar and critic. In 1717 he ob- 
tained the post of Regius Professor of 
Divinity, by doubtful means, and in 1718, 
by a vote of the senate, he was deprived 
of all his degrees. Bentley, however, had 
seen too many battles to leave the field. 
He appealed to the king, and after five 
years a mandamus was issued to the uni- 
versity to restore him. Next to the Epistles 
of Phalaris, perhaps his edition of Horace 
procured him the highest fame. He played 
freely with emendations of the text, which 
he introduced with extraordinary inge- 
nuity. He also edited Terence, Phsedrus, 
and portions of Cicero, besides writing 
numerous theological works. His activity 
was wonderful, and it is a source of deep 
regret that his life should have been wor- 
ried by personal strife. Though an in- 
veterate litigant, however, Bentley was 
singularly happy in his domestic relation- 
ships. 

Bible (Gr. ra ^lySXta).— The books or 
scriptures containing the Old and New 
Testaments or sacred writinsfs of the Jews 



and Christians. Whether regarded as the 
inspired Word of God, and consequently 
the ultimate standard of morals, or merely 
as a time-honoured collection of histoidcal, 
poetical, and ethical literature, a know- 
ledge of the Bible is indispensable to edu- 
cation, especially to the education of Eng- 
lishmen, upon whose history it has exerted 
so powerful an influence, England having 
been at the most eventful period in its 
annals ' the land of one book,' namely, the 
Bible. Much controversy, however, has 
arisen upon the question whether it is the 
function of the schoolmaster to impart this 
knowledge. By the majority of the reli- 
gious sects, who hold that the Bible con- 
tains the sole rule of faith and practice, it 
is contended that not merely a literary 
knowledge of it, but a doctrinal knowledge 
of it is essential to the development of the 
moral character, and accordingly, in most 
of the sectarian schools in this country, 
instruction in the Bible is prescribed as a 
provision of the first importance. Other 
religious sects, however, holding equally a 
belief in the Divine origin of the Scrip- 
tures, and equally desirous that children 
should be instructed in them, contend that 
the instruction should be given, not by the 
schoolmaster, but by ministers and parents. 
The secularists also support this view. 
Bible teaching in the public elementary 
schools under the control of the School 
Boards is left to the decision of those 
bodies, and as a rule a compromise between 
the contending parties on the subject is 
arrived at by the adoption of the regulation 
to the efiect that the Bible shall be read 
without comment. The literary value of 
the Bible may be estimated from the fact 
that the success of some of our most effec- 
tive writers and orators (John Bunyan, 
John Bright, for instance) has been attri- 
butable mainly to the freedom with which 
they have drawn their illustrations, not 
from the mythology of the Greeks and 
Romans, but from the sacred writings of 
the Hebrews. {See also National Educa- 
tion League.) 

Bifurcation. See Classification. 

Biology (yStos, life ; A.oyos, a word) is 
the science that deals with the laws, and 
phenomena, of living things. Of the three 
great divisions of material things — animal, 
vegetable, and mineral — it is concerned 
with the first two, leaving the third to its 
sister- science, geology. Auguste Comte 
placed it fifth in his sixfold classification 



BIOLOGY 



41 



of the sciences, the pupil passing through 
mathematics, astronomy, physics, and 
chemistry ere considered competent to 
study biology ; and in any complete scheme 
of education some knowledge of mathe- 
matics, physics, and chemistry ought to 
precede the study of biology. Herbert 
Spencer places it in his third group, the 
concrete sciences, as an application of the 
universal laws of the redistribution of 
matter and motion to the realm of organic 
existence. He includes in it the sub- 
sciences of psychology and sociology, the 
latter of which was raised by Comte to the 
rank of a fundamental science, and placed 
sixth, or highest, in his ascending scale. 
Taking biology in its fullest meaning we 
have the following sub- divisions : — 
Biology 
I 



Botany, or 
Vegetable Biology 



E. >o 



Zoology, or 
Animal Biology 

I ~i i i r 

t=' t- S: 



g 2 



^ o 



& °, 



2. ,=5^ aq 



In its narrower sense, as used in the 
educational curriculum of our schools, bi- 
ology takes as objects of study character- 
istic types of animal and vegetable life. 
It commences with the study of those 
lowest organisms which are neither dis- 
tinctively animal nor distinctively veget- 
able, and are classed by Haeckel as ' Pro- 
tista.' These, he says, ' form the bridge 
that unites the two great kingdoms of 
organic life into one vast whole ' (Popular 
Scientific Lectures, No. V.) The simplest 
of these are merely little masses of jelly- 
like matter, albuminoid in character, irrit- 
able, and locomotive. The most convenient 
for study is one which is a little more 
highly organised, the amoeba (d/xci^Sw, I 
change). It may be obtained by steep- 
ing small pieces of raw meat in water and 
placing across the meat bits of cotton ; the 
meat should then be placed in the sun- 
shine till most of the water is evaporated, 
and if then a piece of cotton is lifted out 
and placed on a glass slide in a drop of 
water under the microscope, amcebse will 
generally be found on it. It will be seen 
to be a small irregular mass of granulated 
matter (protoplasm), the inner part — en- 
■dosarc — granular and semi-fluid; the outer 



— ectosarc — clearer and more solid. Visible 
also within it is a rounded mass, the nucleus, 
containing another yet smaller rounded 
mass, the nucleolus. Careful observation 
will show that it moves slowly by pushing 
out a portion of its body (pseudo-podium 
:=pseudo-foot) and drawing after this the 
remainder of its body ; and that it feeds 
by pushing out a pseudo-podium against 
a food-particle and retracting the pseudo- 
podium into its body with the adherent 
food. There is no better type of the funda- 
mental unit of all animal and vegetable 
life than the amoeba ; similar cells are 
found wandering in the vessels of the 
higher animals as lymph-corpuscles and 
white blood-corpuscles, while all tissues of 
more complex organisms are merely cell- 
aggregates, the conditions of aggregation 
modifying the ultimate shape and com- 
position of the original cells. A clear 
comprehension of the independent cell, 
as seen in the amoeba, is a necessary in- 
troduction to the study of the changed, 
diflerentiated cells which form aggrega- 
tions modified for the discharge of vari- 
ous functions in the higher organisms. 
Another interesting type of the Protista 
are bacteria — minute organisms of dif- 
ferent shapes found in connection with 
diseased conditions of the tissues of higher 
plants and animals. They are organised 
ferments, or organisms which cause chemi- 
cal changes in the organic medium they 
inhabit, which changes are of a character 
destructive of the medium. It is inter- 
esting to note that any nitrogenous cell 
may set up similar changes, the changes 
being apparently the general expression 
of the need of the cell for oxygen. Bac- 
teria can be obtained by infusing hay in 
warm water for about half an hour, filter- 
ing off" the hay, and keeping the filtrate 
warm. It will gradually become turbid, 
and a drop of it examined under the mi- 
croscope will be found to be full of bac- 
teria. 

Leaving the Protista, typical organisms 
distinctively animal or vegetable are next 
to be studied, and as vegetables are less 
complex than animals it is well to begin 
with them. Plants are divided into cryp- 
togams (Kpv-n-To?, hidden ; ya/x.os, mar- 
riage) and phanerogams (^aiVw, I show). 
The lowest division of the cryptogams is 
that of the Protophyta (Trpwros, first ; 
cbvTov, a plant) ; the plants comprised in 
it fall into two ranks — the algse, or chloro- 



42 BIRKBECK, GEORGE, M.D. BLIND, EDUCATION OF 



phyll-contaming (^Awpos, green ; <j}vXXov, 
a leaf : the green-colouring matter of 
leaves), and tlie fungi, or non- chlorophyll- 
containing. The best types of these for 
study among the algse are : protococcus, 
as a uni-cellular organism — it may be 
found in rain-water, in gutters and else- 
where ; spirogyra, as an example of the 
simplest tissue, a series of cells arranged 
in a row — it may be found in the water 
of pools. Ordinary seaweed, and chara, 
a freshwater plant, serve as examples of 
more complex organisms. For fungi it is 
well to begin with the moulds, such as 
may easily be obtained on jam, cheese, or 
on an old boot placed in a damp spot ; 
mucor, penicillium, aspergillus, are those 
most commonly found. Mushrooms serve 
conveniently as examples of the higher 
fungi. Very noticeable in the Protophyta 
is the variety of forms of reproduction : a 
single cell may give rise to a fresh cell by 
rejuvenescence, i.e. by the re-arrangement 
of its protoplasm ; or to two fresh cells by 
fission ; or to many by free-cell-formation. 
Cells thus formed may be motile or sta- 
tionary; they may develop into new plants, 
or they may be gametes (ydfjios, marriage), 
of which the concourse of two is necessary 
for reproduction. In the higher plants the 
reproductive cells are generally gametes, 
although traces of their ancestry remain 
in their capacity for ' vegetative reproduc- 
tion ' by buds, cuttings, &c. As examples 
of the higher cryptogams we have the 
liverworts (hepaticse), mosses (muscinse), 
ferns (filices), one of each of which might 
be taken to show the growing complexity. 
Passing from these to the phanerogams, 
any flowering plant may serve as type — 
the wallflower, the bean, the buttercup. 
The close investigation of all cryptogams 
and phanerogams would land us in that 
branch of biology which is distinguished 
as botany. 

For typical animals, it is usual to 
select the freshwater hydra or the sea- 
anemone as examples of the coelenterata, 
and the mussel as an example of the mol- 
lusca or soft-bodied animals. The earth- 
worm and the lobster are good types to 
select as representing the ringed animals, 
the annulosa. The frog is typical for the 
amphibia, the pigeon for aves, the guinea- 
pig for mammalia. But here again we 
pass into a branch of biology, the study 
of animals, or zoology (q.v.) See Prac- 
tical Biology, by Professor Huxley and 



H. N. Martin ; General Biology (speci- 
ally adapted for the South Kensington 
examination), by E. B. Aveling, D.Sc. 
(Lond.) ; for more advanced students, 
Anatomy of Invertehrated Animals, by 
Professor Huxley ; Elements of Compara- 
tive Anatomy, by Karl Gegenbauer ; Prin- 
ciples of Biology, by Herbert Spencer. 

Birkbeck, George, M.D. (6, at Settle 
1776, d. 1841), was the son of a merchant 
and banker. After receiving his early 
education at Newton and Sedbergh, he com- 
menced, at the age of eighteen, his medical 
studies at Leeds. These he pursued both in 
London and Edinburgh, where he took his 
degree. He was subsequently elected to 
the professorship of the Andersonian Insti- 
tution at Glasgow, and in 1799 commenced 
his lectures on natural and experimental 
philosophy. For these lectures he had no 
good instruments, and had to employ or- 
dinary workmen. Whilst watching the 
men construct a centrifugal pump, of the 
use of which they were ignorant, it first 
occurred to him to give them a course of 
scientific instruction. In March 1800 he 
communicated his wishes to the trustees 
of the Andersonian Institution. They re- 
garded him as a dreamer, and nothing 
came of his proposal that session ; but later 
he lectured to the mechanics of Glasgow 
with the greatest success. He removed 
to London, and in 1820 lectured there. 
In the Mechanics' Magazine, October 11, 
1823, appeared his 'Proposals for a Lon- 
don Mechanics' Institute.' After various 
preliminary meetings, on December 15, 
1823, the ofiicers of the ' London Mechanics' 
Institution' were appointed, and Dr. Birk- 
beck was elected president, which office he 
held till his death. The movement for 
promoting adult education {q.v.) which he 
thus inaugurated rapidly spread, and me- 
chanics' institutes were founded in almost 
every centre of industry throughout? the 
country. The Birkbeck Institution in 
Chancery Lane, London, which, without 
the assistance of wealthy endowments, 
carries on the work of a great university 
and technical school combined, is a noble 
monument to Dr. Birkbeck's memory. 

Bishop Otter's College. See Training 
OF Teachers. 

Blackboard, See Furniture, and 
Architecture of Schools, sect. Class- 
rooms. 

Blind (Education of). See Education 
OF the Blind. 



BLUE-COAT SCHOOL BOTANY 



4a 



Blue-coat School. See Christ's Hos- 
pital. 

Board School. See School Boards. 

Boarding School. See Day Schools. 

Bologna. See Universities. 

Borough Road Training College. See 
British and Foreign School Society. 

Botany. — The study of plants can be 
prosecuted in several directions. We may 
inquire into the number of varieties, their 
distribution on the surface of the earth, 
and their proper relationship to each other. 
This is the province of systematic botany, 
which until of late years was the chief in- 
terest of botanists, and is still the main 
avenue to botanical knowledge, and the 
most valuable in school training. But 
plants are dissected by the aid of the mi- 
croscope, their forms are examined and 
explored down to the minutest cells. This 
is the task of structural and morphological 
botany, which are both included under the 
term ' organography.' Again, the functions 
of the living plant are to be studied, the 
processes of its life and reproduction. This 
is called physiological botany. Under this 
head we may class the relationships of 
plants to each other in the struggle for 
existence, and the adaptations which they 
undergo to become conformable to their 
environment. And, lastly, there is palse- 
ontological botany, in which the kinds and 
conditions of extinct vegetable life are ex- 
plored. The great name in classificatory 
botany is that of Linnseus (1707-1778), 
who gave us our modern method of nam- 
ing plants by two names, a specific and an 
individual name. Thus, Ranunculus hul- 
bosa is the name of the common buttercup; 
it belongs to the species Jianuncuhcs, and 
is distinguished from several other common 
kinds of buttercup which grow in our fields 
by its having reflexed sepals, no groove in 
the flower stem, which is slightly hairy, 
and having a little bulb at the base of its 
stalk just below the ground. It is to this 
latter circumstance that it owes its par- 
ticular and discriminating appellation of 
bulbosa. 

Now that the Darwinian theory of 
the variation of species is accepted in 
science, less importance attaches to the con- 
ception of definite species. But as a means 
of classification its importance is still un- 
impaired. Linnaeus distinguished between 
plants by means of the difierences of the 
flowers. He arranged them into divisions 
according to the number of stamens, and 



following upon that according to the num- 
ber of styles. In this way he obtaiued a 
very obvious and easily observed set of 
families. And having so far arranged the 
plants in groups he distinguished between 
the difierent species with great sharpness 
and accuracy. But, starting in this way 
with one particular test as the criterion of 
likeness or dissimilarity between plants, 
he put together many kinds which should 
be widely separated, and found in difierent 
parts of his system forms which were 
really closely allied, and only happened to 
differ widely in one particular respect — the 
number of the stamens or styles. A more 
natural classification was brought forward 
byDe Jussieu (1748-1836) and byDe Can- 
dolle. This is the system which, with 
some modifications, is still in use, and it 
forms the really scientific mode of studying 
systematic botany. The special advantages 
of botanical study are the closeness of 
observation which it demands and the ac- 
quaintance with nature which it produces.. 
A large part of the knowledge demanded 
in botany consists of minute differences 
between closely alHed species. And this 
accurate training of the eye and memory 
forms a valuable discipline. It is abso- 
lutely impossible to replace knowledge of 
the facts by theories or guesswork. The 
disadvantage of this kind of botanical 
teaching is that it is only really scientific 
where there is access to a rich flora. 
Where flowers cannot be obtained in large 
variety a mere description is apt to be 
taken in place of actual acquaintance. 
But too great stress cannot be laid on the 
usefulness of acquiring a knowledge of 
classification. However limited the field 
of study may be in materials, still in 
botany the science of classification is taught 
better than in any other subject which 
is accessible in ordinary education. The 
study of flowers is eminently suitable for 
young children, and is found less advan- 
tageous for boys, as on the one hand a 
large knowledge of systematic botany is 
of no practical advantage except for special 
pursuits, and the other branches of bo- 
tanical study require many appHances and 
specially trained instructors. 

As now pursued, botany forms a vast 
and highly important field of research. Its 
prosecution dates from the labours of Ray, 
Grew, and Malpighi in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, who made the first applications of the 
microscope. Under a competent teacher 



44 



BOYS (EDUCATION" OF) 



instruction in it leads the student on to the 
threshold of the science of living beings by 
simple and harmless steps. In general, boys 
exhibit more interest in animal than vege- 
table life ; but the difficulties attending the 
prosecution of biological work in schools 
are very great. Too much stress cannot 
be laid on the introduction of an observa- 
tional science into the school curriculum. 
In physics, and even in chemistry, theory 
is so far advanced that the direct appre- 
ciation of facts of observation is apt to be 
obscured by the explanations with which 
the beginner has to be made familiar. 
But in botany the pupil has to observe for 
himself, and the knowledge of forms and 
facts is of fundamental importance. There 
are many good treatises on botany, but 
the essential condition of using them pro- 
perly is that they be taken merely as 
handbooks to the study of plants them- 
selves. 

Boys (Education of). — Milton defines 
the education of boys to be such education 
as ' fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, 
and magnanimously all the offices, both 
private and public, of peace and war.' 
Education as thus defined was much bet- 
ter suited for the ancients than for us. 
Indeed, Xenophon relates of the Persians 
that their youth were to be instructed in 
the cardinal points of justice and virtue, 
in such exercises as would assist them in 
peace and war, and generally in everything 
that tended to the public good, not omitting 
a simple diet. At Athens education was 
compulsory, and children were instructed 
in reading, writing, and music ; whilst at 
Rome the education was generally under 
the guidance of the father, although there 
were some notable exceptions — such as 
Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, 
who personally instructed her own boys. 
Usually a teacher (ludi inagister) was em- 
ployed to give instruction in the 'three R's' 
and rhetoric, although again there were 
some notable exceptions, such as the elder 
Cato, who also personally instructed his 
own boys. The question of the education 
of boys has been much discussed in our 
day by Mr. Herbert Spencer, Professor 
Bain, and other able writers, and they, as 
was to be expected, do not approve of 
Milton's definition. A boy's education 
depends, in the main, upon two elements : 
the direct instruction given and re- 
ceived, and the indirect influences under 
which a child is placed while receiving it. 



The lessons a boy actually learns, the 
knowledge given him by his teachers or 
schoolfellows, the gradual development of 
his intellect, are parts of school life which 
are within the immediate circle of a school's 
purposes and management. They are re- j 
ducible to rule and method, and the suc- 
cess or failure of the rules or methods is 
ascertainable by direct examination within 
fairly sufficient limits. But the constant 
influence of a master's justice, ability, and 
earnestness, or of his feebleness and care- 
lessness, the sense of order and purpose, 
or of disorder and helplessness, throughout 
the daily life, the conflict in temper and 
abihty with schoolfellows, the whole tone 
and moral atmosphere of both school and 
home, are no less powerful causes in de- 
termining for good or for evil the present 
exertions and the future conduct of the 
boy. The primary object of a school, of 
course, is direct teaching and learning ; 
the indirect influences are the necessary 
concomitants. These influences are im- 
portant and vary much. They vary much 
in private schools (q.v.) compared with 
public schools {q.v.), in schools for boarders 
{q.v.) compared with those for day scholars 
{q. v.). These difierences have great weight 
on a parent determining the school for his 
boy. It is well that there are such differ- 
ences, for it is not at all desirable, even 
if it were possible, to have all schools 
moulded on one type. There should be 
no training for employments to the neglect 
of general cultivation. Such training dis- 
organises and breaks up the teaching ; it 
confers a transitory instead of a permanent 
benefit. A boy, e.g., taught a particular 
system of book-keeping at school, finds in 
the counting-house a different system in 
practice, and has difficulty in acquiring 
it ; had he had a thorough mastery of 
arithmetic he could have learned any sys- 
tem in a very short time. The school 
should never be made a substitute for ap- 
prenticeship ; it should teach what might 
fairly be considered as likely to be useful 
to all its scholars whether as mental dis- 
cipline or as valuable information. The 
subjects of instruction, apart from the 
' three B's,' may be classified under three 
heads — language, mathematics (including 
arithmetic), and natural science ; but the 
command is imperative — ensure a good 
elementary education before beginning any 
of those subjects. Latin may be, and 
usually is, the first branch begun. Edu- 



BRAILLE SYSTEM BRAIN 



45 



cation, as distinct from direct preparation 
for employment, may be classified as that 
which is to stop at about 14, that which 
is to stop at about 16, and that which is 
to continue till 18 or 19. The difference 
in the time assigned makes some difierence 
in the very nature of the education itself. 
If a boy cannot remain at school beyond 
the age of 14, it is useless to begin teaching 
him such subjects as require a longer time 
for their proper study ; if he can continue 
till 18 or 19, it may be expedient to post- 
pone some studies that would otherwise 
be commenced early. Outdoor sports and 
physical exercise generally should never be 
neglected. 

Braille System. See Education of 
THE Blind. 

Brain. — The brain is the organ chiefly 
exercised in school-work. It is of the 
highest importance, therefore, that teachers 
should understand the broad facts relating 
to its structure and functions. A true 
science of education can only be founded 
on the principles of physiology and psy- 
chology. 

Structure of brain. — The nervous 
system consists essentially of fibres called 
nerves, which carry impressions, and cells 
which receive and appreciate them. The 
central organs containing nerve- cells are 
the brain and spinal cord, and from these 
pass nerves which go to every part of the 
body and put them in communication with 
the central organs. The larger part of the 
brain consists of the two hemispheres, and 
there is little doubt that these are the 
organs of the intellectual powers. Each 
hemisphere is subdivided into a number of 
convolutions, having a thiii layer of grey 
matter (nerve-cells) covering them. The 
more complicated and numerous the con- 
volutions, the greater the intellectual force 
and activity. Man's brain is absolutely 
heavier than that of any other animal 
except the elephant and whale. In rela- 
tion to the body weight, the preponderance 
of the human brain is even more striking. 
Examining the detailed structure of the 
brain, it is found that in man's brain the 
cerebral convolutions, and not the lower 
ganglia (which are concerned with organic 
life), preponderate, unlike the case in lower 
animals. The average weight of the brain 
in the adult European is 49 to 50 ounces. 
In civilised races it is heavier than in the 
less civilised. The heaviest brain recorded 
is that of Cuvier, the naturaKst, which 



was 64^ ounces. At birth the weight of 
the brain averages 13-87 ounces. It ra- 
pidly increases in the earlier years, more 
slowly in later years, acquiring the greatest 
average weight at the age of 35 in the 
male, and of 30 in the female. Mere 
weight of brain is not the sole criterion 
of intellectual capacity. The quality of 
the cerebral structure must be taken into 
account. Exercise of the mental faculties 
tends to increase the number of cerebral 
convolutions, to multiply the points of com- 
munication between difierent nerve-cells, 
and thus to render the brain more efficient, 
though it may remain stationary in weight. 
At the sixth month of foetal life the human 
brain is smooth, and without convolutions, 
but at birth the chief convolutions are 
complete, secondary ones being developed 
during childhood and youth. We may 
roughly classify the parts of the central 
nervous system as follows : 1. The cere- 
brum, consisting of (1) the cerebral con- 
volutions, which are the central organs of 
intelligence and volition, and (2) the basal 
ganglia, which are connected with sensa- 
tion and the automatic phenomena of life. 
2. The cerebellum, or little brain, the chief 
function of which appears to be the co- 
ordination of muscular movements and the 
maintenance of equilibrium. 3. The me- 
dulla oblongata, from which arise (among 
others) the nerves controlling circulation 
and respiration. 4. The spinal cord, which 
serves to transmit nervous impulses be- 
tween the brain and the periphery, and 
also acts as an independent centre for 
reflex and automatic acts. 

Functions qfhrain. — Two sets of nerve 
fibres connect the central nerve organs 
with every part of the body. One set 
bring sensory impulses from the periphery, 
which are perceived in the brain, and in- 
terpreted by it. Another set carry im- 
pulses from the brain to the muscles of 
the body, resulting in the production of 
movement. Excitation of a sensory nerve 
(as by tickling the foot) leads by reflex 
action to muscular movements, the object 
of which is to withdraw the foot from the 
irritation. This reflex action may be car- 
ried on when the brain is asleep. If the 
same movement is eflTected while the sub- 
ject of the experiment is awake, the move- 
ment is a voluntary one. Or one may 
prevent the natural impulse to withdrawal 
of the tickled foot by a voluntary inhibi- 
tory influence. 



46 BREAKING UP BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY 



The chief functions of the brain are : 
1. To receive sensory impulses and inter- 
pret these. 2. To control the muscular 
movements of the body. 3. To serve as 
the organ of mind, i.e. of feeling, thought, 
and volition. The preceding view of the 
functions of the brain has important bear- 
ings on practical education. It must not 
be forgotten that education, using the word 
in the sense of brain- cultivation, is not 
confined to schools, but begins at the first 
moment of life, and continues throughout 
life without interruption except by sleep. 
During childhood the sensory and muscular 
parts of the brain are cultivated to an 
enormous extent, as also the powers of 
observation ; but the reasoning powers re- 
main to a large extent undeveloped. For 
the first seven years of life the natural 
order of evolution of the mental functions 
should be imitated, the muscular and sen- 
sory and observing powers being chiefly 
cultivated. Kindergarten work is very 
valuable in this connection. Deficient 
muscular and sensory cultivation is certain 
to make all subsequent mental efibrts hazy 
and unpractical. Each sense requires 
special cultivation, and becomes skilled in 
proportion to the education it receives. 
The imperfect cultivation of any sense 
implies a defective condition of the corre- 
sponding part of the brain, and it is also 
true that the imperfect performance of any 
one mental function reacts injuriously on 
others. The blindness of the fishes living 
in the dark caves of Kentucky is an in- 
stance of atrophy of a disused organ. The 
same lesson is taught by the chickens 
which were put on a carpet immediately 
they were hatched, and never showed any 
tendency to scratch until sand was scat- 
tered on it. The lesson of disease also is, 
that if paralysis occurs in the young, the 
corresponding part of the brain wastes. 
Hence muscular and sensory exercise is 
important, not only because of its imme- 
diate utility, but because of its efiect on 
the development of the brain and on the 
more purely mental functions. See also 
Overpressure and Physical Education. 

Breaking up is the term usually ap- 
plied to the party or ceremony which takes 
place on the day previous to that on which 
a school closes for the term. Strictly 
speaking, however, 'breaking up' means 
the actual departure of the scholars. 

British and Foreign School Society 
(The) was the outcome of the labours of 



Joseph Lancaster, though he was in no 
sense its founder. He undertook so many 
responsibilities that in 1807 he found 
himself hopelessly in debt. His creditors 
were clamorous, and the life of every in- 
stitution in which he was concerned was 
threatened, when William Corston and 
Joseph Fox came to his rescue. At Cor- 
ston's house, No. 30 Ludgate Street, on 
January 23, 1808, these two resolved to 
form a society for the purpose of afibrding 
education to the children of the poor. 
They undertook to pay all Lancaster's 
debts and to take the whole management 
of his pecuniary aifairs into their own 
hands. At the end of July Corston and 
Fox were joined by John Jackson, M.P., 
Joseph Foster, and William Allen. Allen 
and Fox were the real leaders of the move- 
ment in favour of unsectarian religious 
education. One of the first acts of the 
enlarged committee was to ask the public 
for a loan to be applied in relieving Lan- 
caster's 'inconvenience,' 'fixing his (print- 
ing) establishment on a permanent foot- 
ing,' and ' enabling him to diffuse the 
good effects of his system more widely ' ; 
it was to bear interest at five per cent., 
and to be repaid as the gains of the print- 
ing business allowed. 4,000?. was raised 
almost immediately. In nearly every case 
the interest was given as an annual sub- 
scription, and ultimately the loan con- 
verted into a gift. Allen, Fox, and their 
colleagues used every endeavour to esta- 
blish schools. They sent Lancaster on 
lecturing expeditions throughout England, 
Scotland, and Ireland, and their efforts were 
rewarded during the first three years of 
the committee's existence by the opening 
of eighty-seven schools and the subscrib- 
ing of nearly 17,000/. to local funds or to 
the central institution. In December 1810 
the management was greatly enlarged. The 
Duke of Bedford and Lord Somerville 
were chosen presidents. Fox secretary, and 
Allen treasurer, while there was in addi- 
tion a ' finance committee ' of forty-seven 
members, including Lords Lansdowne, 
Moira, Carysfort, Brougham, Romilly, and 
Messrs. Whitbread, Fowell Buxton, Clark- 
son, James MiD, and Samuel Rogers. The 
association was called ' The Society for 
Promoting the Royal British or Lancas- 
terian System for the Education of the 
Poor.' The first public meeting of the 
subscribers was held in May 1811. Next 
year the last trace of the originally private 



BRITISH AND FOREIGN" SCHOOL SOCIETY 



47 



character of the movement disappeared. 
Lancaster proposed that, on condition of 
his making over to the committee his in- 
terest in the Borough Road premises and 
property, he should be exonerated from all 
his debts in connection therewith, and the 
proposition was accepted. The committee 
then determined upon a reconstitution of 
the association, and at a meeting held in 
Kensington Palace in August 1813, under 
the presidency of the Duke of Kent, the 
lines for the new organisation were agreed 
upon. The subscribers met on November 
10, and adopted the new constitution. The 
fourth rule laid down the principle to 
which the society has always adhered : 
* All schools which shall be supplied with 
teachers at the expense of this institution 
shall be open to the children of parents 
of all religious denominations. . . . No 
catechisms or peculiar tenets shall be 
taught in the schools.' The king was 
named the patron of the society, the Duke 
of Bedford president, while the vice- 
presidents included ten peers and seven 
Members of Parliament — among them, in 
addition to several mentioned before. Lords 
Byron, Darnley, and Fingall, and Messrs. 
Grattan and Wilberforce. The duties to 
which the society addressed itself were : 
1. To stimulate and direct local effort to- 
wards the establishment and maintenance 
of schools ; 2. To train teachers ; 3. To esta- 
blish kindred societies in foreign countries. 
After 1830 a fourth duty was recognised, 
that of promoting the efficiency of schools 
by friendly and skilled inspection. The 
success obtained at home and abroad was 
most encouraging. Schools were opened 
throughout England and Wales, while 
flourishing societies were established in 
Scotland and Ireland, in nearly every Euro- 
pean capital, and in India, Australia, and 
America. The building in Belvedere Place, 
Borough Road, erected by Lancaster in 
1804, was soon found to be too small. A 
site on the other side of the road was there- 
fore leased from the Corporation of Lon- 
don, and the college and schools built 
thereon were opened in 1817. The year 
1833 marks an epoch in the history of 
elementary education, for it was in that 
year that the first Government grants {q.v.) 
were paid. The sum voted by Parliament 
■was 20,000?. Every application for a share 
of it had to be recommended by the British 
and Foreign School Society, or the Na- 
tional Society {q.v.), and the money was to 



be used only in supplementing local effort 
for the erection of schoolhouses. In the 
first year the British and Foreign School 
Society forwarded memorials soliciting aid 
towards the building of 211 schools, for 
which the districts interested had already 
subscribed 29,383?. The schools helped 
had to be open to inspection, and in 1838 
the Lords of the Treasury offered the 
British and Foreign School Society 500?. 
to inspect the schools which, on its recom- 
mendation, had obtained assistance. The 
committee replied that ' no inquiry could 
prove satisfactory which was not carried 
on by parties unconnected with the socie- 
ties whose schools they were to visit and 
report upon.' In 1839 Government in- 
spectors were appointed, the British and 
Foreign School Society being allowed a 
veto upon the choice of those to be en- 
trusted with the work of examining British 
schools. In 1 842 the college in the Borough 
Road was rebuilt at a cost of 20,000?. 
Towards this sum the Committee of Coun- 
cil contributed 5,000?., and it also contri- 
buted 750?. a year towards the expenses 
of the training institution. These grants 
accentuated a difference of opinion which 
had been slowly growing up among the 
members of the society. A section, small 
in point of numbers, but weighty from 
character and position, thought the British 
schools which accepted State aid must 
finally become either sectarian or secular. 
A meeting of the subscribers was held 
on June 1, 1847, to discuss the question. 
The Rev. John Burnet moved a resolution 
to the effect that the true policy of the 
society would be to abstain ' from any de- 
claration of sentiment on the subject ' of 
Government grants, and at the same time 
to decline accepting such grants. Dr. 
Lushington, M.P., moved an amendment 
to the effect that it would be best for the 
interests of the institution to confide to the 
discretion of the committee the acceptance 
or rejection of any further State aid. This 
was carried by a large majority, and the 
leaders of the minority thereupon severed 
their connection with the society. The 
chief of the seceders was the late Mr. 
Samuel Morley, but when events proved 
his fears to be groundless he rejoined the 
society, and was for years one of its most 
honoured vice-presidents. On the issue of 
the Revised Code in 1861, the committee, 
after considering Mr. Lowe's proposals, 
recognised ' the soundness of the principle 



48 



BROUGHAM, LORD HENRY BUCHANAN, GEORGE 



of a test of the state of elementary in- 
struction in a school as one basis of the 
pecuniary aid rendered,' but condemned 
the making of this the ' only basis.' The 
committee also protested against classifi- 
cation by age, and against the changes 
affecting teachers. The year 1870 saw the 
. principle which the society had always 
consistently maintained adopted as the 
foundation of a national system of educa- 
tion. Mr. Forster's measure, by making it 
compulsory on each locality to provide suf- 
ficient school accommodation, relieved the 
society of one part of its work — the esta- 
blishment of schools — but enormously in- 
creased another part, the provision of 
trained teachers. Increased efforts were at 
once put forth to meet the increased de- 
mand, and two new colleges were opened 
as soon as possible. The society has now 
six training colleges : Borough Road and 
Bangor for masters ; Stockwell, Swansea, 
Darlington, and Saffron Walden for mis- 
tresses. Bangor is under local manage- 
ment, and Saffron Walden prepares stu- 
dents specially for infants' schools. If any 
School Board adopts the system of the 
British and Foreign School Society there 
is no reason for maintaining a British 
school in the district, and many British 
schools have been transferred to School 
Boards. 

Brougham, Lord Henry (6. at Edin- 
burgh, 1778, d. 1868), was educated at the 
high school and the university of his 
native city, where he distinguished himself 
by his mathematical studies. He travelled 
for some time on the Continent, then re- 
turned to Edinburgh, and was admitted a 
member of the Society of Advocates. In 
1802 the Edinburgh Review was started, 
and Brougham became a versatile and 
constant contiibutor, together with Jef- 
fery and Sydney Smith. In 1807 he went 
to London and qualified for the English 
bar. As an ally of the Whig party, he 
was returned to the House of Commons 
in 1810. Here he became very distin- 
guished for his vehement eloquence. In 
1820 he was called upon to defend Queen 
Caroline. In 1830 he was made Lord 
Chancellor. He is one of the most promi- 
nent figures in the history of English poli- 
tics during the exciting decade 1830 to 
1840, but throughout his public career he 
was actively associated with various edu- 
cational movements, to which he devoted 
marvellous energy and ability. He lent 



his vast influence to establishing the Uni- 
versity of London, which has given such a 
great impetus to advanced education and 
religious toleration. He aided the Society 
for the Diffusion of Knowledge by contri- 
buting its first publication, an essay on 
the Pleasures and Advantages of Science, 
in 1827. At that period a vast desire 
for knowledge arose. Various institutes 
and schools were started, and it is a last- 
ing glory to Brougham that he devoted 
his untiring effort to originate them and 
foster their growth. He has found his 
immortality in one single sentence he ut- 
tered at that period — 'The schoolmaster 
is abroad.' Brougham is also the author 
of the celebrated dictum that the liberally 
educated man is he who knows 'every- 
thing of something, and something of 
everything.' 

Buchanan, George (h. at Killearn, 
Stirlingshire, 1506, d. Edinburgh, 1582), 
was the son of poor parents, and by the 
death of his father he was at an early age 
thrown destitute upon the world. A ma- 
ternal uncle, James Heriot, sent him, at 
the age of fourteen, to the University of 
Paris. But after two years the uncle died, 
and he was reduced once more to extreme 
poverty. He returned to Scotland by 
joining an auxiliary corps, and for some 
time after his return he was prostrated by 
sickness. On his recovery he joined a 
troop of French auxiliaries, and saw active 
service, but the hardships he endured 
again impaired his health. We next find 
him a student in the University of St. An- 
drews, where he took his degree in 1525. 
The following year he went to France and 
studied at the Scottish College in Paris, and 
there he was immediately incorporated of 
the same degree as he had taken at St. 
Andrews. In 1529 he was chosen Pro- 
curator of the ' German Nation,' a division 
of the students which comprehended those 
from Scotland. He was appointed pro- 
fessor at St. Barbe, and afterwards tutor 
to the son of the Earl of Cassilis. In 1537 
he returned to Scotland, and was appointed 
private tutor to James Stuart. At this 
time he wrote his Somnium, in derision of 
the regular clergy. The king liked this, 
and asked him to write something else of 
a kindred character. In accordance with 
this request he wrote Palinodia and Fran- 
ciscanus. These works brought upon him 
the vengeance of the Church. He was 
seized as a heretic, and imprisoned, and 



BULLYING- 



-BURSARY 



49 



Cardinal Beaton offered a bribe to King 
James to have him put to death. Bu- 
chanan, suspecting that his gi'eedy patron 
would take the bribe, escaped from prison 
and iled to England. He, however, paid 
dearly for his satires, and became a weary 
wanderer striving to hide from the car- 
dinal. He taught Latin in Paris, and in 
Spain and Portugal. Here the ' Inquisi- 
tion ' found him, and imprisoned him in 
the cell of a monastery as a heretic. 
When set free he found a vessel at Lisbon 
and sailed to England, but soon returned 
to France. In 1560 he returned to Scot- 
land, and two years later was classical 
tutor to Queen Mary, who gave him a 
pension for life. Afterwards he was ap- 
pointed Principal of St. Leonard's College 
at St. Andrews, and chosen Moderator of 
the General Assembly of the Church of 
Scotland. In 1570 he was appointed tutor 
to the infant king James. This ap- 
pointment brought him various privileges. 
When he died Edinburgh gave him a pub- 
lic funeral. Buchanan was one of the 
most brilliant Latinists of the Renaissance, 
and therefore claims a prominent place in 
the history of scholarship. He translated 
plays of Euripides into Latin verse. His 
Version of the Psalms is regarded as one 
of the best. His Detection of her Doings 
is always considered an ungrateful return 
to Mary for her pension. He tried hard 
to make a scholar and a philosopher of 
James, and when afterwards reproached 
that he had only made him a pedant, he 
replied, ' It was the best I could make of 
him.' In his celebrated treatise De Jure 
Regni apud Scotos he advanced democratic 
and republican principles. 

Bullying' as a school term may be taken 
as the opposite of ' fagging ' in many re- 
spects, only that ' fagging,' or the acting 
as a drudge for another, is recognised as a 
normal part of school life, whereas bully- 
ing is strictly repressed. It is the brutal 
tyranny of elder boys over the juniors. 

Burgher Schools are schools in Ger- 
many, occupying an intermediate position 
between the Realschulen {q.v.) and the 
elementary. They do not take up Latin, 
but ordinary general subjects — commercial 
arithmetic, algebra, &c. They are at- 
tended chiefly by the children of tradesmen 
and mechanics. 

Bursar. — 1. In English, the bursar of 
a college or monastery is the purse-keeper 
or treasurer (French bourse, a purse ; from 



Low Latin bursa, a purse, skin, leather). 
2. In Scotland, a person who holds, or is 
entitled to receive, a bursary {q.v.). 

Bursary. — 1. The treasury of a college 
or monastery. 2. In the Scottish univer- 
sities a bursary is a scholarship — a sum of 
money awarded usually on entrance, and 
payable annually for a certain number of 
years, to a student for his maintenance 
at the university, derived from a perma- 
nent investment for the purpose, and 
sometimes awarded by competitive exam- 
ination, sometimes bestowed by presenta- 
tion. At Aberdeen University there are, 
in the Faculty of Arts, (1) about 150 bur- 
saries, of the aggregate annual value of 
about 2,500Z., open to competition on en- 
trance to the Arts course : seven are of 
35^., fifteen of 30?., and so on downwards ; 

(2) about eighty presentation bursaries (the 
bestowal of which is vested in private 
patrons), of the aggregate annual value of 
nearly 1,600?. : eight are of 40?., two of 33?., 
three of 30?., and so on down to 5?. a year ; 

(3) about thirty bursaries, under the pa- 
tronage of the magistrates and town council 
of Aberdeen, of the aggregate annual value 
of over 400?. : these are usually submitted 
to open competition; (4) four bursaries, 
of 15?. to 30?. a year, under the patron- 
age of the incorporated trades of Aber- 
deen. These Arts bursaries are tenable in 
nearly every case for four years — that is, 
for the full curriculum. In the Faculty 
of Divinity, there are (1) eighteen com- 
petition bursaries, of the annual aggregate 
value of 233?., each tenable for three years ; 
and (2) twenty-three presentation bursa- 
ries, of the aggregate annual value of over 
600?., each tenable for two, three, or four 
years : four of these are of the yearly 
value of 75?. and tenable for four years, 
and seven are of 20?. In the Faculty of 
Medicine there are ten bursaries, of the 
aggregate annual value of about 175?. : 
there is one of 35?., one of 28?., and three 
of 20?. In the Faculty of Law there are 
three bursaries of 20?. a year, and one of 
35?., each tenable two years. — At Edin- 
burgh University there are in the Faculty 
of Arts about 180 bursaries (including 
two of 90?. a year, one of 60?., two of 50?., 
two of 48?., two of 40?., &c.), usually ten- 
able four years, and mostly burdened with 
special restrictions. In the Faculty of 
Divinity there are (1) eleven presentation 
bursaries, varying from 8?. to 25?. ; (2) 
twenty-two competition bursaries, includ- 



50 



BUSBY, RICHAED 



ing two of 521. 10s., one of 40?., one of 
35?., &c. ; and (3) three of 30/., tenable 
for four years, gained in the Faculty of 
Arts, and held at pleasure of the gainers in 
the Faculty of Divinity, In the Faculty 
of Medicine, twenty-five bursaries, tenable 
mostly for four years ; including two of 
401., one of 32?., five of 30?., four of 25?., 
&c. In the Faculty of Law, thirteen bur- 
saries of 19?. to 30?.; five being of 30?., 
three of 26?. 13s. 46?., and four of 25?. — 
At Glasgoio University there are about 
seventy bursaries in Arts, including one 
of 80?., one of 50?., several of 40?., etc. ; 
thirty-five in Theology, two of them being 
of 42?., and six of 41?. ; fifteen in Medicine, 
one of them 45?., one 40?., and several 
25?. ; and a considerable number of valu- 
able bursaries common to two or more 
faculties. — At St. Ayidrews University 
there are attached to the United College 
about one hundred bursaries, varying in 
value from about 5?. to 50?. a year ; nine- 
teen belonging to St. Mary's College, of 
6?. to 30?. a year ; and twenty of the same 
value transferable from the United Col- 
lege when the bursars proceed to the study 
of Divinity. 

Busby, Ricliard (&. Lutton, in the Fens 
of Lincolnshire, 1606, d. 1695). — He ob- 
tained a king's scholarship at Westminster, 
and was subsequently elected to a student- 
ship at Christ Church, Oxford. He was 
so poor that the parish of St. Margaret's, 
"Westminster, granted him money to pay 
the fees upon taking his degree in 1628, 
and he gratefully acknowledged this by 
making many bequests to the parish. For 
some time he was tutor at Christ Church. 
In 1639 he was admitted to the prebend 
and rectory of Cudworth. He was ap- 
pointed master of Westminster provision- 
ally when Osbolston was deprived of that 
office (1638), but the election was not con- 
firmed till 1640. In the Civil War he lost 
the profits of his rectory and prebend, but 
in spite of his staunch loyalty and Church- 
manship, which led Pym to declare that 
it would never be right with the nation 
till they shut up Westminster School, he 
managed to retain both his studentship 
and his mastership. One of his troubles 
during this period was of a local character. 
The second master, Edward Bagshaw the 



younger, tried to supplant him, but he was 
removed out of ' his place for his insolence ' 
in May 1658. Bagshaw published (1659) 
an account of the transaction from his own 
point of view. Busby subsequently suf- 
fered for his political pi'inciples by having 
his ears cropped in the presence of his pu- 
pils. Upon the Restoration Busby's ser- 
vices were recognised, and he was made 
prebendary of Westminster by the king, 
and subsequently canon residentiary at 
Wells. At the coronation of Charles II. 
Busby carried the ampulla. It was from 
this time that the story arose which tells us 
that Busby walked in the presence of the 
king with his hat on, ' lest the boys should 
suppose there was any man in the world 
greater than the master.' He was elected 
proctor of the chapter of Bath and Wells. 
Busby became proverbial for severity, and 
yet his rule seems to have been eminently 
successful, for he gained the veneration 
and love of his pupils. A remarkable proof 
of this may be seen in a letter from Vis- 
count Lanesborough, which is preserved 
. vnWestminster School, Past and Present, 
by Forshall (p. 183). The letter begins, 
' Dearest Master,' and contains references 
to the remarkable care of the master. The 
volume contains other letters also that are 
scarcely less striking. John Dryden and 
other distinguished men of his era had been 
his pupils. The school became famous, and 
the highest families in the land sought to 
gain admission for their sons. Steele was of 
opinion ' that Busby's genius for education 
had as great an effect upon the age he lived 
in as that of any ancient philosopher. ... I 
have known great numbers of his scholars, 
and I am confident I could discover a 
stranger who had been such with a very 
little conversation ; those of great parts 
who have passed through his instruction 
have such a peculiar readiness of fancy 
and delicacy of taste as is seldom found 
in men educated elsewhere, though of equal 
talent.' Atterbuiy says of Busby, 'he is 
a man to be reverenced very highly.' 
Anthony Wood speaks of him as a ' per- 
son eminent and exemplary for piety and 
justice.' Much of his character is shown 
in Dr. Pasire's Correspondence. He lies 
buried in Westminster Abbey. 



CALIGRAPHY CAMPE, J. H. 



51 



G 



Caligraphy (KaXos, beautiful, ypa^co, I 
write). — The art of penmanship, or cleai', 
elegant Avriting ; the recording of ideas 
by means of characters. Writing was 
introduced to the Western nations by the 
Phoenicians, who probably based their sys- 
tem on that of the Egyptians. The Phoe- 
nician writing was extended over Greece 
and Italy by commercial intercourse, and 
was succeeded later by that of the so-called 
Gothic and French. The chief points to 
be kept in view for successful caligraphy 
are clearness, each letter being well formed 
and distinctly recognisable, character in 
the style, and ease and rapidity in practice. 
To acquire a good style the pupil should 
possess the advantage of instruction from 
a master who is a proficient in the art. 
(See Shorthand.) 

Calisthenics (Gr. /caAXto-^ey^s, adorned 
with strength — KaX6<;, beautiful, and 
(xOivos, strength) is the art or practice of 
taking exercise for health, strength, or 
grace of movement. It comprehends every 
kind of action which may tend to give a 
graceful figure and an easy deportment, 
from the finest exercises of the drill-in- 
structor to the ' calisthenic exercises of 
the unfortunate young women' whom 
Thackeray one day saw pulling the garden 
roller. It is usually, however, restricted 
to what is popularly known as drill and 
kindred exercises, and as such is commonly 
taught in our schools by some retired cor- 
poral. In taking up the first position of 
drill, in which position the pupil stands 
before or after being drilled, it is necessary 
that he should stand with his shoulders 
and body square to the front, heels in a 
line and closed, knees braced up, toes 
turned out at an angle of 45 degrees, and 
arms hanging loosely by the side, and 
straight like a veritable Corporal Trim. 
There should be no positive change in the 
upper parts of the body, although the 
lower limbs can be relaxed when not stand- 
ing in the ranks. The pupil should always 
keep his chest advanced and his shoulders 
pressed back, for if he resumes his original 
position no object whatever is gained. In 
the interval between the exercises the 
pupil may stand at ease by putting the 
palm of the right hand over the back of 
the left, and by drawing back the right 



foot and placing the hollow against the 
left heel, slightly bending at the same time 
the left knee. Marching is a very useful 
exercise, as by it the pupil learns to walk 
steadily and in regular time ; in the slow 
march the pupil is allowed 65 paces a 
minute, and in the quick march 116 paces 
a minute, each pace measuring about 
30 inches. The arms should be kept 
steady, and the first position maintained. 
In turning, the pupil places the feet in 
order to turn in the direction indicated ; 
he cannot turn if the heels are square ; he 
must either draw back the foot or advance 
it the requii-ed distance ; nor should he be 
allowed to walk round, but should raise 
the toes, and turn on the heels. Another 
useful exercise in expanding the chest and 
strengthening the arms is the arm exer- 
cises, which are done in six difierent grades, 
after the manner of dumb-bell exercises. 
The dumb-bell is a short bar of iron, with 
a knob at each end, to be held in the hand 
and swung to and fro for exercise. No 
pupil under eighteen should use dumb- 
bells above three pounds weight each. 
Other calisthenic exercises are leaning, 
lunging, and club exercises {see Curva- 
ture OF THE Spine). A very handy book 
on this subject is Mr. T. A. McCarthy's 
Calisthenics (London, 1881). 

Cambridge. See Universities. 

Campe, J. H. (h. 1746 in the duchy of 
Brunswick, d. 1818). — A celebrated Ger- 
man writer and pedagogue. After studying 
theology at Halle, and serving for awhile 
as chaplain to a regiment at Potsdam, he 
was in 1777 summoned by the Prince of 
Dessau to replace Basedow [q.v.) in the 
directorate of the Philanthropinum, which 
he raised to a high degree of prosperity. 
He also founded an educational establish- 
ment at Trittow, near Hamburg. He was 
in addition entrusted with the task of re- 
forming the system of education in the 
duchy of Brunswick. He devoted the latter 
part of his life to educational literature, in 
which he was both a successful and a bril- 
liant writer. His works include his Ro- 
binson Crusoe Junior, 106th edition, 1883, 
(fee, German Dictionary, 5 vols., 1807- 
1812, Theophron, Collection of celebrated 
Voyages for the Young, 12 vols.. General 
Revision of the School System, 1785-91, 

B 2 



52 CANADA (EDUCATION IN) CERTIFICATED TEACHERS 



16 vols. In his educational principles 
Campe followed closely those of Basedow. 

Canada (Education in). See Law 
(Educational) and Universities. 

Carpenter, Mary (h. Exeter, 1807, d. 
1877), was the eldest child of Dr. Lant Car- 
penter, and sister of Dr. W. B. Carpenter. 
She was educated with her father's elder 
pupils. Her work in Sunday school early 
excited her interest in the poor. From 
1829 to 1845 she was occupied with her 
mother and sisters in a school. After a 
struggle of some years, in 1854 Parliament 
passed a bill providing for the establish- 
ment of reformatory schools. Meanwhile 
Miss Carpenter had started one at Kings- 
wood. She was one of the chief promoters 
of the Industrial Schools Act, passed in 
1857. In 1864 she advocated in Our 
Convicts the application of the reformatory 
system to adult criminals. In her sixtieth 
year she visited India to inquire into 
Indian education and prison discipline. 
She wrote an account of this in 1867, 
under the title of Six Months in India. 
She made three voyages to India after- 
wards, and laid the foundation of a system 
of female education for the country. In 
1871 she established ' The National Indian 
Association' (q.v.), and edited its journal. 
She died suddenly at Bristol, after a life of 
unselfish devotion to all that is best in 
education. A good sketch of her work was 
published in the Times, June 18, 1877. 

Catechetical Method. — Instruction by 
question and answer, the pupils being 
required to answer the questions of the 
teacher. By this means the explanations 
requisite for the complete comprehension 
of a subject are discovered and given. 
Sometimes the answers are committed to 
memory from the text-book, and are re- 
cited to set questions. Several objections 
are advanced against this method, the prin- 
cipal being (1) that the pupil, being re- 
quired only to repeat what is enunciated 
in the language of others, loses the exer- 
cise of his own peculiar faculties ; (2) the 
logical relations of the facts are liable to 
be overlooked or imperfectly apprehended ; 
(3) that the answer to a question being 
merely learned, the full idea of the truth, 
of which sometimes the essential part is 
contained in a question, fails to be grasped. 
The catechetical was the method adopted 
by the early Christians to teach their con- 
verts, and especially before the New Tes- 
tament was written. 



Catechumen (Gr. Karrjxovfjievo?). — One 
who attends a class for instruction, where 
the teacher imparts his knowledge orally. 
It had a special meaning as applied to the 
converts to Christianity who were being 
prepared for the rite of baptism. 

Cathedral Schools. See Abbey 
Schools. 

Certificated Teachers. — After the 
establishment of the Committee of Coun- 
cil in 1839, their attention was for years 
directed to the creation of a body of well 
educated and skilful instructors. The 
famous minutes of 1846 (see Government 
Grants) called into being two orders of 
teachers — pupil-teachers (q.v.) and certi- 
ficated teachers. The original certificates 
of merit (as they were called) were of three 
classes, known as the upper, middle, and 
lower, and in each class there were three 
divisions. The grants which were made 
to normal schools contemplated a three 
years' residence, and a student who went 
through the full course would be rated at 
the close of the first year in one of the 
divisions of the lower class, at the close of 
the second year in one of the divisions of 
the middle class, and at the close of the 
third year in one of the divisions of the 
upper class. A large number of teachers 
actually at work when the minutes were 
first issued naturally desired to obtain 
certificates, and provision was made for 
them to be examined. The syllabus was 
elastic, and the class of certificate granted 
depended upon the difiiculty of the sub- 
jects taken and the proficiency shown. 
To certificated teachers the Committee of 
Council paid a yearly ' augmentation ' of 
salary, ranging, according to class and di- 
vision, from 15^. to 30^. for masters, and 
from 10^. to 20^. for mistresses. The 
Revised Code of 1862 swept away this 
augmentation togetiier with the whole 
scheme of certificates. Henceforth there 
were to be four classes — the first three 
undivided, the fourth divided into an 
upper and a lower grade. In the lower 
grade were placed those who passed in the 
fourth division at the examination ; in the 
upper all who passed in the first, second, 
or third division. No certificate was issued 
above the fourth class. Promotion to each 
of the higher classes successively was ob- 
tained by five years' good service. The 
New Code of 1 87 1 again changed the scheme 
of certificates. They were in future to be 
of three classes, with no sub-grades. Can- 



CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY 



53 



didates who passed in the fourth division 
at the examination received certificates of 
the third class ; candidates who passed in 
the first, second, or third division received 
certificates of the second class. No cer- 
tificate was issued above the second class, 
promotion to the first being only obtained 
by ten years' good service. The code was 
recast under the direction of Mr. Mundella 
in 1882, but the rules respecting certifi- 
cates were little altered. The full course 
of preparation for a teacher extends over 
six years — in a sense, over eight years. 
Eirst come four years of apprenticeship as 
a pupil-teacher, with a Government ex- 
amination at the end of each. Then comes 
the examination for queen's scholarships. 
Candidates who pass this high enough on 
the list enter a training college, where they 
stay for two years, undergoing an examina- 
tion at the end of each — the ' first year's ' 
and ' second year's certificate examination ' 
respectively. The names of the successful 
candidates are arranged, according to the 
degree of success, in three divisions. A 
student who has completed his training is 
to all intents and purposes a certificated 
teacher, but he does not actually receive 
his certificate (or 'parchment,' as it is fa- 
miliarly called) till he has been under 
* probation ' for at least eighteen months. 
He must in one school obtain from the in- 
spector two favourable reports with an 
interval of a year between them ; if the 
first be not preceded by six months' ser- 
vice it cannot count, and a third must be 
obtained before the parchment is issued. 
Certificates are of three classes. Candidates 
who pass the second year's examination 
obtain certificates of the second class. At 
■each inspection of the school the inspector 
enters upon the certificate a concise report 
on the teacher's work; when ten good re- 
ports have been obtained the certificate is 
raised to the first class, and no further re- 
ports are entered on it. Candidates who 
pass the first year's examination receive 
certificates of the third class, which can 
only be raised by passing the second year's 
examination. The holders of third-class 
certificates are not allowed to take charge 
of pupil-teachers. Much of the course 
described is optional. The only compul- 
sory parts are the passing of the first year's 
examination and the serving of a period of 
probation. To begin with, though as a fact 
most of the candidates for admission into 
training colleges have been pupil-teachers. 



the examination may be taken by ' open 
queen's scholars,' that is, by candidates 
who have not been pupil-teachers. The 
apprenticeship does undoubtedly serve to 
give teachina; skill and the confidence 
which comes of skill, but it is a question 
whether the same result might not be 
more certainly obtained if the practical 
training came somewhat later. Then the 
certificate examination of both years is 
open to ' acting teachers,' that is, to can- 
didates who have not been through col- 
lege. It is easy to suggest improvements 
in the existing training college system, 
and it is true that some untrained teachers 
have been highly successful while some 
trained teachers have utterly failed; but 
there is no denying that, other things 
being equal, the trained teacher is superior 
to the untrained, and that till the standard 
for certificates is considerably raised the 
education given in elementary schools must 
too often be narrow and mechanical. At 
the date of the report of the Committee of 
Council for 1885-6 there were 40,340 cer- 
tificated teachers at work. Of these 43"8 
per cent, were untrained, while 5 '6 per 
ceiit. had been trained for less than two 
years. There are no figures to show what 
papers were taken by the untrained 
teachers, but tlie published lists prove 
that a majority took the first year's ; yet, 
by a gross anomaly that existed till the 
end of 1882, untrained candidates who 
passed in the third division on the first 
year's papers, and candidates who had been 
trained for two years and passed in the 
first division on the second year's papers, 
received the same class of certificate. {See 
Tbaining of Teachers.) 

Channing, William Ellery (b. at New- 
port, Rhode Island, 1780, d. Boston, 1842). 
— An eminent American Unitarian theo- 
logian, educationist, and writer ; was edu- 
cated at Harvard College, and obtained 
great distinction by his eloquence and his 
writings, especially his review of Milton's 
Treatise of Christian Doctrine, and review 
of Sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon. 
His collected writings were published at 
Glasgow, 1840, in 6 vols. His chief edu- 
cational works were. On Self Ctdture, 
and The Elevation of the Working Classes. 
Channing regarded education as the means 
for the perfection of the individual, and 
supported the efibrts of Horace Mann in 
spreading education among all ranks of 
society. Not only did these ideas triumph 



64 



CHAPMAN, GEORGE CHEEEFULNESS 



in the United States, but also spread in 
various countries of Europe. 

Chapman, George {b. 1723, d. 1806).— 
A Scotch professor and educationist ; was 
for a quarter of a century a very success- 
ful professor and director of a school at 
Dumfries. Amongst his scholastic works 
are. Treatise on Educatioyi, 1773, which 
passed through many editions, Advantages 
of a Classical Education, &c. 

Character (Gr. -^apaKTrfp, a mark) 
means, when applied to a human being, 
the peculiar group of mental and moral 
qualities by which he is distinguished as 
an individual from others. In this sense 
it is equivalent to Individuality (which 
see). Its natural basis is also marked off 
as idiosyncrasy. In a restricted and 
ethical sense character means a good or 
virtuous condition of the mind, and espe- 
cially the emotional dispositions and the 
will. Moral character is tlie highest result 
of moral development, being the outcome 
of a persistent series of efforts in doing 
right. It corresponds with what Kant 
calls a good will. Character has its chief 
support in moral habit, which implies a 
fixity of purpose in certain definite di- 
rections, as the pursuit of truth and of 
justice. But it includes more than a sum 
of habits, viz. a conscious self-subjection 
to duty, and a readiness to take pains to 
reach the truest and highest conception 
of duty. This moral character, though 
conceived abstractedly as a common at- 
tainment for all, is in every case vitally 
comiected with, and in a sense an out- 
growth from, individual character. In 
truth, if the highest duty is to make the 
moral best of ourselves, it is evident that 
individuality has its rightful claims within 
the limits of moral growth. The educator, 
as a former of character, has no doubt to 
insist on a certain uniformity of moral 
action and of motive. Nevertheless, his 
ultimate aim should be to harmonise the 
claims of the moral law and of indivi- 
duality, by helping the child to develop 
to the utmost its own distinctive good 
qualities. {See Mrs. Bryant, Educational 
Ends, introd. and pt. i. ; A. Martin, Eedu- 
cation du caractere ; Buisson's Diction- 
naire dePed., article 'Caractere'; Schmid's 
Encyclopddie, article ' Charakter.') 

Charades. — These entertainments, 
made up of pantomime and dialogue, sug- 
gesting by the various divisions of a piece 
the syllables of a complete word selected, 



are a favourite amusement at breaking-up 
parties. Intelligently arranged, and pro- 
vided with appropriate costumes, &c., they 
may be made useful and pleasant adjuncts 
to education, giving the performers self- 
confidence in public, and habituating them 
to the practice of elocution, especially if 
the performers be trained to speak clearly 
and distinctly, and to take an intelligent 
interest in the role they each assume. 

Charity Schools. — Schools endowed for 
the purpose of giving an elementary edu- 
cation to the children of the poor. A 
large number of such schools were founded 
in the reign of Queen Anne, and are to be 
distinguished from the endowed grammar 
schools {q.v^ founded about the time of 
the Reformation. The grammar schools 
appear to have been designed generally for 
the purpose of affording means of higher 
education to all who might be willing to 
learn. For this object it was provided 
that the poor should be exempted from all 
payment, or, lest the poor should still be 
neglected, that no fees should be paid by 
any. The character of the teaching has, 
however, usually been of a kind not suited 
to the wants of the working classes. Cha- 
rity schools, on the other hand, were in- 
tended mainly for the use of that class of 
the population which now attends public 
elementary schools, and for the purpose of 
afibrding them that sort of education which 
is now provided for all by compulsory laws. 
The Select Committee on the Endowed 
Schools Act, appointed in 1 8 8 6 , recommend 
that when a new scheme is made for an 
endowed elementary school, it should aim 
to provide the children of the working 
classes with a practical instruction suit- 
able to their wants in the particular cir- 
cumstances of each locality. The purpose 
of such a revision, in the opinion of the 
committee, should not be the relief of the 
school rate, but the endowment should be 
used as a means of providing some educa- 
tional benefits which the poor would not 
enjoy if the endowment did not exist ; as, 
for instance, in rural districts, industrial 
agricultural instruction suitable to the la- 
bouring population. 

Charterhouse. See Public Schools.. 

Cheerfulness. — This term describes a 
more or less permanent condition or atti- 
tude of mind, which is at once calmly 
pleasurable and promotive of activity, 
mental and bodily. It contrasts, on the 
one hand, with all unhappy states of mind. 



CHEMISTRY 



55 



as fretfulness, despondency, and what is 
known as low spirits ; and, on the other 
hand, with all states of pleasurable excite- 
ment, as boisterous mirth. It may be 
regarded as the product of three factors : 
1. Of these the first is the influence of the 
whole bodily condition, corresponding to 
what physiologists and psychologists are 
in the habit of describing as the vital 
sense, or the feeling of well-being, and its 
opposite. The pi'ofound influence of vary- 
ing bodily conditions, particularly those of 
the vital organs, in raising or depressing 
the mental tone, is strikingly illustrated 
in mental disease, and is clearly observa- 
ble in children, whose whole mental life is 
so intimately connected with bodily states. 
What we mean by a happy natural dis- 
position or cheerful tempei-ament probably 
has for its chief ingredient a well- organised 
and healthy physique. 2. The second 
main influence is that of the surroundings, 
physical and moral. A happy, cheerful 
condition of mind in early life presupposes 
a sufiiciency of interesting objects and 
channels of activity. A bright, pretty 
environment, whether out of doors or in 
doors, exercises a marked influence on the 
child's spirits. Agreeable openings for 
activity, and the pi-esence of loright com- 
panions and playmates, are a further coii- 
dition of this desirable mental state. The 
working of unconscious imitation is strik- 
ingly exemplified in the infectious cha- 
racter of cheerfulness. 3. In its highest 
form as a permanent habit cheerfulness 
represents the result of a series of volun- 
tary eftbrts. By trying to rise above any- 
thing in our circumstances which is painful 
and depressing, and forming a habit of 
looking by preference on the bright side 
of things, we are all of us able to some 
extent to make good a deficiency in na- 
tural disposition. The educator is con- 
cerned with the promotion of cheerfulness 
in the young, in the interests both of intel- 
lectual and moral training. Since a gentle 
flow of pleasurable feeling is most favour- 
able to mental activity {see Pleasure), the 
school-teacher should make it one of his 
main objects, by the choice of attractive 
surroundings, an agi'eeable manner, &c., 
to maintain a cheerful tone among his 
pupils ; and it is not one of the least merits 
of the Kindergarten {q.v.) that it so amply 
fulfils these conditions. Further, the moral 
educator should early begin to exercise the 
child in such a control of the feelings and 



the thoughts as will best conduce to a 
habit of cheerfulness, cf. article Sym- 
pathy. {See Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, 
p. 16, and articles ' Frohsinn,' ' Aufmun- 
terung,' in K. A. Schmid's Encyclopddie.) 

Chemistry. — The science of Chemistry 
seems to have been first pursued in Egypt, 
whence it takes its name. According to 
Plutarch Egypt was anciently named 
Chemia, on account of the blackness of 
its soil. ' The same word,' say Roscoe and 
Schorlemmer, ' was used to designate the 
black of the eye, as the symbol of the 
dark and mysterious. It is therefore pretty 
certain that ' chemistry ' originally meant 
Egyptian — or secret— knowledge, as it was 
afterwaixls termed the secret or black art ' 
{Treatise on Chemistry., vol. i. p. 4). Like 
other sciences, chemistry took its rise 
in fanciful and superstitious ideas : as 
astronomy had its rise in astrology, so 
chemistry grew out of alchemy ; and 
the ancestors of the Daltons, Boyles, 
and Joules of modern chemistry were the 
searchers for the elixir of life and the 
philosopher's stone in ancient times and 
in the Middle Ages. Of all the sciences 
that of chemistry demanded most of cour- 
age from its votaries, and the experiences 
of inquiring chemists who, greatly daring, 
put together and treated unknown sub- 
stances and awaited the results, form as 
exciting reading as the adventures of 
travellers in unknown lands. Thrice was 
Roger Bacon stretched on the floor of his 
cell for dead by unexpected explosions ; 
many lost eyes and hands, and life itself, 
in the perilous experiments out of which 
has grown our modern knowledge of the 
constitution of material things. 

Chemistry is often described as a 
branch of molecular physics, i.e. of the 
science which deals with the relations that 
exist, not between bodies, but between the 
molecules, or particles, of which bodies are 
composed. It has for its domain the in- 
vestigation of the ultimate constituents 
of all substances, living and non-living, of 
the laws of the combination and disas- 
sociation of these constituents. There is 
no science with wider bearings on human 
life ; since the time of Paracelsus (1493- 
1541) it has been the foundation of medi- 
cine ; on it scientific agriculture is based ; 
manufacturing industries owe to it their 
great expansion ; sanitary science is one of 
its latest births ; by the synthesis of food- 
stufi's it is beginning to open up hitherto 



66 



CHEMISTRY 



undreamed-of possibiKties in the way of 
scientific alimentation. As an instrument 
in the education of the young it has been 
but too much neglected, for it cultivates 
keenness of observation, accuracy of re- 
cordal, strength of memory, and patience 
of investigation ; in its theories it culti- 
vates the reasoning faculties, while in its 
practice it trains the eye and the hand. 

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) may per- 
haps be regarded as the father of modern 
chemistry. He first laid down the dis- 
tinction between elements and compounds, 
and discovered the relation existing be- 
tween the pressure on a gas and its volume ; 
the statement of the fact that the volume 
of a gas varies inversely as the pressure 
upon it, other circumstances remaining 
the same, is known as ' Boyle's law' (some- 
times as Boyle and Mariotte's law). 
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), on August 1, 
1774, discovered oxygen by heating mer- 
curic oxide, a discovery said also to have 
been made independently in France by 
Lavoisier, and in Sweden by Scheele. 
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), utilising 
the observation of Priestley that some 
water had been produced when electric 
sparks were passed through a mixture of 
hydrogen and air, succeeded in 1781 in 
the synthesis of water, thus determining 
its composition. To these discoveries 
Rutherford added that of nitrogen, and 
Scheele that of chlorine — the latter also 
preparing a number of organic substances. 
Lavoisier (1743-1794), taking up the dis- 
coveries of his contemporaries and adding 
thereto his own, laid down the true theory 
of combustion, swept away the old notions 
of phlogiston (a kind of combustion- soul 
resident in all combustible bodies), and by 
a series of admirable monographs placed 
chemistry on a sound basis of fact, and 
established the indestructibility of matter. 
John Dalton (1766-1844) in 1803 issued, 
for the first time, a table of the ' relative 
weights of the ultimate particles of gase- 
ous and other bodies,' and in 1807 his 
' atomic theory ' was made known to the 
world. This theory posits the ' atom,' or 
indivisible particle, as the fundamental 
unit of the chemical element ; each atom 
has its own weight in relation to other 
atoms. Hydrogen being the lightest 
known element, the weight of an atom 
of hydrogen is taken as one, and the 
weight of every other atom is a multiple 
of that of hydrogen. Thus, oxygen being 



sixteen times as heavy as hydrogen, the 
atomic weight, or the ' weight number,' of 
oxygen is 1 6. As an atom is the smallest 
particle of an element that can enter into 
combination, this relative weight of oxy- 
gen is the least weight with which it can 
enter into combination. Atoms are fur- 
ther classified according to the number of 
other atoms with which they combine. 
The combining power of hydrogen is as 
one, and elements that combine with hy- 
drogen atom for atom are called monads. 
Elements one atom of which combines 
with two of hydrogen are dyads, those that 
combine with three of hydrogen triads, 
and so on. A line is sometimes used to 
denote this combining atomicity, and the 
term ' chemical bond ' is used to describe 
it ; then we obtain graphic formulae of 
compounds. Thus : — 

H— —CI H— —0— — H 

Hvdrogen. Chlorine. Hydrogen. Oxvgen. Hydrogen. 

DVad. 



Monads. 
Hydrochloric acid. 

H 

H N H 

Nitrogen, 
Triad. 

Ammonia. 



Water. 
H 

H C H 

i 

C = Carbon. Tetrad. 
Methane. 



The letters used are the first letters of 
the names of the elements, arid are called 
their symbols. When all the bonds of the 
elements in a compound are satisfied, i.e. 
joined to others, the compound is stable ; 
when any bond is unsatisfied, the com- 
pound is unstable. When to the atomic 
theory of Dalton was added, in 1808 by 
Gay Lussac, and in 1811 by Avogadro, 
the law of combination of gaseous bodies 
by volume, the foundations of chemistry 
may be said to have been completed. 

Chemistry was for a long time divided 
into two great branches, inorganic and 
organic. The first comprised all sub- 
stances which were not produced by liv- 
ing things ; the second all products of 
animal and vegetable activity. The first 
could be artificially produced, the second 
could only be produced by vital action. 
This distinction was broken down in 1828 
by Wohler, who produced urea artificially. 
Alcohol was soon after made in the la- 
boratory, and since then hundreds of or- 
ganic substances have been manufactured 
by the chemist. In 1 837 Wohler described 
organic chemistry as an ' endless and path- 
less thicket, in which a man may well 
dread to wander.' The thicket is now 



CHEMISTRY — -CHILDHOOD (CHARACTERISTICS OF) 



57 



pierced by paths easy to travel. But it is 
no longer ' organic ' chemistry, for the old 
gulf is bridged. It is now ' the chemistry 
of the carbon compounds,' for the pre- 
sence or absence of carbon, with its strange 
powers of self-association, is now the di- 
viding mark of the two great branches of 
chemistry. 

The chemistry of carbon compounds 
has again two main divisions — that of the 
paraffin, olefine, and allied groups, and 
that of the aromatic hydrocarbons. In 
the first series the carbon atoms are linked 
in chains ; in the second they form a closed 
ring, called, from the name of its proposer, 
Kekule's ring. Thus we have as types of 
the one : 

C=H, C=H, C— H 



C=H, 



C=H, 



C=H, 



C— H 



Acetylene. 



Propane. Ethene. 
As type of the other : 
H 

1 
C 

/ \ 
H— C C— H 

II I 

H— C C— H 

\ ^ 

C 

I 
H 

Benzene. 

In inorganic chemistry the progress 
has been great, though less striking. In 
1837 fifty-three elements were known ; in 
1887 the number has risen to seventy, 
and it is alleged that some twenty more 
have been discovered in rare Scandinavian 
metals by Kriiss and Nilson. As yet, how- 
ever, ' inorganic ' chemistry has failed to 
yield generalisations similar to those of 
' organic,' and it remains a mass of some- 
what disjointed facts. The question of 
the possibility of decomposing the bodies, 
now regarded as elementary, is engaging 
the attention of chemists. Crookes has 
suggested that all chemical atoms are but 
multiples of a primeval substance, ' pro- 
tyle,' but his theory still lacks experi- 
mental verification. 

In teaching chemistry it is important 
that the teacher should bear in mind Wil- 
liam Harvey's remark, that those who fail to 
obtain by means of their senses and obser- 



vation an exact knowledge of the objects 
with which they are concerned fill them- 
selves simply with ' inane fancies and 
empty imaginations.' As Professor Hux- 
ley says, commenting on this remark of 
Harve^'^'s, ' You may tell a student that 
water is composed of oxygen and hydro- 
gen ; you may give him the formula written 
in pretty letters, and show him complicated 
signs with bonds between them, and all the 
rest of it ; and by so doing, if I mistake 
not, you will fill his mind with the inane 
formulas and empty imaginations of which 
Harvey speaks ; or you may take the com- 
plete substance^ — a glass of water — and 
without going one iota beyond common 
language and matter of observation you 
may get out of it the elementary bodies of 
which it is composed, show him the pro- 
cess, and thereby fix in his mind for ever 
a complete, real, physical conception, on 
which he can build.' (See Treatise on Che- 
misti-y, by Professors Roscoe and Schor- 
lemmer, 3 vols. ; Chemistry of the Carbon 
Compounds, by Professor Schorlemmer ; 
Watts's edition of Fownes' Organic and 
Inorganic Chemistry, 2 vols. ; Organic 
Chemistry, by H. F. Morley.) 

Childhood (Characteristics of). — Child- 
nature forms the special material on which 
the teacher has to work, and, as such, the 
study of its characteristics is a matter of 
prime concern. In attempting to define 
these we must be careful to select only 
common and essential traits of childhood. 
Children difier much less from one another 
than adults ; nevertheless, individual dif- 
ferences begin to present themselves from 
the first. {See Individuality.) The child 
is to be regarded as a distinctly human 
being, in whom the higher attributes, in- 
tellectual and moral, that mark ofi" man 
from the lower animals are nascent, and 
the educator has first of all to view the 
child in this light. At the same time he 
has to regard the child at its great distance 
from adult man and as a link of connection 
between the species and the animal world 
and nature as a whole. In order to illus- 
trate this we must distinguish between 
the several modes of activity or functions 
of the human organism. These may be 
conveniently divided into {a) the vegetative 
functions, by which the physical frame- 
work is being built up and enlarged by 
exchange of materials with the environ- 
ment ; (b) animal functions, sensibility 
and motility, by which impressions are re- 



58 



CHILDHOOD (CHARACTERISTICS OF) 



ceived from without, and movements exe- 
cuted in adjustment to these impressions ; 
and (c) the specially human functions, 
which make up what we call consciousness 
or mental life in its higher developments 
of intelligence or thought, emotion and 
will. The child is broadly marked off 
from the adult by the preponderance of 
the lower functions over the higher. To 
this extent it may be said to belong more 
to nature and the animal world than to 
humanity. At first its life is largely phy- 
sical. The varying states of satisfaction 
and dissatisfaction connected with fluctu- 
ations in the bodily life make up its plea- 
sure and its pain. The first activities of 
the organs of sense and movement are 
directed towards the satisfaction of phy- 
sical wants. The first actions are jDrompted 
by instincts which it shares with the lower 
animals. At the same time the child is 
distinguished from the mere animal from 
the beginning. This is seen partly in the 
fact that instinct plays a very limited part. 
While the newly-hatched chicken can not 
only run about, but execute nice muscular 
adjustments in the act of pecking, the child 
has to learn the use of its eyes, its hands, 
and its feet by a slow and difficult process 
of trial. The very helplessness of infancy 
itself, contrasting in its degree and in its 
duration with the corresponding state of 
the lower animals, is a distinctively human 
feature. For, according to the evolutionist, 
the prolonged dependence of the human 
offspring on others' protection and aid is 
closely connected with the growth and 
deepening of the social feelings in the past 
history of the race. From the very first, 
too, the child displays the germ of a freer 
spiritual activity. Thus, the infant shews 
itself what the animal never shews itself, 
a perfectly disinterested observer. It looks 
at and admires things which have nothing 
to do with its physical needs, and shows 
the first crude germs of a scientific curio- 
sity in examining the objects that are put 
into its hands. The whole field of chil- 
dren's play again is a striking illustration, 
both in its pui^e disinterestedness and 
its mimicry of adult action, of their supe- 
riority to the animal. A proper under- 
standing of the relation of the human to 
the sub-human in the child is essential 
to its proper management and education. 
Thus the parent has to watch the effect of 
bodily states on the temper of the infant. 
The teaching of Pestalozzi and Froebel as 



to the true method of infant-training is 
based on the recognition of the truth that 
the use of the organs of sense and of move- 
ment is the starting point in the develop- 
ment of mind. Turning to the more 
strictly mental characteristics of the child, 
we see that it contrasts with the adult in 
respect of each of the three phases, intel- 
ligence, feeling, and will. With respect to 
the first, sense knowledge, i.e. the observa- 
tion of outer objects, makes up the chief 
part of the intellectual life, the higher 
activities of imagination and reason ap- 
pearing only in very crude form and in 
close connection with sense- perception. 
The preoccupation of the child's mind 
with outer things is a serious obstacle to 
the growth of that reflection upon self 
which is necessary to moral development. 
At the same time the child's advancing 
knowledge is secured by an insatiable cu- 
riosity, which shews itself on the one hand 
in the direct examination of objects of 
sense, and on the other hand in ceaseless 
questionings of others. The teachableness 
of the child arises from this abundant in- 
quisitiveness, aided by a belief in others' 
superior knowledge, which is only the ex- 
pression in the intellectual sphere of its 
dependence on others. [See Curiosity.) 
The feelings of the child again are charac- 
terised by the preponderance of the sense- 
element, and the absence of those processes 
of imagination and thought which are in- 
volved in all the higher emotions, as the 
finer sort of sympathy, the love of truth, 
and the sense of justice. The violence of 
children's feelings is closely connected with 
the excessive force of sense-impressions, 
the absence of reflection, and the want of 
will-power in checking and controlling the 
outburst. With this turbulence we have 
a striking degree of volatility and capri- 
ciousness, which contrasts with the lasting 
affections and dispositions of later life. 
The dependence of childhood expresses 
itself in the region of the feelings, not only 
in the instinctive love of society, but in 
the natural desire for others' good opinion. 
{See Emotions.) Lastly, we see that the 
child's power of voluntary action is nar- 
rowly circumscribed by its inability to 
represent the more remote consequences 
of its actions and to check or inhibit the 
solicitations of the immediate present. 
The dependence of childhood shows itself 
here as the instinct of obedience, by which 
the will, under favourable conditions, easily 



CHRIST'S HOSPITAL CLASSICAL STUDIES 



59 



and without much painful friction subor- 
dinates itself to a supez'ior will. {See Will.) 
(For a detailed account of the character- 
istics of children, see the works on child- 
psychology by B. Perez, First Three Years 
of Childhood, &c.. Prof. Prayer's Die Seele 
des Kindes, also Child and Child-Nature, 
by the Baroness Marenlioltz -Biilow ; cf. 
article 'Enfance' in Buisson's Dictionnaire 
de Pedagogie.) 

Christ's Hospital, popularly known as 
the Blue Coat School, is one of the five Royal 
Hospitals of the city of London, and was 
founded by Edward VI. , 1553. The annual 
reveniie of this wealthy foundation fluc- 
tuates considerably, but, exclusive of its 
pension charities for the blind, is seldom 
less than 60,000?. The number of children 
on the foundation is about 1 1 50, including 
90 girls and 300 boys at the preparatory 
establishment at Hertford. About 180 
are admitted annually. The time of ad- 
mission is from eight to ten years of age, 
and, exclusive of special rights, under 
certain trusts vested in City Companies 
and other bodies, is by presentation of a 
governor. The chief qualification for ob- 
taining a presentation, in the case of chil- 
dren not orphans, ostensibly rests in their 
parents not possessing adequate means for 
the maintenance and education of their 
families. The usual qualification for the 
election of a governor is a donation of 
500?. As the children in the schools are 
boarded and clothed, as well as educated, 
a large amount of the annual income is 
expended upon clothing and maintenance. 
Various schemes have been proposed of 
late years for remodelling this important 
foundation, and bringing it into harmony 
with the requirements of the times. (See 
Report of Select Committee on Endowed 
Schools Acts, 1887.) 

Civil Service. See Examinations. 

Classical Studies. — Since the revival 
of learning the place of honour in the edu- 
cational systems of Europe has been occu- 
pied by the study of the classics. The 
word ' classics ' (scrij^tores classici) means 
properly ' of or belonging to the frst class,' 
or 'worthy of being classed'; cf. the Ox- 
ford distinction between ' pass ' men and 
' class' men. But the word has been nar- 
rowed down to denote the writers of Greece 
and Ptome. During the period of scho- 
lasticism (until the end of the fifteenth 
century) interest in Greek and Latin lite- 
rature had been decaying ; the impulse 



given by Charlemagne in founding schools 
for the study of Latin and also of Greek 
died out, and Latin was cultivated for prac- 
tical purposes only, and as a matter of 
necessity ; for Latin was the only universal 
medium of communication, and was the 
language of the Church and the law. The 
Renaissance — that great reaction against 
medisevaKsm — resulted in the first place 
in a revived study of Greek and Latin ; 
the classics were studied in the spirit of 
Schiller's poem. Die Gotter Griechenlands, 
as embodying the wisdom and beauty of 
a lost order of things, as a voice from a 
higher world. For the ' practical ' study of 
Latin was substituted the study of Greek 
and Latin literature. At the present day 
the classics may be said to be engaged in 
the struggle for existence. Both in Eng- 
land and abroad there is a strong party 
claiming as a right the abolition of the 
classics, or at any rate their relegation to 
a subordinate position. How this move- 
ment originated is a question which we 
need not discuss here. For the present 
we are concerned with (1) the arguments 
which may be advanced in defence of it ; 
and (2) the counter- arguments in defence 
of the classics. 

The main contention of the supporters 
of a ' modern ' education is that so many 
other subjects of modem growth demand 
recognition in a scheme of education that 
time cannot be spared for the long disci- 
pline of Greek and Latin. The time de- 
voted to classics would be sufficient to 
embrace a complete cycle of the physical 
sciences. Modern languages are a disci- 
pline in language, and might, from that 
point of view, make good in part, if not 
entirely, the loss of the classics, while their 
practical utility cannot be left out of sight 
by a commercial nation like ourselves. 
The study of English literature would, it 
is maintained by Professor Huxley, be a far 
better school of literary taste and culture 
than that of the writers of Greece and 
Rome; 'the ascent of Parnassus is too 
steep to permit of our enjoying the view,' 
and few reach the top. What there is of 
good in the classics could be better studied, 
from the aesthetic point of view, in trans- 
lations. ' I should just as soon think of 
swimming across the Hudson in a coat of 
mail when I can take a penny steamer,' 
cries Emerson, ' as of studying the classics 
in the original when I can read them in the 
admirable translations of Mr. Bohn.' ' The 



€0 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 



classics,' says Professor Huxley, ' are as 
little suited to be the staple of a liberal 
education as palaeontology.' The great aim 
of education, he holds, is to impart a know- 
ledge of the universe as governed by law. 
JSTature he compares to a beneficent angel 
playing a game of chess with man, in which 
defeat means death. Science is a know- 
ledge of the laws of the game. Thus 
the demand is for what has been called 
an ' autochthonous ' education — an educa- 
tion rooted in modern life and modern 
needs. That such an education is a pos- 
sibility is proved by the example of Greece 
herself. From the point of view of train- 
ing, Mr. H. Spencer and Mr. Ruskin main- 
tain that ' the science which it is the highest 
power to possess, it is also the best exer- 
cise to acquire'; in fact, that there is a 
sort of pre-established harmony between 
utility and educative value. 

On the other hand, the classics are not 
without powerful champions. John Stuart 
Mill, not himself a blind worshipper of 
' authority/ held most strongly that no- 
thing could replace Latin and Greek as 
educational instruments. He defended 
them mainly on the score of formal train- 
ing. ' The distinctions between the va- 
rious parts of speech are distinctions in 
thought, not merely in words. The struc- 
ture of every sentence is a lesson in logic. 
. . . The languages which teach the laws 
of universal grammar best are those which 
have the most definite rules, and which 
provide distinct forms for the greatest 
number of distinctions in thought. In 
these qualities the classical languages have 
an incomparable superiority over every 
modern language;' it might be added over 
Hebrew and Sanskrit. Again, in per- 
fection of literary form the ancients are 
pre-eminent; the 'idea' has thoroughly 
penetrated the form and created it. Every 
word is in its right place — every sentence 
a work of art. Modern literature lacks 
the simplicity and directness of the ancient 
classics. What they would have expressed 
in a single sentence, a modern writer will 
throw into three or four different forms, 
presenting it under different lights. In 
fact. Mill claims for classical literature 
what Hegel claimed for classical art, that 
the form and the matter are adequate one 
to the other. But even though the stage 
of literary enjoyment be not reached, there 
are many who hold that the training in- 
volved in a mastery of the elements of 



Latin {q.v.) is invaluable. Modern lan- 
guages are too like our own to give the 
degree of emancipation from the thraldom 
of words which comes from comparing 
classic with English modes of expression. 
To translate ' I should have spoken ' into 
dixissem is more of a lesson in thought 
than to translate it into Ich wiirde ge- 
sproclien hahen, or Taurais dit, because 
the form is more different. Still greater 
stress is laid upon the educational value 
of the higher kinds of composition. The 
recasting of the thought, the exercise of 
the vis divinior involved in clothing an 
idea in Greek or Latin, has been called 
the ' microcosm of a liberal education ' (A. 
Sidgwick). Perhaps the strongest testi- 
mony of modern times to the value of a 
classical education is the Berlin Memorial 
of 1880, addressed to the Prussian Min- 
ister of Education, on the question of ad- 
mission of RealschiLler {q.v.) to the uni- 
versities. This memorial represents the 
unanimous views of the members of the 
faculty of philosophy (i.e. arts and sci- 
ences), and was signed by Hoffmann, 
Helmholtz, Peters, Zupitza, &c., as well 
as by the classical professors. The memo- 
rial insists upon the value of classical 
philology in cultivating ' the ideality of 
the scientific sense, the interest in science 
not dependent on nor limited by practical 
aims, but as ministering to the liberal 
education of the mind and the many- 
sided exercise of the thinking faculty.' 

To hold the scales between -^dews so 
strongly held and so ably maintained is a 
difficult task, but must be attempted here. 
In the first place, it may be well to dispose 
of certain fallacies which rest upon popular 
prejudice rather than upon any basis of 
reason or experience. 1. That the classics 
train only the memory, not thought or 
observation. It may fairly be replied that 
though memory is involved, it is not ne- 
cessarily involved more than in any other 
discipline. The learning of grammar by 
rote is falling out of favour ; the dictionary 
meanings of words are learnt not by a 
conscious exercise of the portative memory, 
but in the same way as the names of 
flowers or animals in studying natural 
history. The syntactical structure of 
Latin and Greek is more ' logical ' in its 
character than anything in the discipline 
of physical sciences. Observation — not, of 
course, sense-observation — is constantly 
exercised in translation and composition. 



CLASSICAL STUDIES 



61 



Nor is it practically found that classical 
scholars are less capable, as thinkers, than 
physicists. 2. That classics foster a blind 
adherence to authority. But no one now- 
adays holds that the classic writers are all 
equally worthy of admiration, or claims 
any special consideration for the opinions 
which they express. Grammar {q.v.) is 
not the arbitrary creation of schoolmasters, 
but the record of law discovered by patient 
observation, and liable to revision by any 
competent inquirer. Mill held precisely 
the opposite opinion as to the effects of 
classical study. 3. That there is some- 
thing grotesque and mediaeval in classical 
studies. It has been shown above that so 
far from being mediaeval, the classics have 
established their position in our schools 
and universities by a revolt against me- 
disevalism. 4. That the method of teach- 
ing the classics cannot be further improved. 
So far is this from being true, that the 
scientific problem of constituting the rules 
of grammar is still only in process of solu- 
tion, and the existence of the didactic 
problem of determining what and how 
much should be taught at each stage has 
only begun to be realised in its full import. 

On the other hand, the champions of 
physical science do not always have fair 
play. It is popularly supposed that ' sci- 
ence ' consists in accumulation of informa- 
tion, such as that when a candle burns 
water and carbonic acid are produced, and 
that the good of physical science may be 
got by studying its results in books. This 
is to misunderstand and underrate the dis- 
cipline of the laboratory. The value of 
training in the physical sciences is not to 
be measured by the possession of so many 
useful facts about gases, plants, and ani- 
mals. If rightly pursued, it involves not 
only a power of sense-observation, without 
which a man must be considered as so far 
maimed and defective, but also a habit of 
mind and attitude towards the universe, 
which have a very direct bearing upon 
both the criticism and the conduct of life. 
The man or woman who has physiological 
knowledge will be so far in a better posi- 
tion to make a study of health and to 
bring up children wisely; will be less likely 
to ignore the ' laws of the game,' to believe 
in the domination of chance, and to make 
rash experiments in amateur medicine. 
For to be scientific is to know one's limi- 
tation, and this is a power. 

The practical question is, to what extent 



can we afford to make education as com- 
plete as possible ? and, supposing that 
something has to be sacrificed, what is it 
best to sacrifice ? That the literary side 
of education cannot be even relatively 
complete without classics may be taken as 
demonstrated. Our study of Greek and 
Latin is not so much the study of a foreign 
culture as the study of our own past: so 
intimately is modern culture connected, 
through the Renaissance, with Greece and 
Rome. We stand to the classics in a dif- 
ferent relation from that in which they 
stood to anterior civilisations. Greek cul- 
ture was, generally speaking, autochtho- 
nous; modern culture is not. And the 
man who has no Latin or Greek finds 
himself unable to prosecute his literary 
studies far, or to be a master even in the 
literature of his own country. Still the 
question remains, can we afford to pur- 
chase this completeness at the price which 
it costs — a less complete development in 
the direction of modern studies 1 The 
answer to it must depend upon the aim 
which pupils set before themselves in life 
— upon utility in its broad sense — and 
upon the length of the school course. For 
those whose tastes are literary or artistic, 
classics may be the most ' useful ' of studies; 
for those who have to contemplate an early 
entrance into practical pursuits, they may 
well be a luxury of too high a cost. At 
the present day the classics retain a firm 
hold of our higher English schools, and 
Latin, at any rate, is becoming recognised 
as an important item in the education of 
girls. The class lists of the universities 
show no falling off — if anything an increase 
— in the number of those who devote them- 
selves to classics. At the same time there 
are signs which some interpret as pre- 
saging a change. The recent circular letter 
of the head-masters of Winchester, Harrow, 
and Marlborough (August 1887) to prin- 
cipals of preparatory schools, urging that 
Greek should not be begun till the age of 
eleven, though intended not to discourage, 
but to further the study of Greek, is re- 
garded by some as the first step in the 
direction of abandonment of the classical 
lines. An exclusively classical education 
has had its day, and the classics will doubt- 
less have to take their place among other 
subjects for the future. If it is true, as 
many competent teachers think, that Greek 
and Latin may be begun at a later age 
without any loss of ultimate proficiency, 



62 



CLASSIFICATION 



then those who support this change are 
the true friends of classical education. 
{See articles Latin, Greek, and Science 
Teaching.) 

Classification. — Two distinct ideas are 
conveyed by this term. The first is the 
classification (sometimes called grading, 
though not in the sense in which that word 
is used in America) of a school, in relation 
to other schools, according to its aims and 
the range of ages between which it receives 
scholars. In this sense schools would be 
classified as (a) Elementary ; (h) Secondary. 
Elementary schools would be further clas- 
sified into (1) infant; (2) boys and girls 
(mixed or separate) ; (3) higher grade ; 
(4) technical. Secondary schools into (1) 
the nine great public schools (peculiar to 
England) specially reported upon by the 
Royal Commission of which Lord Cla- 
rendon was the chairman ; (2) endowed, 
private, and proprietary schools reported 
upon by the Schools Inquiry Commission ; 
3. Advanced, technical, or trade schools. 
In its second meaning the term refers to 
the classification of scholars (or grading, 
in the American sense of the word), and 
covers such points as (1) the method of 
division of the scholars into classes ; (2) 
re-classification for particular subjects; 
(3) mode and kinds of promotion; (4) 
method of staffing, whether there is a 
separate teacher for each subject, or for 
each class in all subjects ; (5) bifurcation 
into classical and modern ' sides,' or de- 
partments, in the same school. 

Classification of schools. — (a) Ele- 
mentary. The term ' elementary school,' 
under the Elementary Education Act 
(England), 1870, means a school, or depart- 
ment of a school, at which elementary 
education is the principal part of the edu- 
cation there given, and does not include 
any school, or department of a school, at 
which the ordinary payments in respect of 
instruction for each scholar exceed nine- 
pence a week. A 'public elementary school' 
is defined by the same Act as an elemen- 
tary school which is conducted subject to 
a conscience clause, and in accordance 
with the conditions required to be fulfilled 
by an elementary school, in order to obtain 
an annual Parliamentary grant. It must 
also be open at all times to the inspection 
of any of her Majesty's inspectors. Other 
elementary schools recognised by the Edu- 
cation Acts are included with public ele- 
mentary schools in the term ' certified I 



efiicient schools.' Such schools are : any 
workhouse school certified to be efficient 
by the Local Government Board, any public 
or State-aided elementary school in Scot- 
land, any national school in Ireland, a 
certified day industrial school, and any 
elementary school which is not conducted 
for private profit and is open at all reason- 
able times to the inspection of her Majesty's 
inspectors, and requires the like attend- 
ance from its scholars as is required in a 
public elementary school. The definition 
of a public elementary school, taken in con- 
junction with section 13 of the Code, which 
provides that no attendance is, as a rule, 
recognised in a day school for any scholar 
under three years old, or for any scholar 
who has passed in the three elementary 
subjects in the seventh standard, virtually 
fixes the ages of three and thirteen as the 
average inferior and superior limits of age 
in such a school. But children are fre- 
quently admitted while under three years 
of age, and as seven years is the earliest 
age at which a scholar can be examined 
in the first standard, and many are older 
than that, it follows that children of four- 
teen, fifteen, and even sixteen years of age 
are to be found in public elementary schools 
who have not passed the seventh standard. 
On the other hand, the average age at 
which children leave school is lowered by 
the fact that the standard, the passing of 
which qualifies for total exemption from 
school attendance, is rarely higher than 
the fifth by the by-laws of the local autho- 
rity, and is frequently only the fourth. 
Infants' schools are usually limited to 
scholars under seven years of age, but 
young children who have not passed 
Standard I. are frequently retained in 
such schools until seven or eight years of 
age. Higher grade elementary schools. — 
Various schemes have been put in opera- 
tion by the school boards in the more 
populous centres for 'higher grade' ele- 
mentary schools. The purport of these 
schemes has been either (1) to provide a 
school for children whose parents are able 
and willing to pay a higher fee than that 
ordinarily paid in the place, in return for 
which they are ofiered a somewhat en- 
larged curriculum by the introduction of 
more class or specific subjects. It is found 
possible to work such an extended course, 
owing to the greater regularity of the 
scholars, the greater attention given by 
the parents to the home-lessons, and the 



CLASSIFICATION 



63 



greater age up to which such parents 
consent to keep their children at school. 
These schools would contain classes corre- 
sponding to all the standards of the Code. 
Or (2) to collect into one central school 
the scholars in the highest standards (fre- 
quently very few in number in a single 
school) from a group of schools under a 
school board, and, with or without an in- 
creased fee, to give them the advantages 
of education under these more favourable 
conditions in the form of a wider course, 
or a special technical course (that is, work- 
shop instruction, drawing, machine con- 
struction, chemistry, &c.), suited to the 
probable careers of the scholars on leaving 
school for work or business. These schools 
would contain classes corresponding only 
to the higher standards, the fifth or sixth, 
and upwards. 

(6) Secondary schools. — This term 
covers all schools which give an educa- 
tion between the elementary or primary 
schools on the one hand, and the uni- 
versities on the other. At the top of the 
list would come, for England, the nine 
great public schools of Eton, Winchester, 
Westminster, Charterhouse, St. Paul's, 
Merchant Taylors', Harrow, Rugby, and 
Shrewsbury. Then would come the schools, 
whether endowed, private, or proprietary, 
which the Schools Inquiry Commissioners 
divided into three grades, defined by the 
length of time during which parents are 
willing to keep their children under in- 
struction. ' It is found,' say the commis- 
sioners [Report, vol. i. p. 15), 'that, viewed 
in this way, education, as distinct from 
direct preparation for employment, can at 
present be classified as (1) that which is 
to stop at about fourteen, (2) that which 
is to stop at about sixteen, and (3) that 
which is to continue until eighteen or nine- 
teen; and for convenience we shall call 
these the third, second, and the first grade 
of education respectively.' Parents who 
desire first-grade education are of two 
kmds : (a) those of ample means, whose 
wish is to widen education, and on whose 
behoof, therefore, 'bifurcation' into mo- 
dern language and science sides has been 
adopted at some of the great schools ; and 
(6) those of good education, but confined 
means, whose wish is to cheapen education. 
Parents who desire second-grade education 
are also of two classes: {a) those whose 
children are to enter professions requiring 
early special training ; (&) those of strait- 



ened means, who are described as, in the 
main, rejecting or being indifferent to 
Latin, and desire for their children a 
thorough knowledge of subjects which can 
be turned to practical use in business, 
i.e. English, arithmetic, the elements of 
mathematics, some science, one or more 
modern languages. ' The education of the 
first grade, which continues until eighteen 
or past, and that of the second grade, 
which stops at about sixteen, seem to meet 
the demands of all the wealthier part of 
the community, including not only the 
gentry and professional classes, but all the 
larger shopkeejoers, rising men of business, 
and the larger tenant-farmers. The third 
grade of education, which stops at fourteen, 
would be sought by the smaller tenant- 
farmers, the small tradesmen, and superior 
artisans ' {Report, vol. i. p. 20). The need 
of this class is summed up as a minimum, 
' very good reading, very good writing, 
very good arithmetic' In the larger and 
more enterprising centres of population 
this class of persons is found more fre- 
quently to desire second-grade than third- 
grade education, and in fact either to rest 
contented with the elementary education 
given in the board schools, or, if they re- 
quire anything further, to seek it at once 
in a second-grade school. As an illustra- 
tion of this, it may be mentioned that the 
thii'd-grade schools established by the com- 
missioners at Birmingham on the founda- 
tion of King Edward VI. were found to 
be unnecessary, and were abolished after 
a few years' trial, and have since been re- 
placed by additional second-grade schools. 
Secondary schools of the character of ad- 
vanced technical or trade schools, such as 
the Ecole Centrale at Lyons, or the Higher 
Trade Institute at Chemnitz, do not exist 
at present in England ; but their esta- 
blishment has been strongly urged bj- 'le 
Poyal Commissioners on Technical in- 
struction (2nd Report, vol. i. p. 528). 

Classification of scholars. — When the 
scholars of a school are divided up into 
classes in such a way that each class is 
composed of scholars of nearly equal at- 
tainments, they are said to be classified, or, 
in the United States, graded. The evi- 
dence of equality of attainments may be 
arrived at by taking one subject of in- 
struction, or several cognate subjects, or 
all the subjects of the school course, into 
consideration. Thus, there may be in a 
school only one classification, or, on the 



64 



CLASSIFICATION ^CLERICAL SCHOOLMASTERS 



other hand, as many classifications as there 
are subjects of instruction. In English 
elementary schools, which are guided so 
largely by the ' standards ' of examination 
laid down for her Majesty's inspectors, it 
is usual to find only one classification for 
all subjects, viz. that by standards, and 
the scholars in a particular standard con- 
stitute a class which usually goes by the 
name of the standard the syllabus of which 
they are working during the year. In 
good secondary schools it is usual to have 
at least two classifications, one for general 
subjects, including divinity, English, Latin, 
French (and German), history, and geo- 
graphy, and another for arithmetic and 
mathematics. Further re-classifications 
may take place for science and for draw- 
ing. The limit to the number of re- 
classifications is largely determined by the 
nature of the staff", and by the facilities 
afforded by the school premises for rapid 
and quiet movements of the scholars. Pro- 
motions from class to class take place 
annually in public elementary schools im- 
mediately after the annual inspection, and, 
as no scholar who has passed in two out 
of the three elementary subjects can, except 
under very special circumstances, be pre- 
sented for examination in the same stan- 
dard a second time, the whole class (or 
standard) is promoted bodily to the work 
of the next class (or standard). But in 
secondary schools promotions are usually 
at least half-yearly, and frequently ter- 
minal (i.e. three times a year). The 
standard of the work of a given class is 
maintained by promoting only those in the 
class or classes below it who have earned 
their promotion by having reached the 
average standard of that class. It is usual 
in good secondary boys' schools to have 
special masters for each of the subjects, 
French, German, science, and frequently 
also mathematics, while all the other sub- 
jects are taught by the ' class ' master. In 
the girls' schools recently established under 
the Girls' Public Day School Company, 
and other proprietary bodies, the • depart- 
mental ' system of staffing, in its fullest 
development, where every subject is taught 
by a specialist, has found great favour. 
This is largely due to the fact that in these 
girls' schools so many of the subjects of 
the curriculum are elective, and not com- 
pulsory. The mode of classification known 
as ' bifurcation' — where at a given stage in 
his school career, say, on arriving at the 



fourth form, a boy has the choice of con- 
tinuing a purely classical course on the 
classical ' side,' or combining less classics 
with more modern languages or science or 
mathematics on the ' modern ' or ' science ' 
side — finds favour principally in the great 
public schools, and in some other first- 
grade schools. This plan is open to the 
objection ' that it seems often difficult to 
prevent these modern departments from 
being a refuge for boys whose inferior 
ability has prevented their success in clas- 
sical studies, and a special department 
flooded with the idle and the dull cannot 
well be otherwise than a failure' [School 
Inquiry C ovimissioners' Report, vol. i. 
p. 17). But this danger has been obviated 
in many of the best schools which adopt 
bifurcation, by treating both ' sides ' as of 
equal dignity, distributing the rewards of 
the school impartially between the two, 
staffing the two 'sides' with masters of 
equally high attainments, and strenuously 
demanding from both master and boys an 
equally high standard of meritorious work. 

Class Rooms. See Architecture of 
Schools. 

Clerical Schoolmasters are of two 
classes. In many of the rural parishes, 
where the endowment of the school is 
small, the only way of obtaining a graduate 
master, where such is necessary by the 
original deed, is to appoint to the master- 
ship the incumbent or his curate. There 
are a few cases in which this course ap- 
pears, in the present disjointed state of 
secondary education, to have in some de- 
gree raised the character of the school. 
Indeed, in some of the northern counties 
the combination of the offices of parish 
clergyman and schoolmaster is frequent 
and useful. The combination, however, 
has been objected to on the ground that 
a man with only half his heart in his work 
and only half his time given to it is not 
so useful to a school as one who, with no- 
minally inferior qualifications, has studied 
the art of teaching, is in sympathy with 
his pupils, and devotes his whole energies 
to his work. ' Some of the worst schools,' 
said Mr. Fitch in his Report to the School 
Inquiry Commission, 1867-68, ' which I 
ever saw in my life were conducted by 
clergymen.' The Court of Chancery has 
in various cases ordered that the master 
should be a clergyman when the founder 
of the school has not so ordered. Dean 
Colet, the founder of St. Paul's, ordered 



CLOSING SCHOOLS FOR EPIDEMIC DISEASES CODE 



65 



by liis statutes that neither of the masters 
of that school, if in orders, nor the chaplain, 
shall have any benefice with cure or ser- 
vices which may hinder the business of 
the school. There is no rule of law which 
prevents a master of a school from holding 
an ecclesiastical preferment. If, of course, 
the holding of the two offices should cause 
him to neglect the duties of either, the 
remedy is the same as if he neglected 
either of his offices for any other cause. 
The second class of clerical schoolmasters 
consists of those who have taken holy 
orders with the view mainly of making 
teaching a profession. It is at times ad- 
vantageous for a schoolmaster to be in 
orders, because some parents are not satis- 
fied that the morals of their boys are well 
looked after unless the schoolmaster is a 
clergyman. His taking to schoolmaster- 
ing does not, however, militate against his 
chances of promotion in the Church ; in- 
deed in many cases it is favourable to such 
promotion. Many of our bishops and other 
of our dignified clerics have been school- 
masters. 

Closing Schools for Epidemic Diseases 
is but seldom required, though more often 
in boarding than day schools. In the 
former the necessity can usually be ob- 
viated by early isolation of suspected cases 
(all doubtful cases of illness should be 
treated as though it were certain that 
they were infectious), and by the estab- 
lishment of a properly organised school 
infirmary or sanatorium (q.v.). The closing 
of day schools under the following circum- 
stances may be advisable : (1) If the at- 
tendance at school is greatly reduced by a 
severe epidemic (as of Measles, for in- 
stance), preventing the continuance of a 
regular course of study. (2) In thinly 
populated rural districts, where children 
seldom meet except in school, closing the 
school may effectually check the spread 
of an epidemic ; but in towns and large 
villages it is of little use, as the children 
play together out of school hours. (3) If 
any local sanitary defects of the school 
are detected, the school should be closed 
during their repair. Children are apt to 
crowd round open drains, to watch the 
workmen, and in this way sore throat, or 
even diphtheria or typhoid fever, may 
be produced. It should be remembered 
that the local sanitary authority of the 
district, on the advice of their medical 
officer, have power to order the closing of 



any public elementary day school, and the 
managers of the school forfeit the grant 
frora the Education Department on failing 
to carry out the wishes of the sanitarji 
authority. This is subject to appeal to 
the Education Department. (1) If more 
careful attention were paid to the early 
symptoms of infectious diseases (q.v.), and 
all children suffering from suspicious symp- 
toms were sent home until uncertainty 
was removed, it would seldom be neces- 
sary to close schools on account of a pre- 
valent epidemic. Attention to the fol- 
lowing additional rules would also tend to 
obviate the same necessity : (2) JSTo child 
should be allowed to return to school until 
a reasonable time has elapsed (see Duration 
OP Infection) from the beginning of the 
disease, nor without a medical certificate 
of freedom from infection. (3) No other 
child from the infectious house should be 
allowed to attend school, although appa- 
rently well. (4) All parents should be 
obliged (under penalty of a fine) to report 
all cases of infectious disease to the sani- 
tary authority. (5) Where the last regu- 
lation is not in force, teachers or the school 
visitor should intimate to the inspector 
of the sanitary authority the absence of 
all children whose cases are suspicious. 
Teachers not infrequently send scholars to 
enquire about absentees, and thus they 
are brought in contact with infection. 

Coach. — Name given to tutors who 
devote themselves to the preparation of 
students in special subjects. The services 
of a ' coach ' are especially in request, and 
are proportionately valued, by candidates 
for the various examinations for univer- 
sity honours and appointments under Go- 
vernment. The ' coach,' being a specialist 
in the subjects for which he prepares can- 
didates, is enabled to direct his pupil's 
attention to the technical and particular 
points which are likely to arise in any 
special examination. 

Cocker, Edward (b. 1631).— An en- 
graver and teacher of writing and arith- 
metic, famous for a school-book with which 
his name has been familiarly associated in 
the phrase ' according to Cocker. ' Cocker's 
Arithmetic, 1677, published after the au- 
thor's death, reached the 37th edition in 
1720. He is also the reputed author of four- 
teen books of exercises on penmanship, of 
which one is extant in the British Museum. 

Code. — The term 'code,' in its strict 
sense, is the short title for the ' Code of 

F 



CODE 



Regulations by the Lords of the Committee 
o£ the Privy Council on Education' (q-v.), 
laid annually on the table of both Houses 
of Parliament, pursuant to the 97th section 
of the Elementary Education Act, 1870. 
When it has been upon the table for one 
month (during which it may be modified by 
Parliament), it becomes law — a schedule, 
in fact, of the Elementary Education Acts 
of 1870, 1873, 1874, 1876, 1879, 1880, 
which together constitute the Elementary 
Education law in force for the time being. 
There are separate Committees of the Privy 
Council on Education for England and 
Wales and for Scotland, and separate 
'codes.' These codes contain the condi- 
tions required to be fulfilled by public 
elementary schools, and by training col- 
leges for teachers, in order to obtain an 
annual Parliamentary grant in aid of main- 
tenance. The codes for the two countries 
are very similar in the character and scope 
of their regulations, the three main points 
of difference being (1) that in the Scotch 
code the definition of the class of school 
which may receive Parliamentary grants is 
more elastic than that in the English code, 
in the direction of allowing higher fees to 
be charged, and greater latitude for the 
teaching of more advanced subjects ; (2) 
that in the former code a training college 
is defined as a ' college for the instruction 
of candidates for the office of teacher,' and 
may therefore be either a 'resident' or 
' non-resident' college ; while in the latter 
code it is defined as an ' institution for 
boarding, lodging, and instructing' such 
candidates, thereby excluding non-resident 
colleges ; (3) graduates in arts or science 
of any university in the United Kingdom 
are recognised as teachers under certain 
conditions as to practical skill. Accord- 
ingly it will be sufficient in the present 
article to speak of the English code only. 
The following is a brief analysis of the 
Code : 1 . A public elementary school is 
a school at which elementary education is 
the principal part of the education there 
given, and at which the fees do not exceed 
9d. a week per scholar. It must be con- 
ducted subject to a conscience clause, giving 
the right of exemption of any scholar from 
attendance at any religious worship, ob- 
servance, or instruction. Religious in- 
struction, if given, must take place at 
either the beginning or end of each school 
meeting. 2. The annual grants are made 
to the managers of this school, after a re- 



port from one of her Majesty's inspectors 
of schools upon the state of the school 
buildings, the qualifications of the teachers, 
and the attendance and proficiency of the 
scholars. No grant is made for any in- 
struction in religious subjects. 3. Any 
persons are eligible as managers of an ele- 
mentary school. School boards are the 
managers of all schools provided by them. 
Managers may not derive any emolu- 
ment from their schools, and the school 
must not be conducted for private profit. 
The principal teacher must be certificated 
{see Teaining Teachers). 5. The school 
must have met not less than 400 times 
(each attendance being for not less than 
two hours of secular instruction) during 
the school year. 6. The annual grant is 
made up of several grants : (a) In infants' 
schools (ages three to seven), a fixed grant 
of 9s. (or 7s.) for each unit in the average 
attendance for the year ; a merit grant of 
2s., 4s., or 6s., if the inspector reports the 
school to be fair, good, or excellent ; a 
needlework grant of Is., and a singing 
grant of Is. (or Qd.). (b) In boys' and girls' 
schools (ages seven and upwards) a fixed 
grant of 4s. 6d. ; a merit grant of Is., 2s., 
or 3s. ; a needleivork grant of Is. (girls) ; 
a singing grant of Is. ; an examination 
grant in ' elementary ' subjects, determined 
by the inspector's reports on the percent- 
age of passes of individucd scholars in the 
standards, at the rate of Id. for each unit 
of percentage ; an examination grant in 
' class' subjects of Is. or 2s. for each of 
two subjects; an examination grant in (at 
most) two ' specific ' subjects of 4s. per each 
scholar passing in each subject (confined to 
Standards Y., YL, and YIL). All except 
the last-named grant are calculated upon 
the ' average attendance ' for the year. The 
elementary subjects are reading, writing, 
and arithmetic. These are obligatory. The 
class subjects — examined not individually 
but by classes — are English, geography, ele- 
mentary science, history, and needlework 
(for girls). These, together with singing, 
are optional, with the exception of needle- 
work for girls in day schools, which is 
obligatory. (For further details and list 
of specific subjects, see under Course of 
Instruction and Standards.) 7. Grants 
are also made to evening schools under 
specified conditions as to attendance 
and efficiency as tested by inspection. 
8. The code also contains schedules which 
lay down the seven standards of examina- 



CODE COLET, JOHN 



67 



tion in elementary subjects, and the course 
of instruction in class subjects, in needle- 
work, and in specific subjects ; also the 
qualifications and certificates required 
of pupil-teachers (q.v.). 9. The teachers 
recognised by the Department in day 
schools are : (a) pupil-teachers not less 
than fourteen years of age ; (6) assistant- 
teachers ; (c) provisionally certificated 
teachers ; (d) certificated teachers. Lay 
persons only are recognised. The power 
of appointment and dismissal of teachers 
rests solely with the managers. The num- 
ber of pupil-teachers must not exceed 
three for the principal teacher and one for 
each cei-tificated assistant-teacher. 10. 
Teachers can obtain certificates only by 
examination and probation by actual ser- 
vice in school. The examination is open 
to (a) students who have resided for at 
least one year in training colleges under 
inspection ; (b) candidates who, being up- 
wards of twenty years of age, have been 
employed for not less than two years as 
provisionally certificated teachers, or have 
served as assistant -teachers for at least 
twelve months in inspected schools under 
certificated teachers. After passing the 
examination, candidates for certificates 
must, as teachers continuously engaged in 
the same schools, obtain two favourable 
reports from an inspector, with an interval 
of at least one year between them. (See 
Training op Teachers.) 11. The certi- 
ficates are of three classes. A successful 
examination in the subjects for second- 
year's students (in training colleges) en- 
titles to a second-class certificate ; in 
the subjects for first-year's students to a 
third-class certificate. A third-class cer- 
tificate can be raised to a second by re- 
examination, but a second-class can be 
raised to a first-class by (ten years') good 
service only. 12. The Code also contains 
clauses for the limitation and reduction of 
the grant under certain circumstances. 
The total annual grant, exclusive of some 
special grants, is limited to the greater of 
the two sums named, viz. (a) a sum equal 
to 17s. 6c?. for each unit of average atten- 
dance ; [b) the total income of the school 
from all sources whatever other than the 
grant, and from some special grants. The 
annual grant may be reduced upon the 
inspector's report, for various faults of 
discipline, instruction, or registration ; and 
for insufficient accommodation, apparatus, 
and teaching staff. 



Colburn, Warren (6. 1793, d. 1833).— 
A celebrated mathematician and educa- 
tionist of the United States. Self-in- 
structed, he entered Harvard College at 
twenty-four years of age, where he greatly 
distinguished himself in his mathematical 
studies. Colburn, as a member of the Com- 
mission of Public Schools, rendered great 
service to primary education by intro- 
ducing, in place of the purely mechanical 
methods and mnemonics then in vogue, 
the cultivation of the reasoning and re- 
flective faculty. Especially was this the 
case in arithmetic, on which subject he 
published (1821) a work, First Lessons in 
Arithmetic, which marked an epoch in the 
study of that branch of mathematics, and 
is still sold in the United States. He also 
published A Supple-inent to First Lessons 
in Arithmetic (1824:), Algebra (1828), be- 
sides some minor works. Although his 
ideas of education were worked out inde- 
pendently, there was in them much in com- 
mon with the system of Pestalozzi. 

Colet, John (1466-1519), Dean of St. 
Paul's, and founder in 1509 of the school 
now known as ' St. Paul's School,' was 
one of the most striking personages of a 
most interesting period — that, namely, 
when the first stirrings of the movement 
which led to the Reformation in England 
began to make themselves felt. He was 
learned, clear-sighted, and outspoken — 
with touches at times of an almost fiery in- 
dignation when confronted by any ignorant, 
self-seeking, or slothful impiety — pure- 
hearted, noble-minded. The most notable 
thing about his school was its being the 
first in England in which Greek was taught; 
while Lilly, its first head- master (or rather 
' high master '), was the author of, amongst 
other things, the famous Propria quce 
maribus and As in prcesenti. An excel- 
lent short account of Colet' s Life ayid Work, 
by Mr. J. H. Lupton, has lately been pub- 
lished (G. Bell & Sons). As an example 
of Colet's clear-sightedness in matters 
of education, it may be mentioned that 
his statutes specially make provision for 
future changes and developments. In his 
Accidence, which he specially prepared 
for the boys of his school, he says, ' In 
the beginning men spake not Latin be- 
cause such rules were made, bat contrari- 
wise, because men spake such Latin, upon 
that followed the rules. That is to say, 
Latin speech was before the rules, and not 
the rules before Latin speech.' 

f2 



68 



COLLEGE COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS 



College (Lat. collegium) originally de- 
noted a collection or society of persons, 
invested with certain rights and powers, 
and performing certain duties, or occupied 
in the same employment. In a particular 
sense ' college ' signifies an assembly for a 
political or ecclesiastical purpose, as at 
Rome the collegium pontificum. In Great 
Britain and America some societies of 
physicians are called 'colleges,' as, for ex- 
ample, the Royal College of Physicians, 
incorporated by the State. The term im- 
plies institutions affiliated to a recognised 
university which are endowed with re- 
venues, their fellows, tutors, and students 
living together under a head in a particular 
building. The academic use of the word 
college began about the fifteenth century, 
the first being established at Paris. The 
word is now generally used to signify 
almost all educational institutions of re- 
cognised repute, and has in recent years 
been largely adopted by the proprietors of 
private schools From the title of Grey's 
ode. On a Distant Prospect of Eton College, 
it is evident that the term was long ago 
applied to that famous public school. {See 
Universities and Provincial Colleges.) 

Combe, Andrew, h. Edinburgh 1797, 
and took his M.D. at that university. Be- 
fore reaching his twentieth year he became 
an advocate of phrenology, and, in con- 
junction with his elder brother, George, 
established the Edinburgh Phrenological 
Journal. He visited Spurzheim, who 
strongly confirmed him in his phreno- 
logical views. George Combe was an 
ardent advocate of popular education and 
social progress, and Andrew seems to have 
imbibed from him that profound interest 
in the physical and mental well-being of 
his countrymen which so eminently cha- 
racterised him. However strongly we 
may question the phrenological views of 
the brothers, their claim to fame and gra- 
titude rests chiefiy on other grounds, In 
1834 Andrew Combe brought out the first 
edition of his Principles of Physiology, 
applied to the Preservation of Health and 
■ to the Developm,ent of Physical and Mental 
Education. This book still maintains its 
supremacy as a popular guide to physio- 
logy as applied to the preservation of 
health. It is a popular manual, interest- 
ing to all, without deviating from the 
sobriety and accuracy which should mark 
a manual on a scientific subject. Its 
popularity was at once great, and its sale 



has been enormous both in this country 
and in the United States. In the first 
edition Dr. Combe urged that physiology 
should form a part of general education. 
This was received with ridicule or doubt, 
or even with disgust. Since that time, 
however, the wisdom of the proposition 
has been almost universally acknowledged, 
though its practical adoption is still im- 
perfect and partial. The science of phy- 
siology is one of the optional subjects under 
the Elementary Education Code, and the 
introduction of hygiene (i.e. the laws of 
physiology as applied to health) as a new 
science in the list of the subjects of the 
Science and Art Department is another 
notable step. In 1838 Dr. Combe was ap- 
pointed one of the physicians extraordinary 
to the Queen in Scotland, and about the 
same time he published his y>o^v1suV Manual 
on Disorders of Digestion, which rapidly 
passed through nine editions. His last 
work, in 1840, was entitled A Treatise on 
the Physiological and Moral Management 
of Infancy, which is full of interesting and 
practically important matter. He died in 
1847. 

Comenius, Johann Amos (6. ISTivnitz, 
Moravia, 1591, d. 1671), one of the most 
illustrious educational reformers, was the 
son of a miller who was a member of the 
Moravian Brethren, of which religious 
body Comenius became a bishop. His 
parents died while he was a child, and he 
was left to the care of guardians. At 
school he learnt ' reading, writing, the 
catechism, and the smallest beginnings of 
arithmetic' He was sixteen before he be- 
gan the study of Latin. He was not am- 
bitious, but earnestly religious, and it was 
his religion which supplied the educational 
motive. At sixteen he was sent to a Latin 
school, and at twenty he was studying at 
the college of Herborn. Probably because 
he began to study Latin late he was able to 
criticise the defective method of teaching. 
His account of schools is unfortunately 
still far too true where he says, ' they are 
the terror of boys and the slaughterhouses 
of minds — places where a hatred of litera- 
ture and books is contracted.' But he 
gave a life of untiring zeal to develop a 
system of education that should at least 
have some resemblance to the meaning of 
the word. He took up the work which 
had been commenced by Ratich (q-v.), 
and began by simplifying the Latin gram- 
mar. He was ordained to the pastorate 



COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS 



69 



ill 1616, and in 1618 was appointed to 
one of the largest churches of the Mora- 
vians at Fuhiek. Here he had charge 
of a school as well, and here too he mar- 
ried. But in 1621 Fuhiek was taken by 
the Spaniards, and Comenius lost every- 
thing, including his library and manu- 
scripts. In 1622 he lost his wife and only 
child, and for some years, owing to the 
destruction and persecution of the Thirty 
Years' War, he was a wanderer. It was 
whilst witnessing much of the misery and 
distress of this calamitous period that he 
devised a plan for the renovation of schools 
as a means to restore religion. He fled to 
Poland, settled in Lesna, and became a 
teacher in the Moravian Gymnasium there. 
He wrote his Great Didactic to set forth 
his method ; then he brought out Janua 
Linguarum, which contained 8,000 words 
in 1,000 sentences. This remarkable book 
was published in many languages, and de- 
serves notice side by side with the best of 
recent methods, with which it agrees in 
principle. But not only did Comenius 
labour to aid the student in acquiring 
Latin, he also turned his attention to 
science. Bacon's Advancement of Learn- 
ing had raised great hopes in Comenius. 
He wished to gather a complete statement 
of all that was known into one work. This 
he called Pansophia. Comenius visited 
England with a view to founding a college 
to try his scheme of Pansophic instruction, 
under the sanction of Parliament ; but the 
unsettled times did not admit of its being- 
carried out. In August, 1642, he left Lon- 
don for Sweden, where he had long inter- 
views with John Skyte and Oxenstiern. 
They urged that he should devote himself 
to benefit schools and make the study of 
Latin easier. Thus in various places he 
worked hard for six years, and his works 
were published at Lesna, where he had 
finished them. After this he resided at 
Patak, where he wrote many more books, 
including his famous Orbis Ficttis, and 
founded a seminary which he called La- 
tium, where only Latin was allowed to be 
spoken. This was his Pansophic seminary. 
Prom Patak he returned once more to 
Lesna, but there, owing to the outbreak of 
war, he again lost all his property, including 
some valuable manuscripts. Upon the in- 
vitation of his friend De Geer, he went 
to Amsterdam at the age of sixty-three, 
and there again devoted himself to the 
labours of writinsr. Here he continued to 



reside, and was supported partly by teach- 
ing and partly by the private liberality of 
his friends. He had married a second 
time, and was the father of five children. 
He dedicated his works to the city of 
Amsterdam in gratitude for its hospi- 
tality. A mere list of his works is far too 
long to insert here, and we can only give 
a sketch of his educational system. Its 
general aim is stated thus : Man is the 
most excellent of animals ; his goal is be- 
yond this life, for this life is only a pre- 
paration for eternity, in which preparation 
there are three steps — he should know 
all things, he should have power over all 
things and over himself, he should refer 
himself and all things to God. Here at 
least we have a distinguishing mark of 
Comenius as compared with so many edu- 
cational reformers — his system arose from 
religion, not in rebellion against it. He 
elaborates much on the question : How 
are we to learn ' surely, easily, solidly ' ? 
From a mass of minute answers to these 
questions we note two principles which 
are steadily gaining ground, viz. that a 
language should be learnt not from a 
grammar, but from suitable authors, and 
that one language should be learnt at 
once. It would require a volume to give 
his system in detail. He frequently insisted 
that the hours of tuition should be few, 
with many intervals, and that there should 
be two half holidays weekly, a fortnight 
at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, and 
a whole month at the harvest time. The 
reader is simply staggered at the work 
accomplished by Comenius, 

The Orbis Pictus (the World Illus- 
trated) is the most famous of all the 
writings of Comenius, and contains the 
fullest illustrations of the applications of 
his principles. It was designed to be sup- 
plementary to his earlier primers and text- 
books, of which the best known are the 
Vestibulum, the Janua, and the Atrium. 
Professor S. S. Laurie, in his excellent 
Life of Comenivs, which forms one of the 
volumes of the Education Library, edited 
by Sir Philip Magnus, and published by 
Kegan Paul, Trench, and Co., says that 
the Orbis Pictus ' may be best described 
as a series of rude engravings of sensible 
objects, accompanied by a description of 
them in short and easy sentences. For ex- 
ample, we have the picture of a ship with 
its sails partly set, and a number attached 
to each part of the ship which corresponds 



70 



COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN SCHOOLS 



to a number in the lesson, thus : the number 
2 is engraved on the sails, and in the lesson 
we have this sentence, ' The ship has (2) 
sails.' The title of the book was ' The 
World of Sensible Things draimi ; that 
is, the nomenclature of all fundamental 
things in the world and actions in life re- 
duced to ocular demonstration, so that it 
may be a lamp to the Vestibtdum and 
Jamca of languages.' The work went 
through a great number of editions, and 
became the most popular school-book in 
Europe. It was illustrated by Michael 
Endter of Nuremberg, to whom Comenius 
gratefully acknowledged his indebtedness. 
Comenius was the head of the realistic 
school of educational reformers who laid 
the foundations of the science of educa- 
tional method. 

Communicable Diseases in School. — 
In addition to the infectious specific dis- 
eases (q.v.), there are certain diseases 
which are frequently produced by contact 
between children. The most important 
of these is Scabies or Itch. This shews 
itself as a pimply rash, most frequently 
seen between the roots of the fingers and 
at the bends of joints, especially at the 
wrist. It is extremely irritable, and in 
more aggravated forms greatly resembles 
eczema, with which it is often confused, 
and thus the infection spreads before the 
true character of the disease is detected. 
It is due to the rapid multiplication of a 
ininate insect (the acarus scabiei) not un- 
like a cheese-mite, the female of which 
forms minute burrows in the epidermis, 
and lays numerous eggs, which hatch in 
about fourteen days. It is very contagious, 
especially when its true character is not 
recognised. Any child suffering from a 
rash which causes him to scratch his skin 
frequently should be excluded from school. 
The proper treatment is to bathe the skin, 
using soft soap freely, and then rub in sul- 
phur ointment night and morning. Return 
to school should not be allowed without a 
medical certificate and until the clothes 
have been baked or washed in boiling 
water. Ringioorm is caused by the growth 
of a minute fungus on the skin. It causes 
round patches raised at the margin, where 
the growth of the parasite is most active. 
On the scalp it also causes large round 
patches, on which the hair is usually not 
entirely gone, but short and stumpy. Here 
the fungus extends down to the roots of 
the hairs, and obstinately remains tliere, 



even when the superficial parts have been 
cured. Such children are frequently al- 
lowed to return to school. It is a great 
mistake to suppose that ringworm is neces- 
sarily cured when the hair begins to grow 
on the diseased places. If on careful and 
minute examination no short stumpy hairs 
(protruding about ^ inch) can be found, 
then the case may be regarded as cured. 
A scurfy condition of the head is commonly 
left after ringworm of the scalp, and this 
condition generally indicates that the ring- 
worm is not properly cured, but is still 
slightly infectious. Unless ringworm is 
carefully and systematically treated, a 
child may require to be excluded from 
school for six months or even longer. 
Ringworm is often spread in schools by 
exchanging hats and caps, or by brushes 
and towels, or by actual contact. Hair- 
dressers occasionally pass it on, as do chil- 
dren's hatters by trying numerous caps on 
different children. Chronic ophthcdmia, 
characterised by soreness and redness of 
the eyelids, is contagious, and occasionally 
spreads in boarding-schools. It seldom oc- 
curs, however, except in parochial schools, 
and the conditions more particularly lead- 
ing to it are badly ventilated dormitories, 
insufficient food, and general unhygienic 
conditions, along with the promiscuous use 
of towels. Irish children seem to be par- 
ticularly prone to suffer from it. Scald- 
head is characterised by scabs on the 
head. A similar rash may occur on the 
face. It often spreads by contact with 
other children, and such children should 
therefore be excluded from school. The 
preceding diseases are commimicated by 
actual contact. Chorea and Hysteria are 
occasionally spread in schools by imita- 
tion and sympathy. Every teacher should 
be able to recognise the jerky twitchings, 
shuffling of feet, contortions of face, and 
twitching of eyelids which characterise 
chorea (St. Vitus's Dance), and children 
suffering from it require prolonged rest 
from school-work. Other children are apt 
to imitate the movements, and thus an 
imitative chorea may be produced. Hys- 
teria only occurs in girls' schools. It may 
simulate a simple faint or an epileptic fit ; 
but there is not the extreme pallor of face 
and lips which characterises a faint ; nor 
usually the absolute unconsciousness and 
absence of flinching which characterise the 
epileptic patient. The hysterical girl gene- 
rally tries to attract attention and sym- 



COMPANIONSHIP COMTE, ISIDORE 



1 



pathy, and is not so absolutely unconscious 
of her surroundings as the epileptic patient. 
She should be firmly treated, and not al- 
lowed to attract too much attention. 

Companionship. — The importance of 
companions as a factor in the mental and 
moral development of the child has been 
recognised by the best writers on educa- 
tion. Locke, who deals with the subject 
at length in section 68 and following of his 
Thoughts on Education, returns to it in 
section 146. According to him, company is 
a greater force to work upon the pupil 
than all that can be done by the educator. 
The educative value of companions is strik- 
ingly illustrated in the special difficulties 
that present themselves to the parent in 
the early home training of a solitary child. 
The influence of companions is seen first 
in promoting intellectual development. A 
child's mind is stimulated to observe and 
to think by the movements of others' 
minds. Play, by its action of mind on 
mind and its association of a number of 
individuals in concerted orderly action, 
illustrates in a striking manner the stimu- 
lating effect of companionship on the in- 
telligence and on the active powers (see 
Play). On the moral side the benefits 
are still more manifest. It is by freely 
coming into contact with other wills that 
the child first realises the conditions that 
underlie the distinctions of right and wrong. 
The individual can only realise his moral 
nature by means of social relations, and 
these are first experienced by the child in 
intercourse with other children. Compan- 
ionship works powerfully through the im- 
pulse of Imitation (which see). This is 
illustrated in the eifect of a single com- 
pardon and friend in modifying the taste, 
inclination, and course of the thoughts of 
a child ; and it is seen still more plainly 
in the influence of numbers in assimilating 
the opinions, sentiments, and rules of action 
of a boy to those of the set or community 
of which he is a niember. The influence 
of companions on this larger scale is a 
prominent feature of school life, serving 
to differentiate it from the life of the home, 
and requiring to be specially taken into ac- 
count in a comparison of the advantages of 
home and school training. The ' sympathy 
of numbers,' as it is called, is a force which 
the teacher has to reckon with in all class 
work. The learner is as much, at least, 
subject to the prevailing feeling of the 
class as he is to the personal influence of 



the teacher ; consequently, where the for- 
mer is hostile to the latter, discipline be- 
comes impossible. On the other hand, the 
presence in a class of a cheerful alertness, 
of a spirit of industry, and of a feeling of 
respect for authority, is the most valuable 
auxiliary which the preceptor can secure. 
The freer and more varied action of com- 
panionship is seen in the playground, where 
it may shew itself, as Tom Broivn's School 
Days and other stories of school life well 
illustrate, as a moral influence of a singu- 
larly deep and lasting kind. Such being 
the importance of companionship, the edu- 
cator should make it one chief part of 
his business to select, more particularly in 
the early years before the child's character 
is formed, pure and right-minded compan- 
ions. And the thoughtful schoolmaster 
will seek in every way to enlist the influ- 
ence of numbers on his side by judiciously 
acting upon, instructing, and correcting 
the prevailing beliefs and sentiments of 
his community. (*S'ee article 'Umgang' in 
Schmid's Encyclojjddie.) 

Competitive Examinations, ^ee Ex- 
amination. 

Composition. ^S'ee Essays. 

Comte, Isidore Auguste Marie Fran- 
cois Xavier {h. 1798, d. 1857), the Positive 
philosopher, was educated at the Ecole 
Polytechnique, and at first embraced the 
socialist tenets of St. Simon. He subse- 
quently abandoned these for the philo- 
sophy now associated with his name. The 
scheme of education which he therein ex- 
pounded is as striking as it is original and 
peculiar. He was dissatisfied with the 
then prevailing systems. No education, 
he considered, would be satisfactory unless 
it inculcated a thorough knowledge of each 
science. Let us, he cried, have a new class 
of students, suitably prepared, whose busi- 
ness it should be to take the respective 
sciences as they are, determine the spirit of 
each, ascertain their relations and mutual 
connection, and reduce their respective 
principles to the smallest number of general 
principles in accordance with the funda- 
mental rules of the Positive method (see 
his Philosophie Positive). At the same 
time let other students be prepared for 
their special pursuit by an education which 
recognises the whole scope of the Positive 
science, so as to profit by the labours of 
the students of generalities, and so as to 
correct reciprocally, under that guidance, 
the results obtained by each. Such a 



72 



CONCEPTION CONDORCET, MARQUIS DE 



reform would strengthen the intellectual 
functions, regenerate education, advance 
the sciences by combining them, and re- 
organise society. Hence, Comte contended, 
the only logical, as well as the only his- 
torical, way of educating youth effectually 
was to teach them the sciences according 
to the order promulgated in his hierarchy 
of the sciences — mathematics, astronomy, 
physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology 
On such principles an education would 
have a powerful gymnastic effect upon the 
mind. A good education would include 
knowledge of the general principles at 
least of each of these ; and as each science 
trains to a special way of thinking, the 
perfectly trained mind was that which had 
been exercised in all these sciences. No 
student could know a science without a 
competent knowledge of the anterior sci- 
ences on which it depended. Physical 
philosophers could not understand physics 
without at least a general knowledge of 
astronomy ; nor chemists chemistry with- 
out physics and astronomy ; nor, above 
all, the student of social philosophy socio- 
logy without a general knowledge of all 
the anterior sciences. As such conditions 
were never at the present day fulfilled 
there could be no rational scientific edu- 
cation. Hence the imperfection of even 
the most important scientific education. If 
the fact was so in regard to scientific edu- 
cation, it was no less strikingly so in regard 
to general education. Our intellectual sys- 
tem could not be renovated until the sci- 
ences were studied in their proper order. 
Even the highest understandings were apt 
to associate their ideas according to the 
order in which their ideas had been re- 
ceived, and it was only an intellect here 
and there, in any age, which in its utmost 
vigour could, like Bacon, Descartes, and 
Leibnitz, make a clearance in the field of 
knowledge so as to reconstruct from the 
foundation their system of ideas. 

Conception. — This term, as the ety- 
mology suggests [con and capio, to take 
together), describes the act by which we 
gather up in a single mental representa- 
tion a number of like objects which are 
thereby constituted into a class, as animal, 
metal. This is effected by comparing con- 
crete individuals one with another, and 
seizing the quality or qualities which they 
possess in common. The result of the act 
of conception, which is necessarily em- 
bodied in a general name, is known as a 



concept. The essential process in concep- 
tion is abstraction. This correct meaning 
of conception (viz. the symbolic repre- 
sentation of a general class) must be care- 
fully distinguished from another meaning 
often attached to the word in educational 
writings, viz. the mental realisation of 
some concrete object or incident, e.g. the 
Temple at Jerusalem, through the medium 
of verbal description. This last operation 
is best described as an act of construc- 
tive imagination {see Construction and 
Imagination). {See Hamilton's Lectures 
on Metaphysics, vol. i. p. 212 3 Baynes's 
Essay on Analyt. of Logical Forms, pp. 
5, 6 ; and Sully's Handbook of Psychology, 
chaps, xii. xiii.) 

Condillac, Etienne Bonnet, Abbe de 
Condillac, was born at Grenoble 1715, and 
died 1780. As a philosopher, he is dis- 
tinguished by his advocacy of the system 
of Locke, though he differed widely from 
him. Locke held that there were two 
sources of ideas, sensation and reflection. 
Condillac reduced all to one source, sensa- 
tion. His third book, A Treatise on the 
Sensations, is considered his chief work. 
He became so celebrated that he was ap- 
pointed tutor to the Prince of Parma, and 
it was here that he published his Course 
of Studies, which he divides into the arts 
of writing, reasoning, thinking, followed 
by a general history of men and empires. 
As a writer he was lucid, and Mr. Lewes 
gives him chief praise, because ' he helped 
to withdraw men from the contemplation 
of a metaphysical entity.' He thus took 
an important step towards scientific, ob- 
jective research. 

Condorcet, Marquis de {b. 1743, d.in. 
prison 1794). — He was educated in the 
college of Navarre, and distinguished him- 
self in mathematics. In 1765 he published 
his first work On Integral Calculations, 
which met with great favour in the Academy 
of Sciences. This was followed by other 
works, which secured for him the honour 
of being chosen member of the Academy 
in 1769. Though not in the first rank of 
mathematicians, his labours on 'difierential 
equations ' have earned him an historical 
position. He applied philosophy to the 
amelioration of social institutions, and his 
main doctrine was the perfectibility of 
man, both in his individual and social ca- 
pacity. 'According to him the human 
frame and intellect, by the aid of time and 
education, would infallibly attain to per- 



CONDUCT CONSEQUENCES (DISCIPLINE OF) 



73 



fection.' He drew up a report on public 
instruction, entitled A Flan for a Consti- 
tution, which he presented to the Con- 
vention at their request, and in which he 
set forth some lofty views regarding the 
art of expanding the faculties of the human 
mind. A Sketch of the Progress of the 
Htiman Mind is perhaps his chief work. 
He never wearied in promoting reforms, 
and he sacrificed his life in his effort to 
found a republic upon a philosophic basis, 
for he was pi'oscribed as a Girondist when 
Robespierre was in power, and, having 
been thrown into prison, he took poison, 
and was found dead the morning after 
his incarceration. 

Conduct is the manner in which a 
person guides or regulates his actions. It 
refers not to single actions, but to the 
general mode of acting. As such, it is the 
external outcome of and index to the per- 
son's fixed dispositions and character. (^See 
Charactee.) As a uniform mode of be- 
having on which others can count, conduct 
is an embodiment of the principle of Habit 
(q.v.). Good conduct is that which, ob- 
jectively considered, conforms to the re- 
quirements of duty or the moral law ; and, 
subjectively considered, indicates a good 
moral disposition or a tendency to act 
rightly. From merely right conduct which 
satisfies the claims of duty sorne moralists 
distinguish virtuous, or, better, meritori- 
ous conduct, which goes beyond this, as 
when a child spontaneously denies him- 
self some gratification in order to benefit 
another. Good conduct is the ox'ganised 
result of repeated and habitual eftbrt. A 
child acquires conduct in the measure in 
which he exerts these efforts. Good con- 
duct is thus at once the fruit of moral cha- 
racter, and the means by which this grows 
and improves. The sphere of conduct in- 
cludes the whole of the child's life, so far as 
this can be brought under the control of the 
will. Thus, industry in study, orderliness, 
and propriety of deportment fall within 
the province, as well as the graver moral 
matters of honesty, veracity, &c. But the 
educator in estimating any branch of con- 
duct must carefully examine into the 
amount of efibrt involved as well as into 
the quality of the motive at work. He 
should remember, too, that the perfect 
type of conduct is the result of free self- 
guidance, and be on his guard against 
overvaluing a mere outward conformity 
to rule that is prompted by the desire of 



gaining, or the fear of losing, something, ' 
e.g. ' conduct marks.' (See articles Duty 
and Virtue.) 

Congregation (Oxford) has been greatly 
confused in its meaning by an Act of 
Parliament in 1 854. Before then the busi- 
ness of the University was transacted by 
two distinct assemblies, the Houses of 
Congregation and of Convocation. The 
ancient House of Congregation, which con- 
sists of all the persons who in ancient 
times were specially charged with the edu- 
cation and discipline of the University, 
has now nothing to do with legislation, 
and its business is confined almost exclu- 
sively to the granting of degrees. The 
Act of 1854 created the ' Congregation of 
the University of Oxford.' It consists of the 
Chancellor of the University and several 
other officials, together with ' all those mem- 
bers of Convocation who reside within one 
mile and a half of Carfax for twenty weeks 
during the year ending the 1st of Septem- 
ber.' The business of this new congrega- 
tion is chiefly legislative. When the Hebdo- 
madal Council has framed any new statute, 
it must first be promulgated, after due 
notice, here, and then, after three entire 
days, it is to be proposed here for accept- 
ance or rejection. A statute approved by 
Congregation is to be submitted to Con- 
vocation, after an interval of seven entire 
days, for final adoption or rejection. At 
Cambridge the meetings of the Senate in 
the Senate House are styled Congrega- 
tions. They are held for the purpose of 
legislation, examination, or the conferring 
of degrees. The members of the Senate 
are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, doctors 
of the various faculties, masters of arts, 
law, and surgery, and bachelors of di- 
vinity, whose names are on the University 
register. 

Conscience Clause. See Code. 

Consequences (Discipline of). — This 
phrase refers to the proposal of Rousseau, 
revived and developed by Mr. Herbert 
Spencer, that children's wrong-doing, in- 
stead of being visited by punishment (in 
its commonly understood sense), should be 
left to be corrected by an experience of its 
natural consequences. These would in- 
clude not only the proper physical result 
of careless, imprudent actions — e.g. play- 
ing with fire, leaving toys or books in 
disorder — but also the natural social con- 
sequences, such as the loss of friendship, 
trust, &c. The full and consistent carry- 



74 CONSTRUCTIVE FACULTY CONSUMPTION AND SCHOOL- WORK 



ing out of this idea would clearly be im- 
possible. The child's ignorance of the 
effects of its action renders a number of 
prohibitions necessary for its physical 
maintenance and well-being. Not only so, 
it may be reasonably maintained that these 
so-called natural penalties could never take 
the place of punishment proper — that is, 
inflictions attached by an authority to dis- 
obedience to its commands — as a means of 
moral development. It may, however, be 
readily conceded that in many cases a child 
is best left to the discipline of consequences, 
e.g. by being allowed to indulge within 
certain limits its greedy propensities. And 
where the educator has to impose prohibi- 
tions, the principle of natural consequences 
may be made use of by selecting such forms 
of punishment as will be seen by the 
culprit to be naturally connected with 
the wrong-doing. {^See Rousseau's ^mile, 
book ii. ; Herbert Spencer's Education, 
chap. iii. ; Bain's Education as a Science, 
chap. iii. ; Buisson's Dictionnctire de Feda- 
gogie, art. ' Obeissance.') 

Constructive Faculty. — By this term 
is meant the mind's power of combining 
the elements supplied by its experience in 
new forms. The process of construction 
is thus not, strictly speaking, one of mental 
origination, but merely of recasting and 
rearranging materials derived from the 
impressions of the past. It implies the 
retention and the reproduction of these 
impressions according to the Laws of 
Association. Beyond this it involves the 
action of the will in controlling the suc- 
cession of ideas due to the play of associa- 
tion, the due selection of what is fitted, 
and the rejection of what is unfitted to 
take a place in the desired product. The 
term refers in common discourse to all 
forms of practical contrivance and device, 
whether subserving the end of beauty or 
of utility. Thus, we speak of the con- 
structive power of an architect, a me- 
chanical inventor, and so forth. These 
practical operations, however, are only 
particular manifestations of a power which 
is exercised much more widely. Through- 
out the acquisition of knowledge by the 
processes of verbal instruction, as well as 
in the independent discovery of new facts 
and truths, the combining of old materials 
into new forms is illustrated. The child 
has to construct a new mental picture 
every time he realises a description of an 
unknown place, object, or event. The 



training of the constructive faculty thus 
enters into all intellectual education, the 
cultivation of the imagination by the Fine 
Arts (see Imagination), and, lastly, into 
all practical exercises, such as those of the 
voice in learning to speak and to sing, of 
the hands in kindergarten employments, 
drawing, writing, tfec, gymnastic move- 
ments, and so forth. (See Bain, Merited and 
Moral Science, bk. i. chap. iv. ; and Sully, 
Teacher's Handbook, chap. xi.). 

Consumption and School-work. — 
Consumption is one of the most fatal 
diseases in this country. In 1884, in Eng- 
land and Wales, out of a total of 530,828 
deaths, 49,325 were caused by consump- 
tion, and 20,083 by other tubercular 
and sci'ofulous diseases, which are pro- 
duced by similar causes to those induc- 
ing consumption. Thus, 13 per cent, 
of the total mortality of this country 
was ascribable to consumptive diseases. 
Of the total 69,408 deaths from consump- 
tive diseases, 12,746 occurred under the 
age of twenty" years, and it is evident, 
therefore, that the question of the influ- 
ence of school life on the tendency to 
consumption is one of great importance. 
Consumption is a very hereditary disease, 
and where the hereditary taint is marked, 
school work should be modified and the 
pupil's health guarded by generous diet 
and abundant outdoor exercise. A damp 
soil has been demonstrated to be a power- 
ful factor in causing consumption. It has 
been repeatedly demonstrated that when 
a neighbourhood is freely drained, thus 
robbing its subsoil of moisture, the mor- 
tality from consumption steadily decreases. 
In Salisbury the deaths from phthisis fell 
49 per cent., in Ely 47 per cent., in Rugby 
43 per cent., and in Banbury 41 per cent, 
after free drainage. It is evident, there- 
fore, that schools should be erected on a 
dry soil, and all precautions taken against 
damp floors and walls. Overcroioding has 
a very important influence in causing con- 
sumption. Dogs in ill- ventilated kennels, 
horses or monkeys under similar condi- 
tions, not uncommonly die from consump- 
tion, and the same rules apply to children. 
The influence of lack of fresh air as a 
cause of consumption is indicated by the 
fact that of 6,000 cases admitted into the 
Brompton Hospital for consumption two- 
thirds had indoor occupations, and a ma- 
jority of these were milliners, sempstresses, 
and tailors. Formerly the death-rate from 



CONTRADICTORIXESS- 



-CONTEAST 



75 



consumption in the army was 11 "9 per 
1,000 soldiers ; now, with improved ven- 
tilation and drainage of barracks, it is 
only 2 "5 per 1,000. Children are especi- 
ally susceptible to the dangers resulting 
from impure air. And even if consump- 
tion is not directly produced in this way, 
it is favoured by the general debility and 
malaise caused by chronic exposure to foul 
air. 

It has been recently stated that con- 
sumption is due to a minute organism 
(the bacillus tuberculosis), and that con- 
sumption may be caught by breathing the 
breath of consumptive patients, just as 
scarlet fever or measles may be caught 
under similar circumstances. If this be 
the case, then the dangers of school life 
in which children are congregated closely 
together in a vitiated air are indefinitely 
increased. But, without accepting this 
view in its entirety, the importance of 
fresh air in connection with school life 
cannot be exaggerated. 

The direct influence of school-work in 
producing consumption has perhaps been 
exaggerated. The collateral deficiency of 
food, exercise, and fresh air are probably 
the real causes of consumption rather than 
the mental work in school life. In 1872 
the Massachusetts Board of Health in- 
quired by circular of a number of phy- 
sicians and teachers whether in their 
experience consumption is ever brought 
on by over-study. Of 191 replies 146 
were in the afiirmative. There can be no 
doubt that the strain involved in working 
for an examination sometimes leads to 
neglect of hygienic laws, and following on 
the examination a breakdown may occur ; 
but there is no reason to think that study 
in itself conduces to phthisis. It should 
be remembered that children with a tuber- 
cular tendency are often unusually bright 
in intellect, and require holding back 
rather than stimulating in their studies. 

Contradictoriness. — By this term is 
meant a disposition to dispute and contra- 
dict others' assertions, not in the interests 
of truth, but from a mere love of opposi- 
tion. It corresponds in the intellectual 
region with self-will and obstinacy in the 
moral region. It is not a vice proper 
to childhood, for children are disposed to 
accept the statements of those who are 
able to command their respect. The pre- 
sence of this fault is thus a pretty clear 
indication of a lack of authority on the 



part of the teacher, and of a defective 
mode of instruction. Clever children, who 
are invited and encouraged to give their 
opinion on various matters, and to discuss 
questions with their preceptors, are very 
apt to develop this unamiable quality. It 
is no easy matter to exercise the judgment 
of the child in independent reflection and 
decision, without at the same time en- 
couraging a love of dispute. The only 
true corrective to contradictoriness, love 
of wrangling, and what Locke calls opi- 
nionatry, is a genuine love of truth itself, 
which leaves no place for any form of self- 
consciousness, and so excludes all desire 
for self-assertion. (See Locke's Thoughts 
on Education, sect. 98.) 

Contrast. — Two things are said to con- 
trast one with another when they show a 
marked and striking degree of unlikeness. 
Thus, we speak of a contrast between a 
loud and a soft note, a warm and a cold 
colour. Since all knowledge begins by 
discriminating objects or seeing differences, 
and since the child notes broad differ- 
ences before he detects the lesser degrees 
of unlikeness, early cognition is occupied 
to a large extent with the relation of con- 
trast. For this reason the teacher should 
make the amplest use of the principle of 
contrast. Thus, in exercising the senses 
and the observing faculty, contrasting 
colours, forms, &c., should be set in juxta- 
position ; and in communicating any new 
idea to the child's mind, as that of pa- 
triotism, its meaning should be brought 
out by contrasting it with its opposite. 
Contrast has an important bearing not 
only upon the operations of the intellect, 
but on the feelings. The emotional effect 
of anything pathetic, sublime, &c., is greatly 
enhanced by setting it in its proper con- 
trast. Hence the large part played by 
contrast in literature and the fine arts 
generally. Owing to this emotional effect 
of contrast, impressions are apt to attach 
themselves to and afterwards to recall 
contrasting impressions ; and this is par- 
ticularly the case with ideas that are rela- 
tive one to another, such as bright, dark, 
high, low, rich, poor, <fec. So frequently 
does one impression or thought suggest a 
contrasting idea, that some psychologists 
both in ancient and modern times recog- 
nise contrast as one of the fundamental 
Laws of Association {q-v.). It has, how- 
ever, been clearly shown that this is not 
necessary (cf . article Discrimination). {See 



76 



CONVERSATIONAL METHOD CORNELL, EZRA 



Bain's Mental and Moral Science, bk. ii. 
chap. iii. sect. 10, and Sully's Teachers' 
Handbook, chap, ix.) 

Conversational Method. — A mode of 
instruction by means of which the lessons 
consist of a familiar discourse by the 
teacher, interspersed with questions and 
remarks by the pupils. The lessons thus 
take the form of a conversation, which 
renders them especially adapted to young 
children, as by it the extent of their know- 
ledge is ascertained, and difficulties are 
explained as encountered. It also pos- 
sesses the advantage of exciting and 
maintaining the interest of the youthful 
scholars, which by other methods would 
be less easily sustained. 

Convocation at Oxford University 
consists of all masters of arts and all doc- 
tors of the three superior faculties who 
have their names upon the books of some 
college or hall. By this body every formal 
act of the University, and its business as 
a corporate body, except what relates to 
granting ordinary degrees, is done and 
concluded. Honorary degrees are given 
by consent of Convocation, as also special 
degrees, either by decree or diploma. 
Statutes do not become binding till they 
have the assent of this asseijibly. Here, 
also, nearly all elections to offices in the 
gift of the University take place. 

Cookery. See Domestic Economy. 

Cooper, Peter {h. 1791).— A wealthy 
American philanthropist, who, notwith- 
standing his lack of early education, rose 
to affluence by his industry, and devoted 
himself to the advancement of the educa- 
tion of the working classes. He was the 
founder of the ' Cooper Union for the pro- 
motion of Science and Art,' an institution 
admirably organised, containing a very 
large and valuable library. A technical 
school for both sexes is also associated 
with the union, and studies in all branches 
of knowledge are carried on, and certifi- 
cates, which rank high, are granted to 
those whose qualifications deserve such 
recognition. 

Copying is a school offence too well 
known to need description. It is most 
often committed in arithmetic, but it may 
be committed in dictation, parsing, ana- 
lysis of sentences, grammar exercises, or 
in fact any work wherein correct answers 
are identical. The evil effects of copying 
are twofold. 1. The teacher is misled as 
to the attainments of his pupils, and thinks 



the proficiency of the brightest the pro- 
ficiency of the class. He therefore passes 
on to the next stage of a subject before 
the children who require most of his at- 
tention are really fit to follow him, and 
the further he proceeds the more hopeless 
becomes any attempt on their part to keep 
up. 2. Thus they fail to acquire know- 
ledge, and fail also to acquire a habit of 
self-reliance. Copying is a mark of low 
tone and bad discipline. It indicates that 
the children do not scruple to reap where 
they have not sown, and that the teacher 
either cannot see or cannot prevent dis- 
honest work. The remedy consists, pri- 
marily, in raising the tone and improving 
the discipline. Copiers should be made to 
understand that they at once commit a 
moral offence and retard their own pro- 
gress ; but the teacher, while he does all 
that he can to cultivate his pupils' sense 
of honour (q.v.), should watch them vigi- 
lantly. Then there are certain mechanical 
means of rendering copying difficult or 
impossible. Such are : 1. Seating the 
children so far apart that no one can see 
his neighbour's work. 2. Letting the class 
stand in a semicircle, each child with his 
back to one neighbour and his face to the 
other. This arrangement is only possible 
when exercises are done on slates. 3. 
Giving different work to alternate pupils. 
4. Giving different work to each pupil. 
This is best done by means of ' test cards.' 
Many such cards, dealing with nearly all 
subjects of instruction, are now in the 
market. Their use is especially calculated 
to teach self-reliance, and they give prac- 
tical form to the dictum of an experienced 
inspector (Mr. Fearon), who says that ' the 
only way to stop copying in a school is to 
make it impossible.' 

Cornell, Ezra {b. 1807 at Westchester 
Co., New York State, d. 1874).— Originally 
engaged in business in the cotton trade 
at Ithaca, he rose to a position of great 
affluence. He was one of the first to 
realise the importance of the electric tele- 
graph, and aided its introduction into 
America. Cornell devoted his wealth to 
educational purposes, founding a library 
at Ithaca at the cost of 100,000 dollars. 
He also founded a university, which in- 
cluded a school of agriculture, labora- 
tories, and museum. Instruction of every 
kind is provided for persons of both sexes, 
whether white or coloured. The univer- 
sity received its charter in 1865, and was 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT- 



-CRAMMING 



77 



opened in 1868 with 25 professors and 
about 400 students. In 1872 girls at the 
age of eighteen were admitted to the same 
curriculum as young men, a building being 
specially provided for their accommodation. 

Corporal Punishment is but seldom 
required in well-managed schools. Few 
authorities, however, deny its occasional 
advisability. It should, however, always 
be executed after due deliberation and a 
considerable interval of time from the 
moral delinquency for which it is deemed 
necessary. Boxing the ears or blows on 
the head of any description are inadvis- 
able, and even dangerous. So likewise are 
blows on the front of the chest or abdo- 
men. The best site for corporal punish- 
ment is the region of the seat, and a 
flexible cane should be used, not a hard, 
rigid rod. It should always be quite clear 
to the delinquent that the punishment is 
not vindictive (an interval of an hour or 
two impresses this), and corporal punish- 
ment should be reserved for extreme moral 
sins, and not used for breaches of discipline. 
Skilled teachers, especially in higher class 
schools, are gradually learning to main- 
tain discipline without any recourse to 
corporal punishment. Where corporal 
punishment seems absolutely required, it 
is a good plan to hold over the infliction 
of the chastisement during the continuance 
of good behaviour, having it understood 
that if the good behaviour continues for a 
given length of time, the sentence to cor- 
poral punishment will lapse. (See Dis- 
cipline.) 

Courage has been recognised in ancient 
and modern times as one of the leading 
virtues. Aristotle, agreeably to his general 
ethical conception, regards courage as a 
mean between two extremes, excess and 
deficiency of fear — that is, cowardice v. 
foolhardiness. He also distinguishes true 
courage, which includes a sense of danger 
and a resolve to face it, from its spu- 
rious forms, as the coolness shown by one 
whom experience has taught the ground- 
lessness of fear. To courage, which im- 
plies a readiness to face danger, is closely 
allied endurance or fortitude in bearing 
what is painful. The moral value of 
courage depends very much on the quality 
of the motive that lies behind it. Thus, a 
boy who shows contempt for danger merely 
to earn plaudits of lookers-on illustrates 
a less admirable form of courage than one 
who risks peril to save another's life. The 



fostering of a spirit of bravery aiid en- 
durance in children, who are naturally dis- 
posed to be timid, is an important part of 
moral training. This begins with the cul- 
tivation of physical courage, i.e. a readi- 
ness to face and endure bodily pain. Next 
to this comes the higher task of develop- 
ing moral courage, or resolution in meet- 
ing other forms of suffering, particularly 
ridicule and contempt. Children should 
be carefully taught to discriminate genuine 
from spurious courage, and not to con- 
found a manly readiness to face danger 
where occasion requires with a foolish reck- 
lessness (cf. article Fear). (See Mrs. Bry- 
ant's Educational Ends, p. 71 et seq. ; 
Locke on ' Cowardice and Courage,' 
Thoughts on Education, sect. 115; and 
Schmid's Encyclopddie, article ' Muth.') 

Course of Instruction. See Instruc- 
tion (Course of). 

Cousin, Victor (h. at Paris 1792, d. 
1867), was the son of a watchmaker. He 
studied with great success in the college 
Charlemagne. When only twenty-two 
years old he was appointed to the chair of 
Modern Philosophy. He gathered some 
enthusiastic students round him, but he 
stopped his lectures because his views 
were not in favour with the government. 
Cousin was captivated by the philosophy of 
Locke and Condillac. He also translated 
the whole of Plato and part of Aristotle, 
but it is as an educationist that he ren- 
dered the highest service. In 1831 he 
presented an address to the Minister of 
Public Ed ucation, which formed the prelude 
to the new law of 1833, on elementary 
instruction in France. He helped to pre- 
pare this law with M. Guizot, and although 
they did not enact that education should 
be compulsory and free, yet in an eloquent 
passage Cousin asserted the right of all to 
education. In 1831 he visited Germany 
to study the German system of education. 
In his Rapport sur VEtat de V Instruction 
puhlique dans quelques Pays de VAlle- 
magne, he calls Prussia ' the land of 
schools and barracks.' 

Cramming. — This term was introduced 
into the educational vocabulary about the 
time of the establishment of the system of 
open competition for appointments in the 
public service, when the demand naturally 
arose for tutors to undertake the prepara- 
tion of candidates for the various examina- 
tions which that system instituted. Owing 
to a belief which became current that this 



78 



CRECHES CULTURE 



preparation frequently consisted of rapidly 
crowding the mind with superficial or 
merely mnemonical knowledge of facts and 
principles, rather than training it to a 
thorough mastery and accurate generali- 
sation and analysis, tutors came to be 
called crammers, and their process cram- 
ming. The term, however, is frequently 
misapplied to the close application or con- 
centration to the work of preparation, in 
which rapidity and thoroughness are com- 
bined. It should be confined to the over- 
loading of the memory with knowledge 
acquired for an objective or materialistic 
purpose, and not for its own sake and 
purposes of culture and mental develop- 
ment. Cramming would cease to exist 
under a proper system of examination, for 
a good examiner can always put questions 
to test whether the candidate's training 
has been conducted on the forcing princi- 
ple, or on that of natural healthy growth. 
Cramming is not confined to those engaged 
in preparation for public examinations ; it 
is common in schools where the practice of 
committing lessons to memory and stuffing 
the mind with ill- digested facts is still 
followed. 

Crech.es. — Institutions of French ori- 
gin, where infants from fifteen days old to 
three years are taken care of during the 
daytime while their mothers who are ob- 
liged to be at work ax^e absent from home. 
The first creche was opened by Madame 
Marbeau of Paris (1844). Creches are 
now in use not only in France, but also in 
Italy, Belgium, Holland, and England. 
The children are entrusted to the care of 
properly trained nurses, who wash, nurse, 
feed, and amuse them, instructing them 
also, if they be old enough, on the kinder, 
garten system. 

Criss Cross Row, or Christ Cross R,ow. — 
A designation formerly applied to the first 
line or row of the alphabet arranged in 
the old horn books or primers. These 
books consisted of only a single page, and 
the letters were printed commencing with 
a + A, a, b, c, &c., a, e, i, o, u, A, B, C, 
&c. The first line commencing with a 
cross was called the Christ Cross Row, or, 
more shortly, the Cross Row. 

Cruelty to Animals. — By this phrase 
we understand the appearance not only of 
indifference to the feelings of animals, but 
of a positive pleasure in ill-using them, 
which is a common characteristic of chil- 
dren. How far the practices of pulling 



flies to pieces, tormenting cats, &c., involve 
a delight in inflicting pain is a matter of 
dispute. Dr. Bain regards this feeling as 
the essential element in all cruelty, and 
as a primary instinct of the human mind. 
It may be contended, however, that much 
of children's apparent cruelty is the out- 
come of a more general love of wanton 
destruction and of delight in exercising 
power. Locke thinks that children's seem- 
ing delight in inflicting pain is none other 
than a foreign and introduced disposition. 
Certain it is, that before custom blunts the 
edge of their feelings children are often 
keenly sensitive to forms of ill-treatment 
of animals which have the sanction of 
convention. Where a child is disposed to 
be cruel, care must be taken to cultivate 
kindlier feelings and to exercise the ima- 
gination in a vivid realisation of the suf- 
fering produced. Sympathy with the ani- 
mal world may be developed to some extent 
by encouraging children to tend and asso- 
ciate with the familiar pet animals, an idea 
that entered into Froebel's plan of a kin- 
dergarten. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that a fondness for pet animals, which 
are as a rule attractive and likeable, is no 
guarantee for a wide disinterested kind- 
ness towards the animal creation. This 
last presupposes that the natural antipa- 
thies to what is ugly and repulsive in 
animals be brought under control (compare 
article Sympathy). {See Locke, Thoughts 
on Education, sect. 116 ; Bain, Education 
as Science, p. 72 ; Miss Edgworth, Prac- 
tical Education, chap, x.) 

Culture. — The word 'culture' in its 
most general sense denotes sometimes the 
process by which human forethought tem- 
pers and ameliorates the defects of the 
wild state, sometimes the result of that 
process. Thus, the word may be applied 
to the tillage of the soil or the training 
of plants. In relation to man, culture 
denotes rather the result of the process 
of amelioration ; a school-boy or school- 
girl cannot properly be called ' cultured,' 
though he or she may be called ' well edu- 
cated': for culture connotes a certain ripe- 
ness of judgment and feeling, and a degree 
of development in each of the three di- 
rections of the intellect, the emotions, and 
the will. It manifests itself in a certain 
aptness of behaviour, a capacity for sym- 
pathy, a sense when to speak and when to 
be silent. Culture is concerned with an 
ideal of humanity, and no attributes that 



CULTURE 



79 



belong to the complete man can be ex- 
cluded from its scope. But this complete- 
ness cannot be attained early in life. 
Kant finely describes the birth of cha- 
racter as a spiritual revolution which 
rarely takes place before the age of thirty, 
and is not often complete before forty. 
The late Mark Pattison used to say that 
most men do not learn to live till they are 
forty. Education — the discipline of the 
school-room, the play-ground, the home — 
may be said to prepare the way for cul- 
ture ; the attainment of it is the joint 
work of school and life, though gifted 
persons may sometimes become cultured 
without much early discipline, by virtue 
of a natural endowment or hereditary in- 
stinct. 

The influences which most directly con- 
tribute to culture may be summed up 
under the words science and art. But 
by science is not meant merely the science 
of nature, nor by art merely fine art. 
Science is organised knowledge, and every 
body of methodical doctrine that proceeds 
by way of observation and classification, 
and issues in the discovery of law, is a 
science. Science embraces man as well as 
nature — speech, history, political economy, 
and so on, as well as physics, chemistry, 
and botany. In England the word science, 
like the word culture, is often understood 
in a more limited sense, but without justifi- 
able grounds ; the misuse of the word may 
tend to confuse educational issues. In 
Germany no one would think of exclud- 
ing from Wissenschaft the science of an- 
tiquity — A Itertliv.mswissenscliaft — which 
Wolf and his successors have laboured so 
energetically to create during the present 
century. It is indeed quite unscientific 
to oppose one subject to another as scien- 
tific or unscientific ; the distinction is not 
between subjects, but between methods of 
treating them, and every subject admits 
of a scientific treatment. Art, on the 
other hand, is generally recognised as 
including literary art — the products of 
literature which aim at satisfying the 
sense for beauty and style. 

Both the attitude of science and the 
attitude of art are constituents of culture. 
Until the desire to comprehend is born, the 
mind remains in a condition of minority. 
Intellectual manhood is not reached till the 
masses of knowledge gathered through the 
years of receptive study — the period of 
apprenticeship — take shape under the in- 



fluence of some central idea or dominant 
purpose. From that time onward the life 
of the student becomes scientific — a life of 
discovery, in which conviction (knowledge, 
eTTtcTTTy/xTy) takes the place of opinion 
(So^a), and indiscriminate reading gives 
way to definite problems awaiting a de- 
finite answer. The birth of science has a 
close connection with the birth of cha- 
racter. But the scientific apprehension 
of things is not in itself sufficient for cul- 
ture. The method of science is essentially 
abstract. Science deals with aspects of 
things, and consciously limits its view in 
order to give a more complete account of 
their several phases. It analyses and 
classifies, and so introduces order into our 
conceptions, arranging phenomena in the 
simplest way. But the mind does not find 
satisfaction if occupied exclusively in this 
process. The universe is not to be com- 
pletely apprehended by the method of 
dissection. What Schiller says of truth 
generally is especially true of literature : 

Dich za fangen, Ziehen sie aus mit Netzen und Stangen, 
Aber mit Geistestritt schreitest du mitten hindurch. 

(' To catch thee they take the field with 
nets and poles : But thou, like a spirit, 
passest through the midst of them.') A 
sense of beauty or of humour is one thing, 
and inquiry into the rationale of the beau- 
tiful or the humorous is quite another. 
A man may be an authority on the 
Homeric question without having known 
Homer ; he may have swept the field of 
phenomena to discover a law of chemistry 
or botany without apprehending Nature 
as Wordsworth or Turner apprehended 
her. To the scientific eye the heavens 
declare the glory of Kepler and Newton ; 
but no amount of science will teach what 
it is to ' live by admiration,' as Words- 
worth thought we should live ; no amount 
of psychology will create or enable a man 
to understand a Hamlet. 

From this point of view it is possible 
to attempt some answer to the question 
as to the rival claims of general culture 
and specialism. There is something fas- 
cinating about the idea of ' all-round cul- 
ture.' ' Im engen Kreis verengert sich der 
Sinn ' (' In a narrow sphere the mind be- 
comes narrowed '), said Goethe. ' Culture 
means the compensation of bias,' said 
Emerson. Dr. Martineau tells us that when 
a young man he compelled himself to 
devote his best energies to subjects for 
which he had no aptitude, leaving those 



80 



CUMULATIVE VOTING CURIOSITY 



for which he had a gift to take care of 
themselves. But to attempt to develop 
oneself equally in all directions is to re- 
nounce the chance of being a master in 
any subject. And specialism has a claim 
upon the intellectual life too ; there is 
something in the concentration of one's 
best energies upon a limited field, whether 
of science or ai^t, which gives force and 
originality to the mind. A bias is at least 
a prominent part of oneself ; nor does it 
seem that the true self is best developed 
by ascetically denying a special bent. Ad- 
dison compares education to the polishing 
of a block of marble, by which the inherent 
beauties of its veins are brought to view. 
It is an opposite doctrine which com- 
pares education to the grafting of a tree ; 
but Archbishop "VVhately, who uses this 
metaphor, insists on the presence of some 
affinity between the stock and the graft. 
The definition of education given by J. 
Paul Richter, as ' the process of emanci- 
pating the ideal manhood which is latent 
in every child,' still better recognises the 
claims of the natural endowment. And 
there is nothing inconsistent with this 
doctrine in maintaining that every man 
should cultivate the attitude of science 
and the attitude of art. He may find ex- 
ercise for both energies in a comparatively 
limited field — even in a single author, 
Greek, Latin, or modern, or a single de- 
partment of nature ; he may be scientific 
and artistic without spreading himself 
impartially over the whole field of know- 
ledge. At the same time it is desirable 
to lay as wide a basis of positive know- 
ledge as is consistent with concentration 
and mental repose. And it is a main 
duty of the science of teaching to deter- 
mine what are the subjects best suited to 
prepare the way for culture. Mr. Matthew 
Arnold, whose definition of culture as 
' the knowledge of the best that has been 
thousht and said in the world ' is so well 
known, is strong m his insistence on 
literature as the best school of ' sweetness 
and light.' The advocates of physical 
science lay emphasis on the importance 
of direct contact with nature — the forma- 
tive power of the laboratory. Whatever 
be the subject-matter of study, it should 
be the aim of the teacher to encourage in- 
dependent effort. Culture does not result 
from the attempt merely to appropriate 
other men's thoughts as recorded in books, 
but rather from a gradual widening ex- 



perience of things — an experience in which 
the personal activity of the student is a 
prime factor. 

Cumulativs Voting. See Law (Edu- 
cational). 

Curiosity is a name for the love of 
knowledge, showing itself in an active 
form as a desire to gain the same. It 
implies more or less distinctly a conscious- 
ness of ignorance about a subject, a feeling 
of discontent, and a belief in ascertainable 
knowledge. Curiosity is the natural and 
proper incentive to the act of attention, 
and the concentration of the thoughts on 
a subject. Hence it is the first business 
of the teacher to arouse curiosity with 
respect to the particular subject and points 
which he is about to set forth. Curiosity 
is commonly recognised as a leading cha- 
racteristic of the childish mind. . The new- 
ness of its surroundings and the conscious- 
ness of ignorance naturally favour a desire 
for information. And in truth the child 
when unchecked is a pertinacious ques- 
tioner. It has been seriously maintained 
by Dr. Bain that much of this questioning 
is not the outcome of genuine curiosity at 
all, but is a display of egotism, a delight 
in giving trouble, &c. It is probable, how- 
ever, that injustice is here done to the 
childish mind, and that, as Locke and 
others maintain, the development of the 
childish intelligence is often retarded by 
discouraging the spirit of inquiry. At 
the same time it must be admitted that 
childish curiosity differs in some material 
respects from the more mature product 
which we call scientific curiosity. It is 
fitful and fugitive, and inadequate to sus- 
tain a prolonged effort of concentration, 
and it wants the definiteness of direction 
which characterises the inquisitiveness of 
a trained scientific mind. Curiosity must 
be distinguished from a blank feeling of 
wonder at what is new and strange, and 
which, though it may lead on to a desire 
for knowledge, is apt to become a suffi- 
cient satisfaction in itself. Curiosity with 
respect to any subject is favoured by any 
form of interest in that subject. {See In- 
terest.) Lastly, it may be observed that 
curiosity may be trained in certain definite 
lines, and so assume the form of a habit. 
Thus the progressive study of any subject, 
as natural science or history, serves by 
successive satisfactions of cui'iosity to ge- 
nerate further curiosity, and so it is true 
in a sense that the more we learn the more 



CURRICULUM DANCING 



81 



curious we become with respect to what 
is still unknown. {See Locke's Thoicghts 
on Education, sect. 118 and following; 
Bain's Education as Science, p. 90; Sully's 
Teacher's Handbook, p. 400; and article 
' Wissbegierde,' in Schmid's Encyclojxidie.) 
Curriculum. See Instruction, Course 

OF. 

Curvature of Spine, especially that 
form known as ' lateral curvature,' or 
' growing out of the shoulder,' is not in- 
frequent during school life, more especially 
in girls about fifteen years old or upwards. 
In a slight degree inequality of the two 
shoulders is almost universal, owing to the 
right arm being more used than the left. 
In a more marked degree it requires special 
gymnastics to strengthen the weak muscles 
of the back and shoulders, and in extreme 
cases some spinal support may be necessary. 
Desks and seats improperly constructed or 
arranged are largely responsible in start- 
ing curvature of the spine. If the desk is 
too high, the left shoulder is unduly raised 
in order to support the arm on the desk, 
and thus a lateral twist of the spine is 
induced. If the desk is too low, the scholar 
has to bend too low over his work, and 
thus he becomes round-shouldered, while 
nearsightedness is apt to be produced. {See 
Eyesight.) If the desk is flat, or too far 
in front of the seat, cramped positions are 
induced, tending to produce deformity. 
Seats improperly arranged have a similar 
tendency. If without a back-rest, or with 
an improperly adapted back-rest, the pupil 
leans forward on the desk, and thus his lungs 
are cramped and his shoulders rounded. 

Cuvier, Georges (6. 1769, d. 1832), was 



the son of a half-pay officer in a Swiss 
regiment in the French service. He re- 
ceived his early education from his mother, 
who was a most accomplished woman. 
He studied at Tiibingen and Stuttgart. 
There he began to devote his attention to 
natural history. At the age of twenty-one 
he was appointed tutor to the son of Count 
d'Hericy in Normandy. The house was 
by the sea, and Cuvier studied marine ani- 
mals and fossils, and made researches into 
the anatomy of mollusca in particular. 
From this may date his comparative ana- 
tomy and the distinction he achieved in 
science. In 1800 he was appointed Pro- 
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Col- 
lege de France, and at the same time he 
lectured on comparative anatomy in the 
Jardin des Plantes. After receiving many 
honours from Napoleon, he was charged 
in 1809 with the organisation of the new 
academies. He organised those of Pied- 
mont, Genoa, and Tuscany, and brought 
to bear upon his work the experience he 
had gained in former years when he was 
appointed by Napoleon to establish the 
public schools supported by the Govern- 
ment. In 1811 he was sent to Holland 
on a similar errand, and he paid great 
attention to elementary instruction. His 
principle was that instruction would lead 
to civilisation, and civilisation to morality. 
He said, ' Give schools before political 
rights.' In 181 3 he went to Rome to or- 
ganise the universities there, and by his 
tolerance he won the highest praise. He 
published many volumes, and gave a great 
impetus to the study of science. He was 
rewarded with many honours by the State. 



D 



Dactylology (Greek SafcrvAos, a fin- 
ger). — The art of communicating ideas by 
signs made by the fingers which by an 
ingenious arrangement can be made to 
represent the various letters of the alpha- 
bet. This method is sometimes called the 
deaf and dumb alphabet, because used 
by those thus afflicted. The alphabet is 
termed single or double with reference to 
the employment of one or two hands. {See 
Education op Deaf Mutes.) 

Dame Schools. — So called from the 
circumstance of their being conducted by 
women, usually in country places where 



superior education was not available, and 
confined to the humbler classes of chil- 
dren, usually of tender years, Shenstone 
in his Schoolmistress has looked upon the 
Dame's School with a poet's eye and im- 
mortalised it. 

Dancing is the art of expressing inward 
feeling by movements of the body and 
limbs, and has been well defined as the 
' poetry of motion.' Like music, its natu- 
ral accompaniment, it has been cultivated 
by all nations, in all ages. Amongst the 
ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans, a-s 
also amongst the early Christians, dancing 

G 



82 



DARLINGTON TRAINING COLLEGE DECLAMATION 



was associated with religion, and was prac- 
tised at public worship as well as at public 
festivities. The Greeks elevated dancing 
to a fine art, Aristotle ranked it with poe- 
try, and it was an essential subject in the 
educational code of the Spartans, all Lace- 
daemonians having been compelled to ex- 
ercise their children in dancing after they 
had attained the age of five. The Spartan 
youth were also trained in the public place 
to practise the Pyrrhic dance, a military 
exercise, illustrative of the onslaught upon 
an enemy. The love of dancing by fight- 
ing men of modern times, notably by British 
sailors, seems to be a survival of the ancient 
relationship between dance and war. Nel 
son declared that all that it was necessary 
to teach a sailor was to dance and speak 
French, ' the rest,' he said, ' would come 
by instinct.' Locke attached great value 
to dancing, and strongly recommended it 
as necessary to the completeness of the 
education of a gentleman. * Dancing,' 
he says, ' being that which gives graceful 
motions all the Life, and above all things 
Manliness, and a becoming Confidence to 
young Children, I think it cannot be 
learned too early, after they are once of 
an Age and Strength capable of it. But 
you must be sure to have a good Master, 
that knows, and can teach, what is graceful 
and becoming and what gives a Freedom 
and Easiness to all the Motions of the Body. 
One that teaches not this is worse than 
none at all ; Natural TJnfashionableness 
being much better than apish, afiected 
Postures ; and I think it much more pass- 
able, to put off the Hat and make a Leg 
like an honest Country Gentleman, than 
like an ill-fashioned Dancing Master. For 
as for the jigging Part, and the Figures of 
Dances, I count that little or nothing, 
farther than as it tends to perfect graceful 
Carriage.' 

Darlington Training College. See 
British and Foreign School Society. 

Darwinism. See Evolution. 

Day Schools. — These are schools estab- 
lished for the education of the young 
without severing them from the influence 
of the home. For boys under fourteen 
years of age and for girls generally it can- 
not well be doubted that they are better 
than boarding schools. Nothing can ade- 
quately take the place of the gentle and 
ennobling influences of a well-ordered and 
happy home ; and no one is so well fitted 
or so likely to exercise that constant sym- 



pathy and watchfulness, that patient per- 
sonal care, which are so important in the 
education of yoiinger children, as a good 
mother. But in later school life — at least 
in that of boys — the balance of advantage 
is rather in favour of the boarding school. 
During this period the acquisition of know- 
ledge rapidly grows in importance, whereas 
before training was everything ; and it 
must be always extremely difficult in an 
ordinary home to make proper provision 
for an entirely satisfactory child life at 
this stage, and for the acquisition of know- 
ledge being carried on in an orderly 
manner undisturbed by other influences. 
While if the children are kept entirely 
apart, the benefits of the home life are 
lost. Again, one of the most valuable 
parts of the training in the later school 
life is that which calls into play a feeling 
of oneness with one's fellows, of forming 
a part of a great whole ; a sense of having 
responsibilities and hopes and fears in com- 
mon with others, of working with others 
for a common good, of suffering with others 
for a common ill. Experience has shown 
that it is impossible to give this training 
effectively when the interests of the school 
life are divided with, and often overba- 
lanced by, those of the home. Lastly, the 
value of school games in teaching boys 
management, self-restraint, and manliness 
cannot be overlooked ; and it is extremely 
difficult, if not impossible, to maintain 
these in continuous and healthy vigour 
when boys must regulate their movements 
by the requirements of home, and must 
perforce spend much of their spare time 
in going to and returning from school. 
The development of esprit de corps — or a 
pride in working for and sharing in a cor- 
porate reputation — and the exercise of 
school games are not at present considered 
essential parts of the sound education of 
girls (q.v.) ; while undoubtedly in their 
case a more intimate knowledge of do- 
mestic life is of the highest importance. 
Hence the above arguments — except the 
first — cannot be said to apply to them with 
any great force. 

Deaf Mutes. See Education of Deaf 
Mutes. 

Declamation. — The oral recitation of 
set speeches, &c., committed to memory 
and delivered with due regard to the 
author's genius and the cultivation of the 
student's oratorial powers. Declamatiov 
is especially advantageous in securing the 



DEDUCTION DEGREES 



83 



habit of speaking in public with confi- 
dence and fluency, the culture and neces- 
sary training of the voice, and a superior 
style of composition. For declamation to 
be successful the pupil should so study the 
piece as to enter personally into the ideas, 
emotions, and reasoning of the author. 
He should also practise carefully the va- 
• rious gestures to be employed to give the 
requisite emphasis and force to his decla- 
mation, and learn to overcome all nervous- 
ness and any eccentricity of manner which 
might characterise him as peculiar or lu- 
dicrous. {See Elocution.) 

Deduction is that form of reasoning in 
which we pass from a general principle to 
some particular application of the same, 
as when we argue that air has weight be- 
cause all material substances have weight. 
It is thus the converse process of induction 
(which see). Deductive reasoning is re- 
ducible to the logical form known as the 
syllogism, which consists of three proposi- 
tions, the major and minor premiss, and 
the conclusion. Deduction is best exem- 
plified in the deductive sciences, of which 
mathematics is the most perfect type. It 
combines with induction in what is known 
as the ' deductive method ' in many branches 
of physical investigation. [See Bain's 
Senses and Intellect, bk. ii. sect. 36 ; 
Whewell's Philos. Induct. Sciences, bk. i. 
chap. 6; Mill's Logic, bk. ii. chaps. 1, 2, 
and 4, also bk. iii. chap. 11; and Jevons' 
Elementary Lessons in Logic, lesson xxx.) 

Definition. — As the etymology sug- 
gests {de-Jinio, to mark out limits). De- 
finition means in logic the explanation of 
a term, ' so as to separate it from every- 
thing else, as a boundary separates fields ' 
(Whately). To speak technically, a de- 
finition aims at determining the extension 
or denotation of a class name, i.e. the in- 
dividuals included in the class, by setting 
forth the essential qualities of the class, 
i.e. the intension or connotation of the 
class name. Thus the term ' metal ' would 
be defined by naming all the qualities 
which we consider to be essential to the 
class metals. Definition thus answers 
pretty closely to what we commonly under- 
stand by the explanation of terms. It 
must be noted that definition always pro- 
ceeds by analysing the qualities connoted 
by a name, and not by instancing any 
members of the class denoted. Thus, for 
example, to say that a vehicle is a wagon, 
a cart, and so forth, is not, strictly speak- 



ing, to define the term. A special variety 
of definition has been devised by logicians, 
under the name ' definition by genus and 
difierence.' According to this method 
we define a class term by first naming a 
higher class or genus, and then adding the 
qualities which distinguish the particular 
class we are dealing with from other species 
of the same genus. In this way we may 
define man as a rational animal, volcano 
as a mountain from which fire issues, and 
so forth. It is to be observed that some 
terms are incapable of definition. Thus it 
is evident that names of the highest classes, 
as object or thing, cannot be defined by 
reference to a higher class ; and that terms 
which describe simple and unanalysable 
impressions, such as 'blue' and ' sweet,' are 
not susceptible of any form of definition, 
and can only be ' explained ' by a refer- 
ence to the actual experience itself. (See 
Mill's Logic, bk. i. chap. 8 ; Bain's Logic, 
pt. ii. Induction, bk. iv. chap. 1 ; and 
Jevons' Elementary Lessons in Logic, 
lesson xii.) 

Degrading. — When an undergraduate 
is permitted to go down for a number of 
terms before he completes his period of 
residence, he is said to have degraded. 

Degrees are either honorary or are 
conferred after examination. As a general 
rule, they are confined to the Bachelor, the 
Master, or the Doctor's degree. These 
degrees are usually bestowed by univer- 
sities specially chartered for the purpose; 
but in some countries high official person- 
ages — the Archbishop of Canterbury, for 
instance, in England— have the power to 
bestow them. The regular mode of ob- 
taining a degree is by spending a certain 
amount of time in a university, and by 
showing proficiency in the branch of know- 
ledge in which the candidate seeks to 
graduate. Nearly all universities possess 
four great faculties, namely, those of theo- 
logy, medicine, law, and arts. In some 
— e.g. the University of London — the fa- 
culty of theology is omitted, and those of 
science and music are introduced. In 
the greater number of British universities 
the faculty of science has been adopted as 
an integral part of the university; but the 
faculty of music remains as a survival of 
an older growth, when there were, as in 
Oxford, a large number of subsidiary fa- 
culties entitling those who qualified in 
them to a certificate of merit. Similar 
certificates are often conferred by colleges 

g2 



84 



DEGREES 



which do not form an integi'al portion of 
a university, but which are chai'tered to 
carry out some special object. There are, 
for instance, twenty medical corporations 
in the United Kingdom entitled to issue 
licences to practise. To a physician, how- 
ever, a university degree is practically in- 
dispensable, but to the surgeon the fellow- 
ship of his college is neai'ly as good a 
qualification as any mark of distinction a 
university could bestow. Of degrees, pro- 
pei'ly so called, there are two great divi- 
sions : those which are conferred as the 
reward of personal study and examination, 
and those bestowed for other reasons. As 
regards the former, they may be divided 
into two classes, namely, pass and honour 
degrees. In Oxford and in Cambridge 
the student may either undergo a mere 
qualifying examination in arts or in medi- 
cine —it is somewhat different as regai'ds 
theology and law — or he may enter for 
honours. The actual degree conferred is 
the same in both cases, but the educational 
value of the two tilings is widely difierent. 
When the Bachelor's degree has once been 
obtained, the superior grades follow as a 
matter of course, subject to the payment 
of fees, and to the performance of certain 
exercises which are always more or less 
formal. Thus a Cambridge B.A. may, by 
taking up two or three papers in the law 
tripos, become first of all a Master, and 
then a Doctor of Laws, or else he may 
elect to become a Master of Arts, in which 
case he will have nothing to do except 
to pay a certain amount of money and to 
present himself before the vice-chancellor. 
If he prefers to take up medicine or surgery, 
he is exempt from all preliminary exami- 
nations in general knowledge ; and should 
he decide upon seeking a degree in theo- 
logy, he has nothing further to do except 
to take his Master of Arts degree, and to 
perform one or two exercises before the 
theological professors. 

The Bachelor of Arts degree, which as 
a rule requires three years for its attain- 
ment, is the keystone of the entire system. 
The designation of a Bachelor was intro- 
duced by Pope Gregory IX. into the Uni- 
versity of Paris (thirteenth century), and 
denoted a student who had passed cer- 
tain preliminary examinations but was 
not yet qualified for admission to the rank 
of Master, Doctor, itc. To obtain a B.A. 
degree at Oxford candidates must com 
plete twelve terms of residence and pass 



the following three examinations : 1. Re- 
sponsions or ' smalls ' before the masters 
of the schools. 2. The first public examina- 
tion or ' moderations ' before the masters 
of the schools. 3. The second public ex- 
amination before the public examiners. 
Candidates for honours have subjects in 
addition to those required for a pass de- 
gree. For the B.A. degree at Cambi-idge 
nine terms of residence are necessary, in- 
stead of twelve as at Oxford. At both 
universities, however, the time usually re- 
quired to keep the terms is the same, a 
little under three years. For a pass Cam- 
bridge degree the following examinations 
are required : 1. The previous examina- 
tion, or 'little-go.' 2. The general ex- 
amination. 3. A special examination in 
theology, moral science, law and modern 
history, natural science, mechanism and 
applied science, music, or modern lan- 
guages. For an honours degree candi- 
dates have an ' additional examination ' 
as well as the previous examination, but 
omit the general and the special. After 
the ' additional ' they have no other ex- 
amination until they take the tripos at 
the end of the third year. A Bachelor of 
Arts pi'oceeds to the M.A. degree at the 
end of three years without further ex- 
amination. 

DifFei'ent regulations for graduation 
obtain in the other universities, and as it 
is beyond the scope of this work to detail 
them we must refer the reader to the 
respective university calendars. In Lon- 
don, for instance, a matriculation examina- 
tion open to candidates who have attained 
the age of sixteen is the first test required 
of students intending to proceed to de- 
grees in the various faculties. Then for 
the Bachelor's degree two examinations 
(first B.A., second B.A. ; first B.Sc, 
second B.Sc, itc), at intervals of not less 
than a year each, have to be passed. For 
the full degree in arts, and also in science, 
the successful candidate must prove that 
he is a specialist in one of the subjects in 
which the degree may be taken. The Lon- 
don University examinations, being open 
to all comers without distinction of creed 
or sex, and to pi'ivate students, as well as 
to those who have had the advantage of 
a collegiate training, are more severe than 
those of other universities, and conse- 
quently have a high academical value, 
considered merely as tests of ability and 
attainments. It is a peculiarity of the 



DELPHIN CLASSICS DE QUINCEY, THOMAS 



85 



Scottish universities that the Bachelor's 
degree in the faculty of arts, though not 
in the other faculties, has been abolished, 
and candidates proceed to the M.A. de- 
degree by passing (either separately at 
intervals in the curriculum, or all together 
at the close of it) three examinations, viz. 
one in classics, one in mathematics, and 
one in philosophy. An M.A. certificate is 
given in each department, and the holder 
of all three certificates can obtain the 
diploma by presenting himself at the public 
ceremonial of graduation. Both in the 
American and some of the British and 
Colonial universities candidates for the 
full degree in science (D.Sc.) have the 
choice of a considerable number of sub- 
jects, including such eminently practical 
ones as engineering, public health, &c. 
Special examinations for teachers are now 
also held in London and other universities, 
and diplomas granted to successful can- 
didates. With regard to honorary degrees, 
they are bestowed either as a reward 
for writings and investigations in a par- 
ticular branch of lea rning, or they may be 
degrees granted ad eundem as a matter 
of courtesy to those holding analogous 
rank in other universities ; or, last of all, 
they may be purely honorary titles, mean- 
ing nothing except that they are an ex- 
pression of the desire of a given university 
to do honour to certain individuals. 

Women are now admitted to degrees 
in London, St. Andrews, Durham, and 
the Victoria University, and in the Royal 
University, Ireland. In every other uni- 
versity special examinations are provided 
for them, and in Cambridge they are al- 
lowed to take the same papers and to be 
classed in the same examinations with 
male candidates for degrees. 

DelpMn Classics. — An edition of the 
Greek and Roman authors, prepared in 
the reign of Louis XIV. by thirty-nine 
eminent scholars of France, under the 
joint editorship of Bossuet and Huet, 
tutors to the Dauphin (Lat. Delphimis). 
English editions of some of the authors in 
the series were published. The scholar- 
ship of the editors of these once celebrated 
volumes is now out of date. 

De Morgan, Augustus. — One of the 
greatest mathematical teachers of Eng- 
land in the nineteenth century. The son 
of an officer of the British army, De Mor- 
gan was born in the East Indies 1806, 
passed as fourth wrangler at Cambridge, 



1827, and (with an interval of five years 
1831-36) filled the chair of Mathematics 
in University College, London, from 1831 
to a few years before his death in 1871. 
He was not only a very successful teacher, 
many of his pupils taking the highest 
honours at London and Cambridge, but 
he was the profoundest mathematician of 
his day as an original investigator. His 
Elements of Arithmetic (1830), Algebra 
(1835), Trigonometry and Double Algebra 
(1837 etc.). Essay on Probabilities (1838), 
and Differential and Integral Calcidus 
difiiered from ordinary manuals by teach- 
ing principles instead of rules, and by 
the comprehensive grasp they display of 
the whole field of pure mathematical sci- 
ence. De Morgan's manuals do not appear 
to have been published since his death, but 
his method has largely moulded the more 
popular text- books of his pupils and suc- 
cessors, like Routh, Todhunter, Wormell, 
and others. De Morgan also wrote a woi'k 
on Formal Logic, in connection with which 
he became involved in a somewhat acrimo- 
nious controversy with Sir William Ham- 
ilton of Edinburgh on the question of the 
Quantification of the Predicate. De Mor- 
gan's history of Arithmetical Boohs from 
the Invention of Printing down to the time 
when he wrote is a work showing much 
research and curious learning. 

Denzel, Bernhard Gottlieb {b. at Stutt- 
gart 1773, d. at Esslingen 1838). — German 
schoolmaster and theologian; one of the 
first to inti'oduce into Germany the Pesta- 
lozzian method {q.v.). While vicar of a 
parish in Switzerland he met with Pesta- 
lozzi, and, embracing his method, put it 
into practice at Pleidelsheim. In response 
to a petition directed against the new sys- 
tem introduced by Denzel, the King of 
Wiirttemberg gave him the advantage of 
his support, with the result that Denzel's 
name became distinguished, so that when 
the normal school at Esslingen was founded 
(1811) he was appointed director, a post 
which he held till his death. Denzel took 
part in various educational movements, 
and organised in 1818 the normal school 
at Idstein. Diesterweg {q.v.) dedicated 
(1838) the first volume of the second edi- 
tion of his Wegweiser to Denzel. Among 
his various works the most important is 
Einleitung in die Erziehungs- und Unter- 
richtslehre fur Volksschidlehrer. 

De ftuincey, Thomas (&. at Greenhays 
1785, d. at Edinburgh 1859), was educated 



86 



DESCARTES, RE:N"E DEVELOPMENT 



in the grammar school, Manchester, and 
afterwards at Worcester College, Oxford, 
which he left without taking his degree, 
though it is well known that he was one 
of the best scholars then at the university. 
After leaving Oxford, he took up his abode 
at Ambleside, near Wordsworth and the 
rest of the ' Lakers.' He was fond of soli- 
tude and an immense reader, and, seeing 
that his father had left him a fair patri- 
mony, he could indulge his tastes. But 
many causes diminished his fortune, and 
he was forced to seek some remunerative 
employment. Fortunately he took to lite- 
rature. De Quincey is widely known as 
the author of The Confessions of an Eng- 
lish Opiuvi-Eater, though this is not his 
best work. He is noticed here for his 
celebrated Letters to a Young Man whose 
education has been neglected. These let- 
ters appeared first in the London Maga- 
zine, and were never finished. They are 
rather diffuse, but full of gems. It is not 
that they present a system that we name 
them, but to any one who missed prolonged 
contact with literature early in life, and 
who wishes to know how to enrich his 
mind, they are both valuable and interest- 
ing. (They are to be found in the 13th 
vol. of De Quincey's Works as published 
by Black, Edinburgh.) 

Descartes, Eene {h. at La Haye 1596, 
d. at Stockholm 1650), has enjoyed the 
highest fame as the father of modern philo- 
sophy. His celebrated dictum, Cogito, ergo 
suvi, has not stood the test of subtle criti- 
cism, and he has been laughed at by many 
for his ingenious reasons why the seat of 
the soul should be that part of the brain 
called the pineal gland; but his position as 
the foremost thinker of his century cannot 
be assailed. He exerted immense influence 
upon education by his introduction of the 
method of bold, free enquiry, which begins 
by taking, in the best sense of the word, a 
sceptical attitude. Though he did not 
give the world a treatise on any particular 
method of education, his philosophical sys- 
tem provided in many ways great principles 
that are absolutely necessary for mental 
development. His attack upon the old 
regime of classical studies was severe, 
but undoubtedly just ; for the mental 
training that consisted in mechanical ac- 
curacy and servile obedience to set rules 
was not worthy of the name. In his 
Discours de la Methode, Descartes asserts 
the equality of souls or minds, and their 



universal aptitude to comprehend or un- 
derstand, and professes to show that any 
inequality that exists is due to education. 
Here many people will recognise an exag- 
gerated statement; but his bold advocacy 
for equality of educational privilege, his 
claim for each intelligence to think for 
itself, and his demand that in our studies 
we must respect the libei'ty of the indivi- 
dual, are principles that we are slowly 
learning to recognise and put in prac- 
tice. Descartes is credited with the honour 
of first enforcing with emphasis that an 
order of study which leads from the known 
to the unknown (q.v.), or from the easy ta 
the difficult, is the only simple and natural 
method. The life of Descartes was che- 
quered. He received his education at a 
Jesuit college. He entered the army of 
the Prince of Orange, and fought with 
bravery at Prague, 1620. Whilst in gar- 
rison he studied mathematics and wrote a 
treatise on music. He left military life 
for travel. In 1629 he settled at Amster- 
dam and studied most assiduously. His 
philosophy provoked enemies, and he re- 
plied with great warmth, till at last, to 
escape a religious persecution, he fled to 
Christina, Queen of Sweden, and settled 
at Stockholm, where he was tutor to the 
queen. There he ended his days and was 
buried, though afterwards his remains were 
conveyed to Paris. 

Desks. See Furniture. 
Development comprehends the series 
of changes through which every living 
thing passes in the course of its life-history ,^ 
and the order of which is, in its main 
features, determined by the species of which 
it is a member. The movements of deve- 
lopment, as the word and the related term 
evolution suggest, are regarded as spring- 
ing out of certain latent tendencies inhe- 
rent in the organism itself. Development 
thus contrasts with all series of changes 
mechanically impressed upon a body by an 
external force, as, for example, the forma- 
tion of a statue. Yet while the result of 
the internal activity of the organism itself, 
it presupposes an environment with which 
the organism continually interacts. Thus 
the due development of a plant depends 
upon the presence of nourishment, heat, 
light, &c., which are necessary to the exer- 
cise of its proper functions. We may thus 
distinguish in all development two factors : 
(1) an internal, consisting of the forces and 
tendencies residing in the organism ; and 



DIARY DIDEROT, DENIS 



87 



(2) an external, viz. a suitable environment 
to act upon and call forth reactions from 
the organism. Development is distin- 
guished from mere growth or increase in 
bulk by the characteristic of advancing 
diflferentiation and complexity of structure. 
Thus the development of a brain means 
progress in unlikeness of parts, and in com- 
plexity of arrangement between part and 
part. Mental development, like physical, 
is characterised by increase in distinctness 
of parts and complexity of sti^ucture. In 
other words, knowledge passes fi'om the 
vague to the definite stage, and from simple 
to complex forms. Again, mental deve- 
lopment, like physical, may be viewed as 
the product of internal and external forces 
acting and reacting one upon another. 
Normal mental development presupposes 
the germ of the normal human faculties 
at the outset. Moreover, the rapidity of 
the process of development, its duration, 
and, lastly, the special lines which it fol- 
lows, are determined by the innate powers 
and dispositions of the individual. At the 
same time the action of surroundings is 
an essential condition to the realisation of 
these original capacities. Under this en- 
vironment we must include not only phy- 
sical objects htted to stimulate the senses 
and furnish elementary impressions to the 
mind, but also human beings or society, 
the presence of which is necessary to that 
higher intellectual and moral development 
which distinguishes man from the lower 
animals. The development of a human 
being as a whole is the sum of its physical 
and its mental developments, which are 
intimately connected, and powerfully react 
one on the other. The effect of physical 
development on mental is seen in the fact 
that at eveiy stage the latter is limited 
by the degree of structural complexity 
reached by the brain, by the well-known 
consequences of the physical changes which 
take place at the age of puberty, &g. On 
the other hand, a too rapid development 
of brain and mental faculty tends to re- 
tard, and in extreme cases even to arrest, 
the general movement of physical growth. 
Writers on education have attempted to 
mark off different periods of human deve- 
lopment, as infancy, childhood, youth, &c., 
which periods are determined partly by 
physical, though mainly by mental changes 
(cf . article Evolution). (See H, Spencer's 
Principles of Psychology, vol. i. parts iii. 
iv.; Sully's Handbook of Psychology, chap. 



V. and Appendix A; W. H. Payne's Con- 
tributions to Sc. of Ed., chap. iv. ; Schmid's 
Encyclopddie, ai"t. ' Entwicklung '; and 
Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, art. 
' Evolution de I'lndividu.') 

Diary. See Log-book. 

Dictation. — This is a method employed 
for teaching to spell. The teacher reads 
aloud, and the pupil writes down what he 
hears read. For a language phonetically 
perfect — in which every separate sound is 
represented by a single letter, and every 
letter has but a single sound — the plan 
would be a wholly satisfactory one, pro- 
vided that the reading were audible and 
perfectly clear. For the writing of Eng- 
lish, however, we have to trust more to 
the memory than to the ear. The memory 
of the eye — of how the word looks when 
written — is a specially valuable aid. We 
should be careful to appeal to this memory 
when dictating; and we may best do this 
by requiring the pupil to read silently two 
or three times the part of the page about 
to be dictated, so that he may have the 
' look' of the words fresh in his mind; and 
when in difficulty may be exercised in re- 
calling how the word looked on the page just 
read. In the same way to write out what 
has just been learnt by heart is a good 
exercise. 

Diderot, Denis (6. at Langres 1713, 
d. at Paris 1784), was the son of a master 
cutler, and was intended for the law, but 
he abandoned this for literature and phi- 
losophy. In literature he undertook any 
work that came in his way, from making 
catalogues to writing stories. He wrote 
Letters on the Blind in 1749, for which 
he received some months' imprisonment. 
He was joint editor of the Universal 
Medical Dictionary ; then he formed the 
project of a general Cyclopaedia, of which 
he wrote a great part, and in the editor- 
ship of which he was assisted by D'Alem- 
bert. He also wrote other works, including 
Le Nevexh de Bamecou, which was trans- 
lated by Goethe. Catherine of Russia, 
hearing of his intention to sell his library, 
bought it at its full value, and settled a 
pension upon him as her librarian. This 
was about 1775, and it is owing to this 
step that he comes before us as an educa- 
tionist, for Catherine requested him to give 
her a plan of a university for Russia. He 
first claimed that educatioiL was for all : 
'from the highest official to the lowest 
peasant each man ought to learn reading, 



88 



DIESTERWEG, FHIEDRICH DIET 



writing, and arithmetic' He placed before 
the Russians, as their model, the system of 
education then well organised in Germany. 
Catherine ordered some schools to be esta- 
blished, in accordance with this advice. 
Diderot insisted that attendance should be 
compulsory, and to enforce this by law he 
was satisfied that education should be free. 
He insisted that all children were to be 
regarded as 'foundation scholars' of the 
State, and were to be kept at school at 
the expense of the State. Not only books, 
but also food was to be furnished for them. 
In sketching a course of higher education, 
Diderot followed, to a large extent, the 
method of the University of Paris, which 
recognised four faculties ; but of course the 
faculty of theology and the faculty of law 
both underwent considerable changes, and 
were put in the background. Like so 
many of the French reformers in educa- 
tion, he turned from the old method, and 
made the centre of true education to be 
not classical languages, but science. Out 
of eight classes or divisions under the 
faculty of arts, he devoted the first five 
classes mainly to science. His insight into 
the theory and practice of education was 
very considerable. He lived in St. Peters- 
burg, greatly charmed by the lavish favour 
of the empress. On his return to Paris, 
she took sumptuous lodgings for him, but 
he only enjoyed them twelve days. His 
last utterance was, ' The first step towards 
philosophy is incredulity.' 

Biesterweg^, Friedrich Adolph Wil- 
helm (6. 1790, d. 1866).— An eminent 
German writer and pedagogue. After a 
distinguished university career, he became 
successively teacher at Worms gymnasium 
and Frankfort model schools, and director 
of a primary normal school at Mors (1820- 
32), and was afterwards appointed (1832- 
47) director of the normal school at 
Berlin. Diesterweg was a voluminous 
writer, his first work, published 1820, 
being on education in general, and scho- 
lastic education in particular, followed 
by Wegvjeiser zur Bildung fur deutsche 
Lehrer (1834), Beitrdge zur Losung der 
Lebensfrage der Zivilisation (1836-38, 
4th ed.), Lehrhuch der Tnathematischen 
Geographie und popiddren Himmelskunde 
(1840), Pddagogisches Jahrbuch (1851- 
66), Pddagogisches Wollen %ind Sollen 
(1866, 2nd ed., 1875); Diesterweg, sein 
Leben %ind seine Schriften (1867); Dies- 
terwegs Selbstbeurteilungen, aus seinen 



Schriften gesammelt (1873), besides other 
works. He also was in his earlier years 
a contributor to the Rheinische Blatter. 
Diesterweg was an ardent educational con- 
troversialist, and engaged in the dispute 
respecting the merits of the Lancastrian 
system (q. v.), which he opposed. He also 
controverted the use of classical languages 
in normal education. He followed in the 
path of Pestalozzi (q.v.) and Rousseau 
(q.v.), and was an ardent apostle of the 
natural method as opposed to mechanical 
instruction, and an earnest advocate of 
the development of the natural faculties. 
His principles were embraced by a large 
number of masters whom he imbued with 
his own spirit and enthusiasm. 

Diet. — Children's food should be gene- 
rous and abundant. Not only have they 
to keep in repair the tissues of the body, 
and supply force for carrying on the func- 
tions of the body, but also to build up new 
tissues in the process of growth. In addi- 
tion, their bodies expose moi"e surface in 
proportion to their size than adults, and they 
therefore require a proportionately larger 
amount of food to compensate for loss of 
heat. If the food supply is scanty, growth 
will be stunted, or some of the organs of 
the body will suffer. A half- starved brain 
cannot do as much work as one well-nour- 
ished, and is also more prone to disease. 
Food and work are closely related. The 
more brain-work a child does the more 
food he requires. This is just as true as 
in the analogous case of muscular exercise. 
According to De Chaumont a child weigh- 
ing 100 lbs. (i.e. about fifteen years old) 
requires about 3 ozs. of albuminate or ni- 
trogenous food, 2^ ozs. of fat, 12 ozs. of 
carbohydrates (starch and sugar), and about 
I oz. of mineral matter, per diem. In work- 
ing out any given dietary, it is convenient 
to remember that bread contains about 8 
per cent, albuminates (and 50 per cent, 
starch), meat 15 per cent, albuminates, 
cheese over 30 per cent., and peas and 
beans, generally 22 per cent. Nearly all 
children's dietaries err in deficiency of fat, 
though they contain abundance of starch 
and sugar. This deficiency may be made 
up by dripping, butter, and suet puddings 
in addition to the fat of meat. Milk forms 
an important part of children's dietaries. 
Alcoholic drinks should never be given 
except under medical responsibility. The 
water supplied at school should be pure 
and above suspicion. It should be derived, 



DII^TER, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH- 



-DISCRIMINATION 



89 



in town, either directly from the water- 
main, or from a cistern separate from that 
supplying water-closets and having its 
overflow-pipe discharging in the open air. 
In country places shallow wells are always 
a sovTrce of danger. If a filter is used it 
should be frequently cleansed, or it may 
do more harm than good. 

Dinter, Gustav Friedrich (6. at 
Borna, Saxony, 1760, d. at Konigsberg 
1831). — A distinguished German peda- 
gogue. After studying theology at Leip- 
zig he became a clergyman at Kitscher, 
1787. Being desirous to become ac- 
quainted with foreign countries, he took 
with him some poor youths whom he de- 
sired to train for the same profession as 
his own. Dinter, who was an ardent ad- 
vocate of the catechetical method {q.v.), 
came into distinguished notice by the suc- 
cess his pupils obtained as teachers, and 
he was in consequence appointed director 
of the primary normal school at Dresden 
(1797). Compelled by illness to resign 
his post, he resumed his clerical life, but 
on recovery was appointed (1816) by the 
Prussian Government school inspector 
and member of the Consistory at Konigs- 
berg, in which capacity he was charged 
with the inspection of the schools of the 
province. Dinter, who was an ardent ad- 
mirer of the principles of Basedow {q.v.) 
and Pestalozzi (g. v. ), exerted his influence to 
introduce these into primary schools. He 
was a voluminous writer, his works com- 
prising some forty-two volumes, the more 
famous being Die vorzuglichsten Regeln 
der Katechetik (1800), Die vorzuglichsten 
Regeln der Pddagogik, Metliodikund Schid- 
lehrerkhigheit (1806), and Dinter' s Lehen, 
von ihm, selbst beschrieben (1829). 

Diploma (Gr. 8t7rA,w/xa, anything folded 
or doubled) was originally applied to ofii- 
cial documents written on folded wax 
tablets, and subsequently was the name 
given to royal charters and State papers, 
(hence dijylotnacy, the science of govern- 
ment documents). Academically the word 
is used to signify the certificates granted 
by universities and colleges as evidence 
that those upon whom they are conferred 
have graduated in some faculty, or as a 
licence to practise certain callings. A 
teacher's diploma is granted by the Uni- 
versity of London. 

Discipline in its wider sense means 
the whole system of instruction to which 
the learner or disciple is subjected, and 



is thus almost interchangeable with the 
terms 'training' and 'education.' In its 
narrower sense discipline refers to the 
maintenance of authority. The system 
of school government, with its definite 
rules, its punishments, and its rewards, is 
a condition of systematic teaching, and 
so may be viewed as subserving the end 
of intellectual instruction. At the same 
time it is evident that authority and com- 
mand work through the agency of the 
child's will. In this way discipline comes 
to have a special connection with the ex- 
ercise and formation of the will — in other 
words, with what we mark oflT as moral 
education. The imposition of commands, 
by exercising the child in self-restraint 
and by inducing a habit of obedience, is 
the great means by which the early train- 
ing of the will is efiected, and the founda- 
tions of moral habit and good character 
established. The merits of any system of 
discipline must be tested by the measure 
in which it attains its ends, intellectual 
and moral. The general conditions of an 
effective discipline are such as follow : 
(a) the rules laid down to be intelligible 
and to be uniformly enforced, (b) the rules 
to be as few as possible compatible with 
the securing of the necessary objects, 
(c) the avoidance of everything like ca- 
priciousness and unfairness in the appli- 
cation of the rules to individual cases, 
{d) the recommendation of the rules laid 
down by first calling forth the child's feel- 
ings of respect for and confidence in his 
ruler, and afterwards, as he advances in 
years, gradually enlisting his intelligent 
approval and support. An important part 
of the theory of discipline concerns itself 
with the subject of punishments and re- 
wards {q.v.) (cf. articles Obedience, Moral 
Education, Punishment, and Rewards). 
On the nature and conditions of early 
government and discipline see Locke on 
Education, sects. 32 and following ; Bain's 
Edtccation as a Science, pp. 100-112 ; 
Sully's Handbook of Psychology, pp. 471- 
477 ; and Fitch's Lectures on Teaching, 
lect. iv. 

Discipline of Consequences. See Con- 
sequences. 

Discrimination. — By an act of dis- 
crimination we mean the distinguishing 
of one impression or object from another 
so as to discern the exact points of differ- 
ence between them. Thus a child discrimi- 
nates one musical note from another, the 



90 



DISOBEDIENCE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME 



ellipse from the circle, and so forth. The 
sense of difference constitutes one of the 
fundamental constituents of intellect, side 
by side with assimilation, or the sense of 
similarity. It may be said that a child's 
first step towards knowledge is the dis- 
cernment of the unlikeness of one sense- 
impression to others. Thus it comes to 
know its mother's face and voice by re- 
marking their peculiarity, i.e. their points 
of dissimilarity to other objects of sight 
and hearing. And throughout the progress 
of knowledge discrimination enters as an 
essential element, determining the degree 
of definiteness and exactness of all our 
ideas, our judgments, &c. A complete act 
of conscious discrimination presupposes 
that the objects or ideas to be distin- 
guished are brought simultaneously before 
the mind. Thus a child learns to discrimi- 
nate one letter from another by looking 
at the two side by side or in juxtaposition. 
This completed act of discrimination is 
the outcome of comparison, and implies 
that the attention is closely fixed on the 
two objects in their relation one to another. 
The power of discrimination is in a manner 
opposed to the other fundamental intel- 
lectual endowment, that of assimilation. 
Where we are strongly impressed by some 
similarity between things we find it hard 
to discover difierence, and vice versa. Al- 
though a vague sense of difierence mani- 
fests itself in the earliest perceptions of 
the child, the finer acts of discrimination 
are reached with difiiculty, and only as 
the result of careful practice. This is seen 
in the way in which children first lump 
together under the same name different 
species of animals. The sense of similarity 
here overpowers the sense of difference. 
The opposition between the two is seen 
further in the fact that one may greatly 
preponderate over the other in a particular 
individual. The training of the child indis- 
crimination constitutes the main part of 
the education of the senses. And through- 
out the whole work of instruction it should 
be one ruling aim of the teacher to de- 
velop the power of discriminating objects 
and ideas readily and accurately (cf. article 
Senses). 

See Bain's Education as a Science, 
p. 16 and following ; Sully's Handbook of 
Psychology, pp. 47, 120, and following, 
also p. 493. 

Disobedience. See Obedience. 

Distribution of Time. — Before we can 



hope to make a satisfactory distribution 
of time amongst the various subjects of a 
school curriculum, it is quite clear that we 
must first establish the educational values 
of those subjects — both as instruments for 
training the faculties, and as the suppliers 
of information which is really needed. 
Until this is done, the amount of time 
which is given to this or that subject will 
mainly depend on whim or fancy, and the 
amount and kind of demand which the 
public make for it. For instance, at Eton, 
Harrow, and Rugby the main demand is 
for Latin and Greek ; and so out of some 
fifty hours a week of work in and out of 
school, the highest classes at these schools 
devote about thirty to classics, as against 
some six hours to mathematics — while on 
the military and engineering side at Clif- 
ton, classics get only twelve hours and 
mathematics eleven hours. In German 
Gymnasiums and French Lycees the dis- 
tribution of time, as far as regards classics 
and mathematics, is very much the same 
as at Eton and Harrow ; while in a Real- 
gymnasium it is much the same as that 
just given for Clifton. (See Journal of 
Education, Sept. 1881.) Teachers in En- 
glish schools are rapidly coming to the 
conclusion that the very unsatisfactory 
results obtained in modern foreign lan- 
guages, though in part due to a mistaken 
method and poor teaching, are mainly due 
to the smallness of the time allotted to 
them. Probably five hours a week (in- 
cluding preparation) is the least that can 
be safely given to either French or German. 
Whatever be the total amount of time 
given to a subject, short lessons at short 
intervals will almost invariably be found 
to be productive of better results than 
long lessons far apart — especially in the 
case of younger pupils. Languages, with 
their severe tax on the memory, and their 
general lack of interest for children, will 
always be found to require more time than 
mathematics, which appeals more to the 
reasoning powers, and more readily gives 
the learner the power of applying what 
he has learned to the doing of something 
which he cares about. While again, sci- 
ence, with the interest and curiosity which 
it excites, and the involuntary work which 
it thereby causes to be done, may with 
safety, in its earlier stages, be allowed even 
less time than mathematics. Speaking 
generally, it is usually found wise to se- 
cure two lessons at least on each subject 



DIYEESIONS DRAINAGE AERANGEMENTS OF SCHOOLS 91 



every week — and with History, English 
Literature, and Geography probably two 
each will be always found sufficient. For 
Arithmetic four lessons is the minimum 
in the case of beginners ; while drawing, 
writing, and reading should each have 
one short lesson a day in the period during 
which they are taught. When drawing- 
becomes Art, it will require longer spaces 
of practice, twice a week, instead of the 
short daily exercise. (Besides the ' Time 
Tables ' of our public schools in the Journal 
of Education already referred to, much 
useful information will be found in Mr. 
Charles Bird's Higher Education in Ger- 
many and England.) 

Diversions. See Recreation. 

Domestic Economy, or the art of house- 
hold management, is now taught to girls 
as a specific subject in public elementary 
schools, and also in many private schools. 
Cookery, which may be regarded as one of 
the most important branches of this sub- 
ject, is practically taught to girls in the last 
year of their attendance at the elementary 
schools. Grants have been offered by the 
Government in the hope of making cook- 
ery a part of the ordinary course of in- 
struction. Lessons in it, if properly given, 
will be found to be not only of practical 
use, but to have great effect in awakening 
the interest of children, who, according to 
the Code, are not only required to be pre- 
sent at a lecture or demonstration in 
cookery, but to be efficiently taught ' with 
their own hands.' The cookery grant to 
schools is conditional on the supply of 
proper apparatus and utensils for the pur- 
pose of practically illustrating the art. 

Don. — The name applied to resident 
professors and other officers of the colleges 
at the Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. 

Dormitories (School) should never be 
used during the day for study or other 
purposes ; but the windows should be 
kept widely open during the whole day. 
Open bedrooms are preferred to separate 
cubicles by those having large experience 
in the moral management of boys in large 
schools ; with the former a more complete 
supervision, and therefore a greater free- 
dom from vicious habits, can be ensured, 
and in addition freer through ventilation 
is obtained. Inasmuch as the pupil spends 
nearly one-third of his time in the bed- 
room, its atmosphere should be made as 
pure as possible by free ventilation and 



thorough cleanliness in all the arrange- 
ments. Even with the best ventilation, a 
pure atmosphere cannot be secured unless 
a sufficient cubic space is allowed for each 
pupil. At least one thousand five hun- 
dred cubic feet of fresh air are required by 
each pupil per hour ; and if the air is 
changed more than three or four times 
an hour, violent draughts are produced. 
Hence it is necessary that three hundred 
and seventy-five to five hundred cubic 
feet of space should be allowed for each 
scholar in the bedroom, and preferably the 
latter amount. This is when the venti- 
lating arrangements are perfect, as they 
seldom are. Children, like their elders, 
will close up any aperture from which an 
unpleasant draught proceeds. Dr. Dukes, 
the physician to Rugby School, urges that 
taking a school-bed at three by six feet, 
the superficial area of the bedroom should 
be six by twelve feet per pupil, and the 
room twelve feet high. This gives eight 
hundred and sixty-four cubic feet per head, 
which, allowing for the air displaced by the 
furniture and the boy himself, leaves about 
eight hundred cubic feet per head. The 
poor health and pasty appearance of chil- 
dren in boarding-schools are much oftener 
due to crowded bedrooms than to deficient 
food or overwork. An essential point in 
the arrangement of dormitories is that each 
pupil should have his own towel and brush 
and comb. 

Drainage Arrangements of a School 
should be of the most perfect character, 
as children more quickly suffer from sani- 
tary defects than adults. Lavatories- 
should be periodically inspected, to pre- 
vent obstruction by soap, &c. The waste- 
pipes should not run directly into the 
drain, but open over the seal of an inter- 
ception gully-trap in the yard. Urinals 
should preferably have china or glazed 
earthenware surfaces, as these hardly allow 
any sediment. Slate, stone, and cement 
slabs are not so good, as the rougher sur- 
face allows some deposit, and they can be 
written on. The water-flushing arrange- 
ments should be such that the children 
cannot tamper with them. An automatic 
flush-tank which empties its contents down 
the urinals at intervals is perhaps best ; 
or, failing this, frequent washing by a re- 
sponsible attendant. Five places should 
be furnished for every hundred scholars. 
The waste pipe from the urinal should 
pass into a ventilated trap, and not di- 



92 



DRAWING 



rectly into the drain. Closets should 
never be placed in the basement under 
the school ; but always in a separate 
building, which may be partially connected 
with the school by a covered subway. 
The walls of the closet should be of tiles 
or some other material which cannot be 
written on ; and all closets should be fre- 
quently inspected. There should be sepa- 
rate provision for teachers and scholars, 
and for the two sexes. The proper al- 
lowance is one seat for every fifteen girls 
or twenty-five boys (Buls). The common 
privy is most objectionable from a sanitary 
standpoint. Where it is in use its dangers 
may be minimised by diminishing the size 
of the cesspit below the seat and raising 
it above the ground-level. This necessi- 
tates frequent emptying. A further im- 
provement is to throw ashes or dry loamy 
soil over the contents each day, thus 
partially converting the privy into an 
earth-closet. In towns water-closets are 
preferable. The form known as the pan- 
closet is always bad, simple valveless clo- 
sets being most suitable for children's use. 
They should be made with an automatic 
flushing arrangement, worked by opening 
the door or rising from the seat. The 
water-supply to the closet should be abun- 
dant, and from a cistern separate from 
that supplying drinking water. In order 
to obtain a good flush of water the cistern 
should be at least three or four feet above 
the closet, and the internal diameter of 
the flushing pipe at least 1^ inch. In- 
stead of isolated water-closets tumbler or 
trough-closets may be employed, each hav- 
ing a number of seats and a water-tight 
trough below, the contents of which are 
only removed periodically by removing a 
plug and flushing with water. Such a 
plan requires more superintendence and 
is more troublesome than isolated closets 
automatically flushed; but there is less 
apparatus to get out of order. The soil- 
pipe should be carried outside the school 
throughout its whole course, and should 
be prolonged upwards above the eaves as 
a ventilating shaft. The drain-pi2)e carry- 
ing away waste water and the contents of 
the soil-pipe should be made of iron or 
earthenware pipes with watertight joints. 
It should be separated from the main-sewer 
by a syphon-trap, which is ventilated, thus 
allowing fresh air to sweep from this end 
■of the drain to the upper end of the soil- 
pipe above the eaves. A manhole or dis- 



connecting chamber with an air-tight iron 
cover should lead down to the interception 
syphon-trap, so as to allow of inspection 
of the drain. Cesspools are occasionally 
required to receive the sewage where no 
general system of sewerage exists. In 
this case they should be so constructed as 
to be watertight, should be small in size, 
and periodically emptied. They should 
also be remote from the playground, or from 
any part to which the children have access. 
Earth-closets are very valuable in country 
districts. It is found that 1^ pound of 
dry loamy earth completely deodorises the 
closet each time it is used ; and this is 
scattered by an automatic arrangement 
when the seat is risen from. 

Drawing is a mode of representing 
solid forms by lines upon surfaces. A 
drawing, as a result of artistic labour, has 
either a purpose outside of the art, such 
as anatomical or mechanical drawings and 
plans, or it is executed for its own sake, 
such as landscapes and fruit pieces. In 
the former case their purpose is princi- 
pally one of material usefulness ; in the 
second they are executed with an en- 
deavour after a beautiful external form, 
and are thus a representation of the ideal. 
But those of the first do not exclude the 
beautiful, for every object can be beauti- 
fully represented. Material forms are 
either natural or artificial, and either geo- 
metrical or irregular. There are various 
species of drawing : («) linear drawing, 
which gives only an outline of the object, 
and shaded drawing; (6) geometrical di-aw- 
ing, representing objects in their correct 
relative proportions as to magnitude, and 
perspective drawing, representing objects 
as they appear to the eye ; (c) free draw- 
ing and sketching ; and (d) copying, or 
drawing from another drawing, drawing 
from nature, or of real objects, and imagi- 
native drawing, or drawing of things 
conceived by oneself, of which the two 
former are of things as they are directly 
seen, and the third is indirectly based 
upon the vision of real things. In all 
drawing, the eye, the hand, and the sense 
of beauty are employed, as are also, in 
drawing from memory, the faculty of con- 
ception and, in drawing from imagination, 
the faculty of imagination. Hence the 
truth of Harnisch's remark, ' the cultiva- 
tion of the faculties of representation and 
form gives us a feeling for beauty, grace, 
form, and symmetry.' Elementary draw- 



DRILL- 



-DULL SCHOLARS 



93 



ing (i.e. drawing of lines, angles, and geo- 
metrical figures) is now regarded as an 
essential branch of primary education, and 
as such is taught in all schools ; while in 
the army and navy, and in many profes- 
sions and trades, the ability readily and 
graphically to delineate common forms, 
plans, sketch-maps, and scenery, is regarded 
as an important and a valuable accom- 
plishment. Instruction in drawing should 
include exercises in understanding, i.e. 
form in itself, and the beautiful in form, 
which constitute culture of the eye and of 
the sense of beauty, and exercises in re- 
presenting what lies immediately before 
the student, as in copying and drawing 
from nature, and what has some time ago 
been before him, as in drawing from 
memory and imagination ; and these con- 
stitute the education of the hand in the 
service of the eye, and the culture of the 
memory, the imagination, and the sense of 
beauty. Both elementary di^awing and 
applied drawing must be practised on the 
principle fabricando fit faber — elementary 
drawing as a necessary substructure for 
applied drawing, and applied drawing 
because the forms of the world around us, 
without comprehending and representing 
which neither the formal nor the material 
object of drawing will be reached, are 
almost always not plane figures, but solid 
forms. In this respect drawing is the 
constant practice of the analysis of forms. 
The perceptive and the reproductive fa- 
culties, to use the language of philosophers, 
are thus in constant demand and of uni- 
versal application. The eye is taught to 
see all objects more correctly, and the 
hand is trained to do everything more 
precisely. There are various modes of 
drawing, distinguished according to the ma- 
terials used, such as chalk, black-lead pencil, 
sepia, or other tinted drawings, which 
last-mentioned class are sometimes called 
washed drawings, in which some indication 
of colouring is occasionally introduced. 
Pen-and-ink drawings, in the style of 
etchings, are capable of producing con- 
siderable effect ; and even more effective 
are drawings, either in chalk, black-lead 
pencil, or sepia, done on paper of a neutral 
tint, with the bright lights put on with 
white. Water-colour drawing must not 
be confounded with drawing in its stricter 
sense, as we have been considering it, for 
it is a species of painting, although the 
process employed is altogether different 



from that of oil-painting. Drawing, as 
a part of education, was first officially 
recognised in 1837, when the School of 
Design in Somerset House was established^ 
which after a migration to Marlborough 
House (1852-1856) was transferred to 
South Kensington, where it entered its 
new buildings in 1863, under the designa- 
tion of the National Art Training School 
{q.v.). Schools of art {q.v.), in connection 
with the Science and Art Department of 
the Committee of Council on Education^ 
have also been established throughout the 
United Kingdom. 

Drill. See Calisthenics and Ath- 
letics. 

Duke of York's School. See Educa- 
tion (Army). 

Dull Scholars. — Boys and girls of slug- 
gish intellect are to be found in all schools, 
and the skill and patience of the teacher 
are much exercised in dealing with them. 
The success with which dullards are 
treated, however, is one of the tests of a 
good teacher, and it is really more credit- 
able to bring out the latent intelligence 
of stupidity than to foster the growth of 
precocity. Dulness is frequently co-ex- 
istent with obstinacy, and then is much 
more difficult to deal with than when, as 
is often the case, it is accompanied by 
gentleness and a disposition to painstaking 
industry. It should be remembered, how- 
ever, that there is no child so dull but 
that it has some faculty or characteristic 
capable of development. An ear for music, 
for instance, as Professor Bain has pointed 
out, is frequently characteristic of dull 
children, and even of children of weak 
intellect. An aptitude for mechanism, 
and an almost instinctive love of accuracy, 
are sometimes also characteristic of such 
children. In the treatment of dullards, 
therefore, the aim should be to unfold their 
natures, as Carlyle says, so that they may 
be adapted 'to work at what thing they 
have faculty for.' The law which Richter 
has laid down in Levana should also be 
borne in mind by the teacher of dullards : 
' Let it be a law, that since every faculty 
is holy, none must be weakened in itself, 
but only the opposing one aroused, by 
means of which it may be added harmo- 
niously to the whole.' Not a few men. 
eminent in literature and science, Liebig, 
for instance, and Walter Scott, were back- 
ward boys at school, and regarded as dull. 
To lose patience with dull scholars, or to 



u 



DULWICH COLLEGE EAR (CULTIVATION OF) 



seek to stimulate their sluggishness by- 
calling them dunces and blockheads, or by 
contrasting their performances with the 
more brilliant achievements of clever boys, 
is to afford evidence that the teacher him- 
self has a considerable share of the stu- 
pidity he condemns. 

Dulwich College. See Alleyn. 

Dunce. — This word, which signifies a 
dullard or blockhead, is of doubtful origin. 
Some give it a Persian origin, and others 
have so far exercised their ingenuity as to 
regard the word as a corruption of Duns 
(Duns Scotus). Webster, who discredits 
this derivation, gives the following ex- 
planation of it by Stanihurst: ' The term 
Duns, from Scotus, so famous for his sub- 
till quiddities, is so trivial and common in 
all schools, that whoso surpasseth others 
either in cavilling sophistrie or subtill phi- 
losophie is forthwith nicknamed a Duns.' 
This he tells us in the margin is the reason 
' why schoolmen are called Dunses ' (De- 
scription of Ireland, p. 2). The word, 
says Southey (Omniana, vol. i. p. 5), easily 
passed into a term of scorn, just as a 
blockhead is called Solomon, a bully Hec- 
tor, and as Moses is the vulgar name of 
contempt for a Jew. (See articles Dull 
Scholars and Stupidity.) 

Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Philippe 
(6. 1802 at Saint-Felix in Savoy, d. 1878). 
— A distinguished French prelate, poli- 
tician, and educationist, and a member of 
the French Academy. Mgr. Dupanloup, 
who took a leading part in the controversy 
respecting public education, espoused the 



cause of the Church in relation to religious 
instruction, and opposed M. Jules Simon 
in the National Assembly, 1871, on the 
introduction of his project for rendering 
instruction compulsory, and was elected 
president of the commission hostile to the 
scheme. The principal educational works 
of Mgr. Dupanloup are : De V Ediocation 
(1851, 9th ed., 1872); De la Haute Edu- 
cation Intellect'uelle (1855); La femme 
studieuse (1869, 3rd ed., 1872); Lettres 
sur I'education des Jilles dans le monde 
(1879), besides many smaller works. 

Daty is that which we ought, or are 
under a moral obligation, to do. The term 
duty thus presupposes a moral law which 
demands our obedience. With this abstract 
conception of duty ethical writers give us 
a scheme of particular duties, as that of 
Paley: (a) duties to others, (h) to ourselves, 
(c) to God. It is evident that the child 
can only reach so abstract a conception as 
that of duty slowly, and as the result of 
experience and reflection. The first crude 
idea of duty or obligation is acquired by 
help of positive commands laid down and 
enforced by the parent or other person in 
authority. Oughtness at first means what 
some one in authority bids me do. As 
with a community so with a child, the 
sphere of duty is largely determined by 
custom. What the child is accustomed to 
do and to see others do, that tends to be- 
come a matter of duty or obligation. (See 
Moral Sense.) 

Dynamics, See Physics. 



E 



Ear (Cultivation of). — This forms one 
chief branch of the training of the senses. 
The ear, though it gives us much less 
direct knowledge of external objects than 
sight, or even than touch, claims special 
attention from the educator in the in- 
terests both of intellectual and of aesthetic 
education. There are two distinct modes 
of sensibility belonging to the ear which 
it is important to distinguish. These cor- 
respond to the differences among musical 
sounds and among non -musical sounds 
(see Acoustics). The most essential ele- 
ment in the first is acuteness in the dis- 
crimination of pitch. This varies in a 
remarkable way among individuals other- 



wise endowed with normal hearing, and 
determines in every case the degree of 
musical development possible. On the 
sharpness of the discrimination of pitch de- 
pends immediately the appreciation of the 
relations of melody and harmony alike. 
It is to be observed, however, that many 
who are wanting in this distinctive musi- 
cal sensibility are capable of deriving a 
good deal of pleasure from music through 
an appreciation of other features of the 
art, more particularly rhythm. The dis- 
crimination of non-musical quality is il- 
lustrated in the detection of most of the 
characteristic differences among natural 
sounds, and also in the separation of the 



EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY EDUCATION (ARMY) 



95 



many partially similar sounds which make 
up language. Special sensibility to dif- 
ferences among articulate sounds lies at 
the basis of what we call a good ear for 
languages. The well-known fact that this 
endowment does not vary regularly with 
musical sensibility, and is ofteri found 
highly developed where the latter exists 
only in a rudimentary form, points to the 
conclusion that they represent two dis- 
tinct functions of the organ. The cultiva- 
tion of the ear comprehends each of these 
two functions. The training of the musi- 
cal sense is encumbered with a special 
difficulty arising out of the individual 
limitations already referred t). It may, 
however, be safely said that if taken in 
time the large majority of children are 
capable of acquiring by proper exercise 
a fairly acute musical sense. The other 
chief branch of the education of the ear 
is the training of the sense to a fine 
discrimination and accurate identifica- 
tion of articulate sounds. Progress in 
the use of the mother tongue in learning 
to read, recite, and so forth, depends on 
the development of the sense in this di- 
rection. More generally the cultivation 
of the ear seeks to develop quickness and 
exactness in hearing ancl taking in the 
words of others. The attainment of this 
object implies not only the improvement 
of the sense in point of discrimination, but 
the acquisition of a habit of attention. 
Dulness in hearing in young persons is 
probably much more often the result of 
inattention or absence of mind (see Ab- 
sent-mindedness) than of any defect in 
the organ of hearing itself. (See Bain's 
Mental and Moral Science, bk. i. chap. ii. ; 
Sully's Teacher's Handbook, chap. vii. pp. 
115, 129.) 

Edinburgh. University. See Univer- 
sities. 

Education (Lat. educatio) is the science 
and art of human development, and deals 
■svith the training of the bodily organs, the 
senses, and the intellectual and emotional 
powers, "vvith a view to securing the hap- 
piness of the individual, and the well-being 
of the society or the state of which he is a 
unit. Education may be divided under 
the three headings : Physical Education, 
Intellectual Education, and Moral 
(or Religious) Education. Education 
must be distinguished from instruction, 
which is simply the communication of 
knowledge for a specific purpose. Edu- 



cation is subjective, instruction objective, 
but the aims of both may be identical — 
as when the communication of knowledge 
involves the development of faculty. In 
the limitation of its meaning to the work 
of the schools education is synonymous 
with Pedagogy (q.v.). (See also Esthetic 
Culture; Classical Culture; Code; In- 
struction ; Intellectual Instruction ; 
Instruction (Course of) ; Law (Educa- 
tional) ; and School Management.) 

Education (Army). — English army 
schools may be ranged in four classes : 

I. Schools for the professional instruc- 
tion of candidates for commissions: the 
Royal Military College and the Royal Mili- 
tary Academy. ( 1 ) The Royal Military Col- 
lege, Sandhurst (opened at Great Marlow 
1802, removed to Sandhurst 1812), affords 
a special military education to candidates 
for commissions in the cavalry and in- 
fantry. Admission to the college as cadets 
is granted (a) to successful candidates at a 
competitive examination, (b) to graduates 
in arts of certain British universities, or 
students who have passed certain specified 
university examinations, (c) to one stu- 
dent annually of the University of Malta 
and of each of the chartered universities 
in colonies not having a military college 
through which commissions in the army 
may be obtained, and (d) to Queen's cadets, 
honorary Queen's cadets, Indian cadets, 
and pages of honour, subject to a pre- 
scribed qualifying examination. The dates 
of entrance are February 10 and Septem- 
ber 1 in each year, and the number of 
vacancies varies according to the require- 
ments of the service. The limits of age 
are : by competition as Queen's cadets, as 
honorary Queen's cadets, as Indian cadets, 
or as pages of honour, 17 to 20 ; as univer- 
sity students who have passed specified ex- 
aminations, 17 to 21 ; as university gradu- 
ates, or as students of colonial universities, 
17 to 22. Competitors (not being uni- 
versity candidates) who desire to obtain 
commissions in West India regiments may 
be admitted up to 24. The examinations 
are conducted in July and December by 
the Civil Service Commissioners ; admis- 
sion fee, 1 1. The college is under the con- 
trol of a governor, who is assisted by an 
officer styled commandant and secretary. 
The governor is assisted in the arrangement 
of the studies by a board composed of the 
commandant and the professors or senior 
instructors of the different branches. The 



96 



EDUCATION (ARMY) 



course of instruction is one year ; and tlie 
obligatory subjects of study are military 
administration, military law, the elements 
of tactics, fortification, military topo- 
graphy, and drill, riding, and gymnastics. 
Cadets on admission receive first appoint- 
ments as sub-lieutenants, and on passing 
a satisfactory examination at the end of 
the college course become entitled to com- 
missions in the army as second lieutenants, 
and may be gazetted to regiments in the 
order in which they pass. After a year 
with his regiment, the officer is confirmed 
in the army as lieutenant. Commissions 
in the army may also be granted to officers 
of the auxiliary forces on due recom- 
mendation of their general officer com- 
manding, and to subalterns of militia regi- 
ments (artillery, engineers, or infantry), as 
the result of a competitive examination 
conducted (a) in literary subjects (April and 
October, admission fee, H. ) by the Civil Ser- 
vice Commissioners, and (6) in military sub- 
jects (March and September) under direc- 
tion of the Director-General of Military 
Education (age under 22 on January 1 
preceding). The number of army commis- 
sions to be allotted to the successful com- 
petitors at each of the half-yearly com- 
petitive examinations is seventy-five. (2) 
The Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, 
was established in 1741. It affords a pre- 
paratory ediication to candidates for the 
Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers — an 
education chiefly technical, and not carried 
in any obligatory subject beyond the point 
useful to both corps alike. Admission as 
cadets is granted to the successful candi- 
dates at an open competitive examina- 
tion conducted by the Civil Service Com- 
missioners in December and July each 
year. The limits of age are 16 to 18. 
The governor is a military man, selected 
with special reference to his qualifications 
for superintending both instruction and 
discipline; and he is assisted in the ar- 
rangement of the studies by an academy 
board, composed of the professors or senior 
instructors of the different branches. The 
course of instruction occupies two years. 
The obligatory subjects are : mathematics, 
including a thorough knowledge of plane 
trigonometry ; practical mechanics, with 
the application of mathematics to ma- 
chinery ; fortification, field and permanent 
— such a course as is suitable to cadets 
qualifying for the artillery — and the re- 
quisite amount of geometrical drawing; 



artillery — -such a course as is suitable to 
cadets qualifying for the engineers ; mili- 
tary drawing, with field sketching and 
reconnaissance , military history and geo- 
graphy ; French or German (at the stu- 
dent's choice) ; elementary chemistry and 
physics ; drills and exercises. In addition 
to the obligatory course, every cadet is 
allowed, at his option, to take up certain 
voluntary subjects — higher mathematics; 
higher portions of fortification; any of the 
following languages : German or French, 
Italian, Russian, Spanish, or Hindustani; 
freehand, figure, and landscape drawing; 
higher chemistry ; Latin and Greek (in- 
struction in which languages is given by 
the chaplain). Commissions as lieutenants 
in the Royal Artillery or Royal Engineers 
are conferred on such cadets as pass satis- 
factoi"ily the final examinations prescribed. 
II. Schools for the advanced profes- 
sional instruction of officers. (1) The Staff 
College, Farnborough Station, about two 
miles from Sandhurst, was established in 
1858. It is open to officers of all arms of 
the service, and may consist of sixty stu- 
dents (including, as supernumeraries, eight 
officers of the Indian Army and Royal 
Marines). Admission is obtained by com- 
petitive examination in mathematics, mili- 
tary history and geography, fortification, 
military topography, tactics, military law, 
French, German, and Hindustani; every 
candidate being required to qualify in 
mathematics, languages (French or Ger- 
man, except for officers of the Indian Staff 
Corps, who may substitute Hindustani), 
fortification (field and permanent), mili- 
tary topography, and tactics. The ex- 
amination for admission in February takes 
place each year in the preceding June ; 
it is conducted by boards consisting, wher- 
ever possible, of three field-officers. Only 
one officer from aline battalion of infantry 
or regiment of cavalry, and twelve officers 
from the Royal Artillery and Royal En- 
gineers, belong to the college at one time. 
Each year twenty-four vacancies are offered 
for competition. They are filled as follows : 
three by officers of the Royal Artillery, two 
by officers of the Royal Engineers (with an 
additional vacancy per annum for each 
corps alternately, provided they are among 
the twenty-four candidates highest on the 
list), and eighteen by officers of the re- 
maining arms of the service. In addition 
to these the Commander-in Chief may 
nominate annually for entrance to the 



EDUCATION (ARMY) 



97 



college two officers who have performed 
good service in the field or held the ap- 
pointment of adjutant with the regular 
forces for a period of four years ; and 
these officers are required only to reach 
the qualifying standard in the examina- 
tion. No officer will be permitted to 
compete for admission whose age exceeds 
thirty-seven years at the date fixed for 
the examination. The commandant, in 
arranging the details of the course of in- 
struction, is assisted by a board of pro- 
fessors, military and civil. The course 
occupies two years, and the subjects are : 
military art and history, fortification and 
artillery, field fortification, military ad- 
ministration and staff duties, military topo- 
graphy, reconnaissance and other practical 
field-work, military law, modern languages, 
natural sciences, and riding. After leav- 
ing the college, officers are ordered to re- 
port themselves at Aldershot on April 15, 
to be attached as follows : Cavalry officers 
to infantry for two months, artillery two 
months ; artillery officers to cavalry for 
two months, infantry two months ; en- 
gineer officers to cavalry for two months, 
artillery one month, infantry one month ; 
and infantry officers to cavalry for two 
months, artillery two months. During 
these periods they are regularly attached 
for duty to the several branches of the 
service indicated, are required to perform 
the regimental duties, and perform such 
services on the staff as will ensure their 
being practically conversant with the vari- 
ous duties of those branches. (2) The De- 
partment of Artillery Studies acts in con- 
tinuation of the Woolwich training of 
artillery officers, and qualifies specially for 
appointments that demand exceptional 
scientific attainments. (3) The School of 
Military Engineering at Chatham gives 
special training to officers of the Royal 
Engineers after leaving Woolwich, in con- 
struction, surveying, field fortification, 
telegraphy, &c. (4) Garrison Instructors 
are staff officers, with the rank of brigade - 
major, appointed to all the principal gar- 
risons and military stations at home and 
abroad, to instruct officers serving with 
their regiments, and to enable them to 
qualify in the special examinations for 
promotion. The subjects are : tactics, field 
fortification, military sketching and re- 
connaissance, and law. The course lasts 
during four months, and those candidates 
who pass a successful examination at the 



end of it are certified as qualified for pro- 
motion. 

III. Schools of professional training 
open to both officers and men. (1) The 
School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness pro- 
vides for officers and men of the artillery 
a thorough course of practical instruction 
in gunnery, use of military machines, &c. ; 
and it qualifies instructors to brigades and 
batteries, (2) The School of Musketry at 
Hythe receives periodical contingents of 
officers and men from all regiments in the 
service for special training in the theory 
and practice of musketry, officers and non- 
commissioned officers being qualified to 
act as musketry-instructors to their re- 
giments. 

TV. Miscellaneous. (1) The Army 
Medical School at Netley, in connection 
with the great military hospital, receives 
candidates for appointments as surgeons 
for a probationary course. (2) The Mili- 
tary School of Music at Kneller Hall, 
Hounslow, was established in 1857. It 
instructs non-commissioned officers and 
soldiers (148) in music, and trains band- 
masters and musicians for the various re- 
giments. The period of training is two 
years. (3) The Royal Military Asylum 
at Chelsea — also called the Duke of York's 
School — and the Royal Hibernian Mili- 
tary School at Dublin, maintain and edu- 
cate a limited number of boys, sons of 
soldiers, who are admitted between the 
ages of five and twelve, and may remain 
till fourteen (and if of the band, till fifteen). 
The Royal Military Asylum is also a nor- 
mal school for training army schoolmasters, 
admission being by competitive examina • 
tion, open to non-commissioned officers and 
soldiers of the army who are of good cha- 
racter and are specially recommended, to 
civilian pupil-teachers, and to certificated 
schoolmasters. (4) Army Schools (adult 
grown children, infant, and industrial) 
are established in every regiment and de- 
tachment, for non-commissioned officers 
and soldiers and their children. Raw re- 
cruits are required to attend, and soldiers 
are not eligible for promotion until they 
have obtained certificates of proficiency. 
Candidates for the post of army school- 
master go through a prescribed course of 
training at the Royal Military Asylum, 
Chelsea. They must enlist for general 
service for twelve years before appoint- 
ment. They rank as non-commissioned 
officers next to sergeant-major, and receive 



98 



EDUCATION DEPARTMENT EDUCATION OF BOYS 



4s., rising to 7s., a day. Schoolmistresses 
(three classes) receive 301. to HI. a year. 

Education Department.— The Educa- 
tion Department, the offices of which are 
situated at Whitehall, is under the control 
of the Committee of Council on Education, 
that is to say, the Committee of the Lords 
of the Privy Council. Practically, however, 
the Department is controlled by the Vice- 
President of the Council, who may be re- 
garded as the Minister of Education, though 
he is without Cabinet rank. The Depart- 
ment was formed in 1839. and in 1856 
was reconstituted by an Order in Council 
to include : (a) the Education Establishment 
of the Privy Council Office ; (b) the Esta- 
blishment for the Encouragement of Science 
and Art, previously under the direction of 
the Board of Trade, but now called the 
Department of Science and Art. The De- 
partment has the control of the whole 
public elementary education system of the 
country, and of the system of technical 
education connected with the Science and 
Art Department (q.v.). A report of the 
results of its administration is annually 
published. (See Code and School Boards.) 

Education (ITavy). — Naval education 
maybe considered under two heads: (1) 
the education of the officers, and (2) the 
education of the men. 

(1) The officers are selected by competi- 
tive examination from lads about thirteen 
years of age, nominated by the Lords of the 
Admiralty. This examination is conducted 
by the Civil Service Commissioners, and 
embraces the ordinary subjects taught at 
our great public schools, with the exception 
of Greek. The successful candidates spend 
two years as 'cadets' on the 'Britannia' at 
Dartmouth, in which time they obtain a fair 
knowledge of the elements of navigation, 
nautical astronomy, steam and physics, 
besides continuing their former studies. — 
They pass the next four years at sea as 
'midshipmen,' and the instruction is con- 
tinued by a naval instructor. Their pro- 
gress in their studies is tested by half-yearly 
examination papers sent from Greenwich. 
The value of the work done in these four 
years depends very much upon the interest 
taken by the captain of the ship, as well as 
by the naval instructor. At the age of 
nineteen they go to the Naval College at 
Greenwich. They are now 'acting sub- 
lieutenants,' and six months are allowed 
for preparation for the final examina- 
tion for sub-lieutenant. This examina- 



tion embraces algebra, trigonometry, geo- 
metry, mechanics, physics, steam engine, 
French, winds and currents, navigation, 
nautical astronomy, nautical surveying, 
use of instruments, and astronomical ob- 
servations. — Most of the officers succeed 
in passing, and are divided into three 
classes. But those who do not obtain 
half the total marks given 'fail to pass,' 
and they cease to belong to the Royal 
Navy. Fortunately, such cases seldom 
occur. Another half-year is devoted at 
Portsmouth to torpedo practice, gunnery, 
and pilotage. The education of the greater 
part of the officers then ends. But those 
who have excelled in the above-mentioned 
studies usually spend another session at 
the Naval College, Greenwich, as torpedo 
and gunnery lieutenants, in acquiring a 
knowledge of more advanced mathematics, 
chemistry, and physics. In 1886 a com- 
mittee reported on the education of naval 
'executive officers,' and recommended 
that the age on entry should be raised to 
fourteen years, besides many alterations 
in the course of instruction. 

(2) There are five training-ships for 
boys — 'Boscawen' at Portland, 'Ganges' 
at Falmouth, ' Impregnable ' and ' Lion ' 
at Devonport, and ' St. Vincent ' at Ports- 
mouth. To these ships boys above the 
age of fifteen and a half years are ad- 
mitted after passing a medical examina- 
tion, and a simple examination in reading, 
writing, and arithmetic. Their educa- 
tional attainments on admission vary very 
much, and the education they receive on 
board is similar to that given at Board 
Schools. Periodical examinations are held 
by the Inspector of Naval Schools. In 
some of the large sea-going ships there are 
seamen schoolmasters; but as the boys 
cease their compulsory studies on being 
rated as ordinary seamen between the 
ages of eighteen and twenty, these teachers 
have little to do. There is also a nursery 
for the navy — the Greenwich Hospital 
School. Here nine hundred sons of sea- 
men are educated from the age of eleven 
to fifteen and a half years. At that age, 
if physically fit, they must go into the 
Royal Navy. As their scholastic attain- 
ments are much higher than those of the 
other boys admitted to the training ships, 
and as they have already been trained in 
seamanship, these boys generally make the 
most efficient sailors. 

Education of Boys. See Boys. 



EDUCATION OF DEAF MUTES 



99 



Education of Deaf Mutes. — The edu- 
cation of congenital deaf mutes or of those 
who have acquired this infirmity after 
birth simply consists in assisting nature. 
By means of his eyes and his other healthy 
organs of sense, a deaf mute child becomes 
familiar with the objects around him, with 
their nature, and the purposes which they 
serve. He watches the daily occupation 
of his friends, and imitates them by in- 
stinct. Besides that, as the child learns 
to describe the objects around him by 
gestures, a kind of intercourse, although 
it may be only very limited, is established 
between him and his friends. The child 
also learns to make use of his innate faculty 
of expressing his sentiments. The deve- 
lopment of the inherent faculties of the 
child must be aided by training. His 
attention must be drawn to the objects 
around him, their purposes explained by 
signs, and in this manner the intercourse 
carried on by gesture made as instructive 
as possible. The deaf mute child is ex- 
ceedingly quick in desci-ibing objects by 
simple gestures. In all such attempts he 
should be aided by his friends, who should 
endeavour to understand, and to answer 
them. Instruction gained thus may be 
said to be gained by the use of two kinds 
of signs: descriptive and indicative. De- 
scriptive signs involve an account, more 
or less complete, of the appearance, quali- 
ties, and uses of an object, or the circum- 
stances of an event, for the purpose of 
description or explanation ; while indica- 
tive signs, which are employed in common 
conversation, are usually mere abbrevia- 
tions of these, involving a striking feature 
of the person, or object, or event, as an ele- 
phant is indicated by its trunk, a flower 
by its fragrance, or a town by a collection 
of roofs. It is obvious that in this latter 
class of signs there is great room for dia- 
lects, according to the situation, capacity, 
and habits of observation of the individual, 
and that much may be done for its im- 
provement by a proper selection. The 
method of instruction in schools, most 
commonly adopted in England, consists in 
teaching the pupil the relation between 
the names of objects and the objects them- 
selves, the analysis of words into the let- 
ters of the alphabet, and the particular 
gesture belonging to each word as its dis- 
tinctive sign. Next are explained gene- 
ral terms and genuine names, and finally 
abstract terms, such as object, being. The 



child must be made conversant with 
the qualities expressive of the accidents, 
variations, and modifications of objects, 
which are expressed by the adjective. 
The meanings of words cannot be clearly 
undei'stood, and the ideas the words ex- 
press. Thus, the first thing to begin with 
is the explanation of the names of external 
objects best known to the pupil, preferring 
always those of few letters — such as box, 
pen, shoe, cap, hoop, ring; and then gradu- 
ally longer and more difficult words. The 
pupil should be taught to copy the words 
himself, and perhaps to draw the objects, 
so that by dwelling upon the forms suffi- 
ciently, the forms may make an indelible 
impression on his mind. The pupil should 
next be taught the use of the verb, the 
pronoun, and the several parts of speech, 
and the structure of the sentence generally. 
As soon as the pupil is made familiar with 
the use of letters, and can spell words with 
some degree of accuracy, it will be advan- 
tageous to instruct him in dactylology, or 
the manual alphabet as it is sometimes 
called. This method of communication is 
an ai"t easily acquired and retained, or 
recovered if lost, and it furnishes a ready 
substitute for pen or pencil. The extent, 
however, to which the deaf mute can com- 
municate will depend entirely upon the 
state of his education, or upon his know- 
ledge of language. When properly in- 
structed he will converse with the utmost 
rapidity by this method ; habit enables 
him to follow with the eye motions which 
to others would be too rapid for observation. 
He can readily catch at the meaning of a 
word or question before it is half spelt. 
It should be added that this method is 
two-fold — the double handed alphabet, 
where the letters are expressed by the 
dispositions of the fingers of both hands, 
and the single-handed, in which the let- 
ters are formed with the fijigers of one 
hand. It is supposed that the former was 
derived from a finger alphabet which ap- 
peared in a work of Dalgarno; and the 
latter is said to have been invented in 
Spain, and appears to have been published 
in a work by Bonet, to which the Abbe 
de I'Epee was much indebted in his valu- 
able treatise. The pupil may also be taught 
to communicate his thoughts by moving 
his lips, and to understand what is spoken 
by others by observing the motions of their 
lips. This method, although not attended 
with very great difficulty, is laborious and 

H 2 



100 



EDUCATION OF GIRLS 



tedious, and requires always patience and 
perseverance to ensure success. It is fully 
expounded in Dr. Joseph Watson's stan- 
dard work on the Instruction of the Deaf 
and Dumb (London, 1809). Another 
method is by means of articulation. This 
method claims some respect for its anti- 
quity. The Venerable Bede, e.g., in his 
Ecclesiastical History mentions the case 
of a man being so taught by the Bishop of 
Hexham in 685. Articulation is taught 
by pointing out to the pupil the powers of 
the vowels and consonants, and the posi- 
tion of the lips, teeth, and tongue, and by 
making him feel with his hand, or a silver 
instrument, all the perceptible movements 
and vibrations of the throat and interior 
organs which are requisite for their pro- 
nunciation. He is then required to imi- 
tate this position, and to force a quantity 
of air from the lungs sufficient to produce 
the sound, and is taught to read the articu- 
lations of others, by observing the position 
of the organs and the countenance. As 
such utterance is not regulated by the ear 
of the speaker, it is often too loud, mono- 
tonous, harsh, and discordant. It is on 
that account sometimes difficult for a 
stranger to understand a speaker. The 
education of the deaf mute usually begins 
at the age of six or seven. Day schools, 
where practicable, are in many ways pre- 
ferable to asylums. In the latter there is 
a tendency to bring the deaf and dumb 
too much, or exclusively together. Pro- 
fessor Owen, in 1862, 'especially referred 
as a physiologist to the lamentable results ' 
of deaf mute intermarriages which are 
promoted by those asylums; 'and strongly 
advocates a social system of education.' 

Education of Girls.—' The ideal pre- 
sented to a young girl,' says an able writer 
(Miss Davies, Secondary Instruction of 
Girls, p. 1 5), ' is to be amiable, inoffensive, 
always ready to give pleasure and to be 
pleased.' The statement may be exagge- 
rated, but that the feeling it describes will 
ever cease to be extremely prevalent can 
hardly be expected. Parents are indif- 
ferent to the education of their girls ; it 
leads to a less immediate and tangible 
pecuniary result, and there is a long-esta- 
blished and inveterate prejudice that girls 
are less capable of mental cultivation, and 
kss in need of it, than boys. Partly owing 
to that fact, and partly owing to the 
smallness of schools and the inaptness of 
teachers to teach, there are in the educa- 



tion of girls a want of thoroughness and 
foundation, a want of system, a slovenli- 
ness and showy superficiality, inattention 
to rudiments, undue time given to ac- 
complishments, and those not taught in- 
telligently or in any scientific manner, 
and want of organisation (cf. Report of 
ScJiools Inquiry Com/mission ; Pari. Pap., 
1867-68, xxviii. pt. 1, pp. 546-70). The 
time devoted to subjects is badly distri- 
buted. Needlework, e.g., occupies too- 
much time ; it is capable of being more 
taught at home, and the kind of it which 
most prevails consists too much of an or- 
namental character. Music, especially the 
pianoforte, should be modified in its use^ 
and made to include far more of the ele- 
ments of thoroughbass. The important 
subject of bodily exercise seems to be still 
imperfectly attended to. Though un- 
doubtedly under the name of calisthenics- 
{q.v.) it is duly encouraged in the better 
schools, yet there is a great want of sys- 
tematic and well-directed physical educa- 
tion which often causes failure in health 
and an impediment to successful study. 
Much that has been said above as to the 
education of boys {q.v.) applies equally to 
the education of girls. The essential ca- 
pacity for learning is the same, or nearly 
the same, in the two sexes. This is the 
universal and undoubted belief throughout 
the United States, and it is affirmed, both 
generally and in respect to several of the 
most crucial subjects, by many of our best 
authorities. There are no doubt many 
difierences in degree in the sexes, such as- 
the tendency to abstract principles in boys, 
contrasted with the greater readiness to 
lay hold of facts in girls; the greater 
quickness to acquire in the latter, with 
the greater retentiveness in the former; 
the greater eagerness of girls to learn, their 
acuter susceptibility to praise and blame, 
and their lesser inductive faculty. But 
generally we may say that the foundation, 
the main and leading elements of instruc- 
tion, should be the same in the two cases, 
and, further, that ample facilities and en- 
couragement, far more than now exist, 
should be given to women who may be 
able and willing to prosecute their studies 
to a higher point. Up to the age of twelve 
girls hold their own in the ordinary sub- 
jects of instruction with boys, and it is ' 
now generally recommended that the edu- 
cation of boys and girls should be alike 
up to the time when the special vocations- 



EDUCATION OF THE BLIND 



101 



which the respective pupils intend to pursue 
necessitate a divergence. Without such 
an education it is impossible for women 
to fill those new openings in life not 
hitherto pursued by them and now open- 
ing up to them. On this subject not much 
•can yet be said with confidence. Even in 
America it cannot be said to have made 
much progress, and in this country it is 
spoken of as still uncertain, tentative, and 
prospective (cf. Commission Repoi't, i. 570). 
It would be difficult to trace precisely the 
first stirrings in public opinion on behalf 
both of a better and cheaper form of 
instruction for girls. The institution 
of King's College and University College 
Schools for London boys similarly placed, 
doubtless, first suggested corresponding 
plans for their sisters. In 1848 Queen's 
College, Harley Street, W., was founded, 
and in 1849 Bedford College, Yoi-k Place, 
Portman Square, W. ; and later Camden 
Town Schools and the Cheltenham Col- 
lege, both of late enriched by considerable 
endowments — the endowments of girls' 
schools throughout England and Wales 
was only 3,300Z. in 1867. The earliest 
public step was taken about 1861, when 
Cambridge University opened its local ex- 
aminations (q.v.) to girls under eighteen 
years, an example soon followed by Ox- 
ford University. In 1867 a supplemental 
charter was obtained by London Univer- 
sity, which gave powers to that institution 
to grant special examinations and certifi- 
cates to women students, both privileges, 
however, being kept separate in character 
and time of year from those provided for 
the male students. The next move was 
owing to Cambridge. A small but regu- 
larly organised ' Association for the Ex- 
tension of Female Education' was formed 
to provide lectures and examinations for 
girls above seventeen ; in 1875 Newnham 
Hall was established, and in 1880 the 
Lecture Association and Newnham Hall 
united to form Newnham College. ' The 
College for Women,' temporarily started 
at Hitchin, and since located at Girton, a 
village two miles from Cambridge, was 
established in 1868. In 1878 a further 
supplemental charter enabled the Uni- 
versity of London to grant all its degrees, 
alike in arts, law, and medicine, to women 
as well as men. Somerville and Lady 
Margaret Halls were opened at Oxford in 
1879, and Holloway College, near Egham, 
in 1886. One of the immediate results of 



the Schools Inquiry Commission was the 
establishing in 1871 of 'The National 
Union for improving the Education of 
Women' (the moving spirits of which were 
the Princess Louise, Mrs. William Grey, 
and her sister. Miss Shirrefi), to promote the 
establishing of good girls' schools through- 
out the country, the higher education of 
girls, and the training of female teachers. 
The ' Union ' was encouraged and supported 
by some of the city companies, the College 
of Preceptors, and other scholastic bodies. 
In 1872 it floated ' The Girls' Public Day 
Schools Company, Limited,' the first high 
school started under it being the one at 
Chelsea in 1873. Many high schools have 
since been established throughout the 
country, and the dividends of the company 
have never been under five per cent. 

Education of the Blind. — When the 
eyesight is lost the other senses seem to 
gain a compensatory development : the 
touch becomes extremely sensitive, and 
the hearing very acute, and the memory 
becomes remarkably retentive. These are 
the points to be kept specially in view in 
framing a scheme of instruction for the 
blind. The first blind institution was 
founded at Memmingen by Duke Welf VI. 
in 1178; the second, in Paris, by St. Louis, 
in 1260. The modern institutions begin 
with M. Haiiy's Institut des jeunes Aveu- 
gles at Paris, founded in 1784, and Dr. 
Johnston's House for the Employment of 
the Adult Blind, opened in Edinburgh in 
1793. The number of institutions has in- 
creased greatly in recent years. The prin- 
cipal trades for which the blind are trained 
are : the making of baskets, brushes, 
brooms, mattresses, rugs, mats, &c., and 
the caning of chairs ; with knitting, sew- 
ing, and hair-plaiting, for women. Those 
with a special turn for music may become 
musicians, music-teachers, or pianoforte- 
tuners. In Great Britain, more is done 
in workshops; in America, more attention 
is given to literary culture and music — 
the blind being, as a rule, of a higher 
intellectual grade. The Worcester Col- 
lege for Blind Sons of Gentlemen, founded 
in 1866, trains even for the Universities. 
The Pv,oyal Normal College and Academy, 
at Upper Norwood, was opened in 1872, 
to aiibrd a thorough general and musical 
education to the youthful blind of both 
sexes, with a view to self-maintenance. 
It embraces three distinct departments : 
(1) general education, (2) the science and 



102 



EDUCATION OF THE BLIND 



practice of music, and (3) pianoforte- 
tuning. Much has been done for the 
blind in recent years by the exertions of 
the British and Foreign Blind Association, 
which was 'formed for the purpose of 
promoting the education and employment 
of the blind, by ascertaining what has 
been done in these respects in this and 
other countries, by endeavouring to supply 
deficiencies where these are found to exist, 
and by attempting to bring about greater 
harmony of action between the different 
schools and institutions.' 

Printing for the Blind. — I. The 
Roman Letter. — M. Haiiy of Paris was the 
first (in 1784) to conceive and execute the 
idea of printing on paper letters recognisable 
by touch. He adopted the script or italic 
form of the roman letter. After creating 
a great temporary sensation the system 
fell into abeyance. James Gall, a printer 
and publisher of Edinburgh, set himself 
(in 1826) to remedy the defects of Haiiy's 
system, adopting the common alphabet 
(modified so as to be easily felt) as the 
basis, with preference of the lower-case 
forms, and providing for fluency of read- 
ing by large and legible letters. In 1827 
Gall printed his First Book in a triangular 
modification of the common alphabet, em- 
bossed in high relief ; and he followed up 
this with several little volumes of Scrip- 
tural matter. He printed in 1832, and 
published in 1834, his great work, The Gos- 
pel by St. John, which was the first book 
of the Bible which had ever been printed 
for the blind in any language. This vo- 
lume was printed in a type so large and 
legible, that some of those whom Gall had 
taught ' were able at the public meetings 
to read any passage put before them thi-ough 
six plies of silk between the book and their 
fingers.' The letters were roman capitals, 
with angular lines instead of curves. Gall 
endeavoured to make the alphabet approach 
as near as possible to its usual form with- 
out losing its tangibility, and he increased 
the tangibility by using serrated types, 
the letters being formed of dots instead of 
lines ; he also introduced initial capitals 
as in ordinary use. Dr. Howe, of Boston, 
U.S., visited Gall, and on his return to 
America established a printing press ; he 
published the Acts of the Apostles in 
1834, and the whole New Testament in 
1836-42. He used Gall's angular modifi- 
cation of the common alphabet, but in 
much smaller size. Meantime Sir C. Low- 



ther had introduced Haiiy's type into Eng- 
land (1832), and printed some portions 
of the Bible ; and Jacob Snider, of Phila- 
delphia, woi'king without knowledge of 
other achievements in the same field, had 
published (1834) the Gospel by St. Mark, 
unfortunately in capitals. Strange to say, 
John Alston, treasurer of the Blind Asylum 
in Glasgow, printed, in 1837, the Gospel 
by St. Mark in the very type used (un- 
known to him) by Jacob Snider. In 1838 
Alston completed the New Testament, 
and in 1840 the whole Bible — the first 
complete Bible for the blind in any lan- 
guage. But his system encountered the 
fatal objection of insufiicient legibility ; he 
had used the Roman capitals, and his type 
was too small. Roman capitals had been 
tried in America in 1834, and in 1837 Dr. 
Fry, of London, had gained with them the 
gold medal of the Scottish Society of Arts 
for the best alphabet for the blind. Im- 
proved modifications have been indepen- 
dently suggested, in almost identical terms, 
by Mr. Welch, a pioneer of education among 
the blind of London, and by Mr. Littledale 
of Cheltenham. In Germany there have 
been various modifications of the Roman 
letter, the chief being the Stachelschrift of 
Stuttgart, which consists of Roman capi- 
tals formed by finely dotted lines. II. 
Arbitrari/ Letters. — Mr. Lucas, of the Bris- 
tol Institution, invented a stenographic 
shorthand, with arbitrary characters and 
numerous contractions ; printing St. John 
in 1837,- and the Acts of the Apostles in 
1838, and eventually the whole Bible and 
many other works. Mr. Frere, of London, 
in dissent from Mr. Lucas, developed a 
rival phonetic shorthand ; and, under the 
criticism of an intelligent blind man, he 
replaced his dotted curves by angles of 
45°, and his dotted lines by lines in which 
a short stroke is substituted for the dot — 
thereby gaining a great superiority in the 
quality of easy recognition. Frere also' 
invented the system of 'return lines;' that 
is, the lines in his books are read from left 
to right and from right to left alternately, 
the letters themselves being reversed in 
the return (right to left) lines. Dr. Moon, 
of Brighton, adopts from Frere the return 
line, but without reversing the letters ;: 
and his alphabet, while arbitrary, yet is 
largely suggestive of the common type. 
He prints in larger size than any one else, 
so that his books ai'e bulky and expensive; 
but they are far more popular than any 



EDUCATION OF THE BLIND 



103 



others, and now they embrace a wide lite- 
rature. III. The Dot Letter. — The Braille 
System, invented (1834) by M. Braille, a 
blind pupil of the Institut des jeunes Aveio- 
gles, is universal in France, both for writ- 
ing and for printinar ; it is much used, for 
both purposes, in Switzerland ; and it is 
employed as the written character in almost 
all countries, except the United Kingdom. 
It consists of the sixty-two varieties of 
form obtainable by the omission of one or 
more of six dots placed in an oblong, of 
which the vertical side contains three, and 
the horizontal two dots, thus : — ■: . These 
forms comprise not only the letters of the 
alphabet, but also many other signs. This 
system has two powerful advantages : 
it is easily written {see below), and it is 
the best of all known methods of writing 
and printing music for the blind. An 
improved system, by Mr. Wait, of New 
York, proceeds on the principle that the 
letters occurring most frequently in the 
English language should be represented 
by the fewest number of dots, and that 
the letters should be so spaced that a letter 
composed of one dot should not, as is the 
case in the French system, occupy the 
same room as one with six dots. For this 
purpose the oblong, consisting of six dots, 
composing the root-form of the letter, is 
placed horizontally, instead of vertically; 
the greatest vertical depth of any letter is 
two dots instead of three. From these 
two changes results a saving of about one 
third in space ; this involves a saving of 
about one-third in the price of printed 
books ; writing is rendered more rapid ; 
as the size can now be increased, owing to 
the diminution of the vertical length of 
the letter, it can be made sufficient for the 
dullest touch. Ten-word and part-word 
signs have been introduced, which effect 
a further saving of nearly one-third, while 
they do not interfere in the least degree 
with correct spelling. These advantages 
make it well worth while to consider 
whether the modification of the Braille 
system ought not to be adopted as the 
written system of all English-speaking 
1)lind. 

Writing for the Blind. — I. By the 
Blind to the Blind. — Messrs. Milne and 
McBain, of the Edinburgh Asylum, in- 
vented the ' string alphabet,' the letters of 
which were represented by different kinds of 
knots tied upon a cord, singly or combined. 
Gall superseded this (1838) by writing 



stamps. The stamps are cubes of wood fitted 
with pins in shapes forming letters ; the 
paper is laid on a soft surface, and the pin 
points are pressed through it, a raised 
letter being thus produced on the other 
side. In M. Braille's system, 'a frame is 
used consisting of a grooved metal bed, 
containing ten grooves to the inch; over 
this is fitted a guide, whose vertical dia- 
meter is ^?Q inch, whUe the horizontal dia- 
meter is Y^y. This perforated guide is 
fixed into a light wooden frame, Kke the 
frame of a slate, which is attached to the 
grooved metal bed by hinges. The paper 
is introduced between the frame and the 
grooved bed. The instrument for writing 
is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap 
of paper before it into the grooves of the 
bed, thereby producing a series of little 
pits on the side next the writer. When 
taken out and turned over, little protu- 
berances are felt, corresponding to the pits 
on the other side. The reading is performed 
from left to right, consequently the writing 
is from right to left; but this reversal 
presents no practical difficulty, as soon as 
the pupil has caught the idea that in read- 
ing and writing alike he has to go forwards. 
The brass guide has a double row of open- 
ings, which enables the writer to write 
two lines ; when these are written he shifts 
his guide downwards, until two little pins, 
which project from the under surface at 
its ends, drop into the corresponding holes 
of the frame, when the writer writes two 
more lines, and this operation is repeated 
until he arrives at the bottom of the page. 
The first ten letters, from 'a' to 'j,' are 
formed in the upper and middle grooves ; 
the next ten, from 'k' to 't,' are formed 
by adding one lower dot behind to each 
letter of the first series; the third row, 
from 'u' to 'u,' is formed from the first by 
adding two lower dots to each letter ; the 
fourth row, from 'a' to 'w,' similarly, by 
adding one lower front dot. The first ten 
letters, when preceded by the prefix for 
numbers, stand for the nine numbers and 
the cipher. The same signs, written in 
the lower and middle grooves, instead of 
the upper and middle, serve for punctua- 
tion. The seven last letters of each series 
stand for the seven musical notes — the 
first series representing quavers, the second 
minims, the third semibreves, the fourth 
crotchets. Rests, accidentals, and every 
other sign used in music, can be readily 
and clearly expressed, without having re- 



104 EDUCATION (PHYSICAL) EDUCATION (THEORY OF) 



course to the staff of five lines which forms 
the basis of ordinary musical notation. By 
means of this dotted system, a blind man 
is able to keep memoranda or accounts, 
write his own music, emboss his own books 
from dictation, and carry on correspon- 
dence.' II. By the Blind to the Seeing. — 
Mr. St. Clair, a music teacher in Edinburgh, 
and Mr. Gall, used carbonised paper and 
a fine hard point (pencil or stylus). St. 
Clair's guide consisted of a line of small 
square holes, each representing a letter or 
a space ; Gall's ' typhlograph ' was much 
more elaborate, and had a small projection 
in the middle of the right side to mark 
the size of letter. But the better edu- 
cated write just like the seeing, only with 
a special guide for the lines. 

The history of the several American 
institutions for the blind is concisely 
stated in the Encyclopcedia Americana, 
vol. i. pp. 556-60. From 1832 to 1882, 
33 institutions were established. Indeed, 
in America the asylums are really excel- 
lent educational institutions, where high 
musical training takes a prominent place 
in a thorough general education. From 
one of the American reports we may quote 
a short passage to illustrate the large views 
that obtain in that country on the educa- 
tion of the blind : 'A school for the higher 
education of the blind should be especially 
adapted to the condition and wants of the 
persons to be trained. In ib the course of 
study should be the same as in our best 
colleges. All instruction should be oral, 
and the apparatus and modes of illustration 
be addressed to the touch. It should have 
large collections of models of various kinds, 
such as weights, measures, tools, machinery, 
and the like; mannikins, and models, show- 
ing the anatomy of plants and animals, as 
well as their outward form. It should 
have collections of shells, crystals, minerals, 
and the like ; models and sections showing 
geological strata ; philosophical apparatus 
adapted to the touch; in short, everything 
that can be represented by tangible forms. 
It would amaze those who have not re- 
flected upon it to know how much can be 
done in this way. Saunderson, the blind 
professor of mathematics in Cambridge, 
not only knew ordinary money well, but 
he was an expert numismatist, and could 
detect counterfeits in a collection of an- 
tique coins better than ordinary persons 
could do by sight. Such an institute 
should have able professors and teachers, 



with special aptness for adapting their 
lessons to the condition of their scholars.' 

Education (Physical). See Physical 
Education. 

Education (Practice of). See Peda- 
gogy and School Management. 

Education Society. — This society was 
founded in 1875 'for the development of 
the science of education.' The object of 
its promoters is to collect, examine, and 
classify facts, and to establish and pro- 
pound those principles on which the prac- 
tice of education should be based. In 
particular, the society has maintained the 
importance of connecting the study of the 
science of psychology with the exercise of 
the art of teaching ; and has urged the 
necessity of the systematic training of 
teachers. Papers are read and discussed 
on every third Monday of the month at 
8 p.m. at the Memorial Hall, Farringdon 
Street, E. C. ; and an annual volume of Trans- 
actions is published. In January, 1887, 
the work of the society was amalgamated 
with that of the education section of the 
'Teachers' Guild' {q.v.), but is being con- 
tinued otherwise unchanged. 

Education (Technical). ^S'ee Technical 
Education. 

Education (Theory of). — The term 
theory is opposed to practice. In distin- 
guishing the theory from the practice of 
education we mark off the scientific ground- 
work of the art. That is to say, the theory 
of education aims at setting forth those 
scientific truths or principles which under- 
lie the rules followed by the practical edu- 
cator. These principles are derived from 
a number of special sciences, among which 
may be mentioned physiology, which sup- 
plies the truths underlying physical edu- 
cation, and psychology or mental science, 
which gives us the principles to be ap- 
plied in the training and development of 
the mental faculties. With this last must 
be taken logic, which furnishes rules for 
the right discipline of the reasoning fa- 
culty; and ethics, which, by defining the 
ultimate end of all action, serves at once 
to give us a clearer idea of the purpose of 
education as a whole, and to supply us 
with a true ideal in developing the moral 
side of the child's nature. The theory of 
education, which, like all other theories, 
follows a certain development of the cor- 
responding practice, may be said to aim 
first of all at scientifically explaining, and 
so providing a sure reason for those prac- 



EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SCOTLAND ELECTRICITY 105 



tical maxims which have been reached by 
the empirical method, i.e. as the result of 
actual trial and a comparison of the results 
of different workers (see Empirical Me- 
thod). More than this, a complete theory 
of education should enable us to detect 
errors in practice and to deduce new rules 
to be afterwards tested and verified by 
■experience. It is evident from this brief 
definition that the theory of education, 
though in a manner opposed to the 
practice, is organically and inseparably 
united with it. While of the greatest 
value when moving in association with, 
•and under the guidance of, practical ex- 
perience, it is apt when divorced from 
this to wander into the region of vague 
and unfruitful speculation. While theory 
is thus valueless detached from practical 
observation, it becomes of the very highest 
worth when properly conjoined with this. 
The conviction is now steadily gaining 
ground among teachers that a study of the 
scientific principles which make up the 
theory of education is a necessary part of 
the preparation for the work of teaching. 
(See Professor Payne's Lectures on the 
Science and Art of Education, Lectures 
i. and ii : J. Sully's Teacher's Handbook, 
chap. i. ; W. H. Payne's Contribtitions to 
the Science of Education, chaps, i. and ii.) 
Educational Institute of Scotland (The) 
is incorporated by Royal Charter. The 
members consist of (a) Fellows, who are ad- 
mitted on the recommendation of the local 
association within whose bounds they re- 
side, or by direct application to the Board 
of Examiners with production of relative 
testimonials and certificates. The grade 
is honorary, and is conferred only on those 
who have attained a prominent place in 
the profession, and who have taught pub- 
licly and satisfactorily for at least twelve 
years. The diploma fee is two guineas, 
with an annual subscription of five shil- 
lings, (h) Associates (senior and junior), 
who are admitted by examination, or on 
producing Government certificate, univer- 
sity degree diploma, or some similar satis- 
factory evidence of professional acquire- 
ments. The diploma fee is for seniors 
one guinea, for juniors half-a-guinea, with 
five shillings annual subscription, (c) Mem- 
bers, who are admitted by the Board of 
Examiners on the recommendation of any 
local association within whose bounds they 
reside. Diploma five shillings ; annual 
subscription five shillings. (d) Proba- 



tioners, who are admitted at any ordinary 
meeting of a local association. Annual 
subscription two shillings and sixpence. 
All communications respecting admission 
to the Institute should be addressed to the 
Secretary to the Board of Examiners, 
Thomas Morrison, LL.D., F.E.I.S., Free 
Church Training College, Glasgow. 

Educational Ladder. See Instruc- 
tion (Course of). 

Educational Law. See Law (Educa- 
tional). 

Efficient Schools. See Classifica- 
tion. 

Elaborative Faculty. — According to 
certain German pedagogists there are three 
principal stages in intellectual develop- 
ment — reception, reproduction, and ela- 
boration. This last includes the whole 
process of separating and recombining, and 
thus transforming the materials of thought 
originally supplied by the senses and ren- 
dered available by the reproductive faculty. 
This work of elaboi-ation may assume one 
of two unlike forms, issuing in the pro- 
duction of new pictorial representations, 
the imaginative products of the poet, or 
in general or abstract ideas reached by 
combining a variety of particular ideas or 
images, and constituting the products of 
thought. As subserving the ends of know- 
ledge this second form of elaboration is of 
much the greater consequence, and writers 
like Sir William Hamilton, who employ 
the phrase ' elaborative faculty,' confine it 
to the operations of comparison, abstrac- 
tion, &c., which constitute thought. The 
separation of a receptive, a reproductive, 
and an elaborative stage in mental growth 
must not mislead us into supposing that 
the child in receiving external impressions, 
whether directly from objects or through 
the medium of others' words, is at the 
time purely passive, and only begins to 
organise these impressions into knowledge 
later on. In truth the reception of an 
external impression only amounts to true 
acquisition when it is completed at the 
time by a reproduction of past impres- 
sions and a rudimentary process of elabora- 
tion. (^S'ee Acquisition of Knowledge.) 

Electricity. — The questions we shall 
set ourselves to answer in regard to this 
subject are : What are the place and pur- 
pose of electricity in education, and how 
should it be applied ? The recent rapid 
and immense development of electrical 
science should justify the suggestion of 



106 



ELECTRICITY 



these questions. No branch of human 
knowledge ever made such rapid strides 
as this one ; none of the forces of nature 
which have been subjugated to the ser- 
vice of man have in so short a time grown 
from pigmies to giants, and none now 
make such promises, or seem to possess 
such potentialities for future service as 
those which are produced by means of 
electricity. Although it is true that the 
subjects which are to foi'm the instru- 
ments of education must be selected on 
account of their utility as disciplines of the 
mind, and not simply because of their 
practical applications in the business of 
life, yet it has come to be accepted as an 
axiom amongst teachers that where two 
studies serve the same purpose in educa- 
tion, that one should be preferred which is 
the more directly useful. The general 
purpose of science in education is to cul- 
tivate in the student an intelligent atti- 
tude of mind in relation to the things and 
phenomena about him, and to give him 
ability to observe and examine them, to 
describe and reason about them, to con- 
trol and use them. When looked at in 
the light of this, the science of elec- 
tricity possesses many features which give 
it a claim to the foremost place amongst 
what are known as the physical sciences. 
It is readily systematised ; it presents at 
every step laws to be traced out and 
verified, and the connections of these laws 
constitute some of the best examples of 
scientific reasoning. Hence, the teach- 
ing of electricity has ceased to be a mere 
lecture-room exhibition of tricks and star- 
tling effects, and has become a veritable 
science. It can be commenced without 
much preliminary drill, for it has no pe- 
culiar and special alphabet of its own. 
If magnetism be included in this science 
of electricity, the apparatus required for 
the first experiments is of the simplest 
kind, and the experiments at first are 
such as a child can perfor-m and can 
understand. Yet the results obtained with 
this simple apparatus are not to be pre- 
dicted without experiment, and they afford 
simple but comprehensive illustrations of 
the nature and construction of natural 
laws. At the same time, in every part of 
the subject there is always something to 
learn, and the things in it which even a 
child may understand lie very near to 
other things which are too deep for the 
most profound philosopher. 



Again, this science has intimate con- 
nections with all other members of the 
group of physical sciences — mechanics, 
dynamics, heat, light, sound, and chemis- 
try. Indeed, if these are treated but as 
handmaidens or attendants on electric 
science, designed to be called up and 
used only when required for the assistance 
of their chief, there will be few, if any, of 
the main attributes of any one of them 
which can remain unknown. 

Another point which should recommend 
it for school and college use is that it is a 
mathematical science utilising the whole 
range of mathematics, from the simplest 
form of equation to the highest efforts of 
analysis. It serves, therefore, as a stimulus 
to mathematical studies by ci'eating a de- 
mand for a knowledge of mathematical 
processes. In attempting to put electric 
principles before the general student, the 
fact that these principles are essentially 
of a mathematical character should never 
be ignoi'ed. It is true that in applications 
of electricity, as in applications of me- 
chanics, the student is ofteia able to ar- 
range apparatus with which many curious 
phenomena may be observed without his 
having much knowledge of electrical or 
mechanical magnitudes ; but there can be 
no doubt that there is an immense waste 
of time and knowledge due to attempts of 
this kind. Indeed, it may be laid down as a 
general rule for electrical students that he 
who has not a quantitative knowledge of 
the principles of electrical science will 
only waste his time in making original 
experiments. 

Finally, it is by disseminating an ac- 
curate knowledge of what has been already 
established that further important acquisi- 
tions may be secured. It is not only by 
the study of the few, but also by the intel- 
ligent olDservation of the many, that the 
most recent discoveries have been brought 
about. It is by the spread of education 
among the masses of the people that we 
are hastening the discovery of new civilis- 
ing agents. The history of electrical en- 
gineering during the last fifteen years is 
one of the best illustrations that can be 
given of the fact, that for many people to 
have some knowledge, however low in level 
it may be, is as necessary to the develop- 
ment of discovery as for a few people to 
have greater knowledge, however high in 
level it may be. For all these reasons 
together electrical science deserves the 



ELECTRICITY 



107 



first place in the school and college science 
course, and when one branch only is taken 
this should be the one. 

As regards the method of teaching, we 
must first remark that the best order 
for elucidating the principles of this and 
kindred sciences is, as a rule, the histori- 
cal order of discovery. The facts that are 
first found in order of time are those which 
are most palpable and lie nearest to hand ; 
while, on the other hand, the discoveries 
of recent years are drawn from the more 
intricate phenomena, which require to be 
searched after. But this order of develop- 
ment is often exactly the reverse of the 
order of importance and utility as regards 
the purposes of life ; nor is the order of 
discovery always identical with a logical 
arrangement. We may take account of 
this difierence by first expounding to be- 
ginners the piinciples of electrical science 
in their historical sequence, and then with 
more advanced students forsaking that 
plan and dealing with the applications of 
electricity to industrial life, according to 
their importance for the time being and 
for the immediate purpose. 

The importance of allowing the stu- 
dents to make for themselves actual ex- 
periments from the first cannot be over- 
rated. At first the experiments will neces- 
sarily be purely qualitative, but as soon 
as possible, and as often as possible, they 
should be quantitative. This science, if 
properly treated, affords abundant oppor- 
tunities for definiteness, and no other 
science furnishes so many quantities ad- 
mitting of exact measurement. Forces of 
attraction and repulsion of magnets and 
electrified bodies, quantities of heat de- 
veloped by electricity, electro-motive force, 
difierence of potential, resistance, current, 
capacity, lines of force, magnetisation, 
chemical affinity — all these are measur- 
able, and not only can they be reasoned 
about, but calculations can be made about 
them with as much certainty as calcula- 
tions in dynamics. 

Young as this science is, teachers have 
matured sevei-al methods for rendering 
easier the comprehension of the meanings 
of terms, and the retention by the memory 
of the relation between the difierent elec- 
trical quantities. The use of the analogy 
between a flow of electricity and a flow 
of water is an example. This analogy 
has been made use of in the following: 



The analogy between potential and 
level. 

The pressure of water and the E. M. F.. 
of electricity. 

The law of dividing currents and the 
theory of Wheatson's Bridge. 

The action of a Gramme collector and 
the union of a double flow of water. 

The water analogy is useful, because 
everybody has fairly exact notions about 
water, and because, within certain limits, 
the analogy is a true one. The following- 
table by Professor Perry gives it more 
fully:— 



Water. 

1. Steam-pump burns 
coal and lifts water to a 
high level. 

2. Energy available is 
amount of water lifted 
+ difierence of level. 

3. If we let all ihe 
water flow away through 
a channel to a lower level 
without doing worli, its 
energy is all converted 
into heat because of fric- 
tion al resistance of the 
pipe or channel. 

4. If we let water work 
a hoist as well as flow 
through channels, less 
water flows than before, 
less power is wasted in 
friction. 

5. However long and 
narrow may be the chan- 
nels, water may be 
brought from any dis- 
trtnce, however great, to 
give out aliiiost all its 
original energy to a hoist. 
This requires a great head 
and small quantity of 
water. 

6. If a pump produces 
a very slow, continuous 
flow of water in an end- 
less pipe which may, or 
may not, work water- 
pressure engines by its 
motion, the work done on 
every pound of water 
passing through the pump 
is called the total avail- 
able head, and it is greater 
than the greatest differ- 
ence of pressure observ- 
able between an}' two 
points in the circuit. 



Electricity. 

1. Generator burns zinc, 
or uses mechanical power, 
and lifts electricity to a 
higher level or potential, 

2. Energy available is 
amount of electricity 
-I- difference of potential. 

3. If we let all the 
electricity flow thrnugli a 
wire from one screw of 
our generator to the other 
withiut doing work, all 
the electrical energy is 
converted into heat be- 
cause of resistance of the 
wire. 

4. If we let our elec- 
tricity work a machine 
as well as flow through 
wires, less flows than be- 
fore, less power is wasted 
through the resistance of 
the wire. 

5. However long and 
thin the wires may be, 
electricitjnnaybebrought 
from any distance, how- 
ever great, to give out 
almost all its original 
energy to a machine. 
This requires a great dif- 
fererice of potentials and 
a small current. 

6. If a generator pro- 
duces a flow of electricitj' 
in a circuit which may, 
or may not, work electro- 
motorl^, the energy given 
to every unit quantity (or 
coulomb) of electricity 
passing through the gene- 
rator is calletTthe electro- 
motive force of the gene- 
rator, and it is greater 
than the greatest differ- 
ence of potential observ- 
able between any two 
points in the circuit. 



Many useful associations of ideas have 
been adopted as mnemonics to aid in the 
retention of the facts and laws of elec- 
tricity, and it may be concluded that the 
more the skill of the teacher is combined 
with that of the experimenter the greater 



108 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ELOCUTION 



will be the use of the science in education, 
and the more rapidly will a knowledge of 
it spread among the people. 

Elementary Schools. See Code and 
School Boards. 

Elocution consists in the perfectly 
audible, distinct, pure, and effective pro- 
nunciation which is given to words when 
they are arranged into sentences and form 
written or extemporaneous composition, 
either in the shape of prose or poetry. It 
comprehends the appropriate inflections 
and modulations of the speaking voice, 
the proper pauses and right discrimination 
in degrees of emphasis, notation of quan- 
tity, and due observance of the physiologi- 
cal law of poise ; and it is considered good 
when it expresses the sense of the words 
employed in an easily intelligible manner, 
and gives at the same time all the beauty, 
force, and variety of which such words are 
susceptible. Hence we may say that the 
art of elocution consists of a system of 
rules which teach us to pronounce written 
or extemporaneous composition with just- 
ness, energy, beauty, variety, and ease ; 
and as thus defined the art was largely, 
and with enthusiasm, studied by the 
Greeks and Romans, to which study in a 
great measure we owe some of the finest 
pieces of ancient oratory extant. They 
distinguished the various qualities of elo- 
cution by simple epithets, such as smooth, 
clear, slender, full, flowing, flexible, sharp, 
rigid, and hoarse ; and designated the pitch 
of vocal sounds by the term accent, mak- 
ing three kinds of accents— the acute, the 
grave, and the circumflex, which signified 
severally the rise, the fall, and the turn of 
the voice, or union of acute and grave on 
the same syllable. They did not, how- 
ever, go much beyond this, and it was left 
to modern inquirers to give that clear and 
full description of the elements of speech 
on which any attempt at full and satisfac- 
tory instruction can be founded. The 
subject has in our day been minutely, and 
in some respects satisfactorily, analysed. 
The speaker should always be natural ; 
and the best means to accomplish this end 
is to have confidence, courage, and fre- 
quent practice. He should read frequently 
aloud, and declaim occasionally in the open 
air. Bodily exercises are also of great 
advantage, as everything that tends to 
the improvement of the health has a cor- 
responding influence upon the voice. All 
excesses, however, are injurious, and should 



be avoided ; thus the voice should be ex- 
ercised with care when it is breaking, or 
immediately after meals, or when hoarse, 
although a slight cold often improves the 
raucous quality of the voice. Wines and 
spirits are also injurious ; and it should be 
added that the simplest and best remedy 
for a thirst when speaking is a glass of 
cold water with a little gum arabic dis- 
solved in it. It is a mistake for a speaker 
to think that he is best heard when he 
speaks loudest, for such speaking is dis- 
agreeable in itself, and extremely fatigu- 
ing both to the speaker and the hearer. 
When the natural extent of voice in or- 
dinary conversation is not sufiicient, the 
speaker should extend that tone, but pre- 
serve the usual key. Weakness of the voice 
is always overcome by loud and forcible 
expulsion from the glottis of the various 
vowel sounds. There must also be distinct 
articulation. This depends on the clear 
enunciation of certain elements called 
usually consonants, which may be gene- 
rally described as certain modes of begin- 
ing, ending, or interrupting vowel sounds. 
Sounds and articulation of a similar forma- 
tion should not be allowed to coalesce, as, 
e.g., the classical illustration of Milton's 
attack on Bishop Hall's teach each. Dis- 
tinctness requires that each sound shall 
be completed before another is begun, and 
at the same time that the end of the one 
and the beginning of the other shall be 
made so quickly that while the separation 
is distinctly effected, continuity may not 
be broken by any pause. It has been 
suggested that this may be avoided by a 
slight downward action of the lower jaw, 
which, separating the parts that produced 
the articulation, will leave them at perfect 
liberty for the utterance of the same, or a 
similar sound. Important words or pas- 
sages, again, should be emphasized by their 
forcible expulsion from the chest. At- 
tention should also be paid to inflexions, 
which are tones of speech proceeding by 
slides from one note to another. Rising 
inflexions indicate suspension, doubt, un- 
certainty, or incompleteness of sense, while 
falling inflexions indicate conviction or 
completion of sense. But no speaker can 
be a success without gesture, which should 
be simple, pleasing, varied, and, above all, 
graceful. He should suit his action, not 
to the woi'd, but to the idea. His gesture 
should always accompany the expression, 
and should never be more frequent than 



EMOTIONS EMULATION 



109 



the number of ideas. In a word, the 
speaker should always remember that he 
has to be heard, to be understood, and to 
be felt. 

Emotions (The) are a variety of the feel- 
ings; that is to say, those changes or affec- 
tions of the mind which are characterised 
by agreeableness or its opposite, and which 
are summed up under the familiar anti- 
thesis pleasure and pain, satisfaction and 
dissatisfaction, happiness and misery. Of 
these agreeable and disagreeable mental 
states there are two divisions: (1) those 
connected with the bodily life and resulting 
directly from the action of some nerve or 
nerves, as the feelings of heat, cold, hun- 
gei', and thirst, the pleasures of colour, 
sound, &c.; and (2) those which are the 
result of mental activity, as the feeling of 
gratitude, reverence, remorse, ifcc. The 
first division are marked off as Sense-feel- 
ings, the second as Emotions. The emo- 
tions show a certain order of development, 
which in general corresponds with the 
grade of mental activity involved. Most 
of the characteristic emotions — as fear, 
anger, love, &c. — manifest themselves with 
more or less distinctness within the period 
of infancy. Others, again — as the feeling 
of justice, the love of truth — belong to a 
later period. The feelings that are deve- 
loped first are those which subserve the 
ends of self-preservation. To the properly 
egoistic feelings there succeed the purer 
forms of social feeling, viz. disinterested 
affection for others, sympathy, and bene- 
volence. The cultivation of the emotions, 
which proceeds partly by moderating the 
violence of early passion and by keeping 
the egoistic feelings within due bounds, 
partly by exercising and developing the 
higher emotions, is one of the most impor- 
tant and yet most difficult departments of 
education. Its importance ai'ises, first of 
all, from the circumstance that feeling, 
while in its more excited forms a serious 
obstacle to intellectual activity, is at the 
same time the sole source of what we call 
interest in study; and, secondly, from the 
fact that feeling supplies the incentive to 
action, and that right conduct is only pos- 
sible where there is a preponderance of 
the higher feelings over the lower. While 
the educator has thus to give special con- 
sideration to the feelings in connection 
both with intellectual and moral education, 
he seeks more especially, in what we call 
aesthetic culture, to cultivate the feelings 



for their own sake, i.e. as a source of re- 
fined and lasting enjoyment. (See j^sthe- 
Tic Culture.) The special difficulty in 
emotional culture is due to the great 
differences of temperament and natural 
sensibility among children, and to the 
circumstance that the development of an 
emotion is a gradual process implying the 
co-operation of experience, association, and 
internal reflection. Probably, the most 
profound influence exercised by an educa- 
tor on the emotions of his pupil, is by way 
of sympathy and unconscious imitation. 
A child insensibly tends to enter into and 
reproduce those modes of feeling which it 
sees habitually manifested by those about 
it ; and where there are love and respect 
for the teacher this tendency to take on 
another's feeling becomes reinforced by 
the magnetic attraction of example. (See 
Imitation.) (See Bain, Education as a 
Science, cha-p. iii.; J. Sully, Teacher's Hand- 
book, chap, xvi., and Schmid's Encyclo- 
jxidie, article 'Gefiihlsbildung.') 

Empirical Method. — By the phrase 
empirical knowledge, is meant knowledge 
gained by experience and observation only. 
It contrasts with scientific or rational know- 
ledge which has been carefully ascertained 
by scientific methods of reasoning. The 
larger part of human knowledge has been 
first acquired as empirical, and is only gra- 
dually becoming transformed into rational 
by a process of scientific explanation. In 
this way, for example, the succession of day 
and night, and of the seasons, the effects of 
foods, poisons, &c., on the human organism, 
were phenomena long known as a matter 
of observation, before they were deduced 
from scientific laws. As the human race 
has necessarily progressed from empirical 
to rational or reasonable knowledge, those 
who, like Mr. Spencer, maintain that the 
mental development of the indi^'idual 
should follow that of the race, would urge 
that the natural and sound method of 
teaching is first of all to exercise the 
child's mind in the accumulation of a store 
of empirical generalisations, and only to 
take it on to a higher and truly scientific 
knowledge of nature's operations when the 
reasoning faculty is more fully developed. 
(Compare articles Method and Evolu- 
tion.) 

Emulation may be briefly defined as 
the desire to surpass or excel another in 
any exploit fitted to bring honour. It is 
thus closely related on the one side to 



110 



ENGLISH (THE STUDY OF) 



ambition, or the desire for eminence and 
distinction (see Honour); and on the other 
to rivalry or the desire to defeat another 
for the sake of the pleasure of victory and 
of superiority. So far as the latter personal 
feeling becomes conspicuous emulation de- 
generates into a distinctly anti-social and 
malevolent feeling. In what is commonly 
understood by emulation, however, as dis- 
tinct from rivalry, the feeling of per- 
sonal antagonism is not allowed to rise 
into clear consciousness, and the thoughts 
are fixed on the coveted honour. As 
appealing to one of the strongest feelings 
in human nature, emulation has always 
held a prominent place among the forces 
of the educator. It is the natural accom- 
paniment of the teaching of numbers, as 
illustrated in place-taking, prize-winning, 
and so forth. Its utility as a motive is 
greatly diminished by the circumstance 
that it affects a comparative few only — 
that is, the more forward members of the 
class, and leaves just those unmoved who 
most of all require stimulus. In addition 
to this it must be borne in mind that the 
situation of competition or contest always 
tends to develop a feeling of antagonism, 
and is pretty certain to do so where the 
contest is fierce and prolonged. Hence, 
while a large employment of this motive, 
as in the system of the Jesuits, may favour 
the development of habits of industry, and 
a spirit of self-reliance, it tends to the 
formation of a selfish and uiasympathetic 
type of character. So far as the motive 
is made use of by the teacher, everything 
must be done to discourage the feeling 
of personal antagonism, and to direct the 
thoughts of the competitor to the worth 
of the distinction in and for itself. (See 
Bain, Education as a Scie')ice, pp. 74 and 
114; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 380.) 

Endowed Schools. See Grammar 
Schools. 

England and Wales (Education in). 
See Code; Law (Educational); Instruc- 
tion (Course of), and Welsh Education. 

English (The Study of).— Under the 
general heading ' English ' there is com- 
monly included a surprising variety of 
matters, some of which could not have 
found their way there except as the re- 
sult of curious historical accidents — chiefly 
of contrasts. As opposed to classics, or 
'Modern Languages,' 'English' is often 
held to comprise history — even the history 
of Greece and Home, and geography (phy- 



sical as well as political), and even arith- 
metic. We must limit the application. 
Looking first to the elementary treatment 
of the mother-tongue in primary schools, 
we observe that children come to the actual 
study of English with a certain basis of ac- 
quired speech. In learning Reading (q.v.), 
they are gradually led to recognise the 
written or printed forms that represent 
the sounds with which they are already 
familiar, as representing varieties of mean- 
ing; and they increase their vocabulary. 
The first steps are by no means easy. By 
one method, called the 'Look-and-Say' 
Method (q.v.), they are accustomed to ap- 
prehend at once a cluster of letters as 
representing a particular meaning; they 
take the words as wholes, without any 
attempt to resolve them into their compo- 
nent letters or syllables. By another 
method they are gradually trained through 
a systematic series of examples of the 
regular values of the several vowels and 
consonants in the most common typical 
combinations : a plan that has been carried 
out by Professor Murison with much care 
and completeness in the Globe Readers, 
published by Messrs. Macmillan. The 
chief irregularities being found in the 
more common and shorter words, how- 
ever, it is unavoidable to introduce some 
words at an early stage on the Look-and- 
Say principle ; and no doubt a judicious 
mixture of the two methods, with the 
Look-and-Say in the utmost feasible sub- 
ordination, is the best that could be de- 
vised. The Recitation (q.v.) of passages, 
both of poetry and prose, is a popular 
exercise in all schools : it trains and 
strengthens the memory, and cultivates 
the taste, at the same time storing the 
mind with memorable utterances of moral 
as well as intellectual value. Writing, in 
the sense of copying out passages, is also 
a useful means of impressing the youthful 
mind ; it conduces to accuracy, and it is 
especially helpful in acquiring and fixing 
the more troublesome bugbears of Spelling 
(q.v.). This is the most arduous of all the 
tasks of the school children — to master the 
English spelling. The chief difficulties 
lie in the most common words : yet the 
exceptions to the general rules can be 
grouped into classes, and thus conquered 
easily in detail. Nor are they so very 
numerous, or so very difficult, as is fre- 
quently supposed. Many authorities now 
consider it is a most wasteful thing to 



ENGLISH (THE STUDY OF) 



111 



spend much time over the inculcation of 
conventional spellings, and urge that when 
the teacher has given a moderate amount 
of attention to the matter by insistence 
on the similarities of classes of words, with 
contrast of the common dissimilarities, he 
has done quite enough. ' This educational 
fetish,'says Professor Murison, 'has exacted 
a ruinous tribute of worship, which ought 
to be materially diminished forthwith.' 

Assuming that the pupil can read and 
write and spell, with reasonable fluency 
and accuracy, we may now consider the 
vocables and mechanism of English speech. 
The individual words may be examined as 
to meaning and derivation. Obviously, it 
is essential that the precise meaning, or 
meanings, in which a word is now used, 
should be clearly apprehended ; the pre- 
ceding vicissitudes through which it may 
be traced will always have a certain inte- 
rest, although necessarily an inferior im- 
portance. It will also be useful to dis- 
criminate words of the same form with 
different meanings, and different words 
with more or less similar meanings. In 
derivation, the main point is, to apprehend 
the forms — the precise use of prefixes and 
suffixes, and the occasional modifications 
of vowel; to trace back the word, through 
endless varieties of arbitrary spelling, it 
may be, to Anglo-Saxon or possibly Sans- 
krit roots, is an attractive exercise that 
must be jealously watched as a great 'thief 
of time.' The main object is to know the 
modern usage. The discrimination of 
synonyms, it should be added, is far too 
apt to be pursued into unwarrantable 
hair-splitting ; for all purposes, the young- 
pupil should be satisfied with the bi'oad 
and unquestionable distinctions. 

Grammar {q.v.) deals more particularly 
with the putting together of words in 
sentences. Its province is not very ri- 
gidly limited. On the one hand it usually 
includes derivation, while on the other 
it passes more or less into composition, its 
more peculiar subjects being Parsing, or 
the definition and classification of the 
'Parts of Speech,' and Analysis (q.v.), or 
the separation of sentences into their com- 
ponent members, and the consideration of 
the precise relations of such members. 
One set of grammarians, represented chiefly 
by Dr. Richard Morris, would make it the 
main purpose of grammar to trace back 
the grammatical forms to the earliest times. 
Such an investigation is no doubt a proper 



work for a scholar, and the leading practical 
results ought to be embodied in English 
grammars that profess to go any distance 
into details. But, after all, the first ob- 
ject of the teacher of grammar ought surely 
to be to present it as it stands at this pre- 
sent day; all excursions into the past being 
severely regulated according to the time 
and future career of the particular students. 
The logical training to be obtained through 
grammar is somewhat delusive ; still, the 
definitions, classifications, and distinctions 
ought to be presented as logically as pos- 
sible. The crabbed nomenclature of gram- 
mar is, at best, repulsive to the young 
pupil. This difficulty, however, may be 
gob over by exercising the pupil systemati- 
cally in the interchanges of all the equi- 
valent forms of expression in English. 
'The pupils,' says Professor Bain, 'are thus 
accustomed to weigh every expression that 
comes before them, and this I take to be 
the beginning of the art of composition.' 
The system has the important advantage 
of being teachable from the very start of 
grammatical training up to the most ad- 
vanced composition, as well as of exercising 
the minds of pupils at every stage in the 
essential matter in the whole study — the 
weighing of all forms of expression with a 
view to the intelligent selection of the 
fittest. {See Professor Murison's First 
Work in English : Longmans. ) The prac- 
tice of Paraphrasing is now condemned ' as 
the most deplorably desecrating and exe 
crable that could have been seriously pro- 
posed;' it will hardly be able to survive the 
astounding reports of the Government In- 
spectors of Schools — notably, Mr. Matthew 
Arnold's experience (1876) with 'Canst 
thou not minister to a mind diseased?' 
and 'Now witchcraft celebrates.' 

In higher schools, and for public ex- 
aminations (e.g. University Local Exami- 
nations), it is usual to prescribe a play of 
Shakespeare or some of Bacon's Essays, or 
similar selections of prose and verse. The 
question then arises : What is the pupil to 
do with it ? The answer is given in the 
notes to some popular edition. Take, for 
example, the editions of the Clarendon 
Press — and the same remarks will apply, 
more or less, to most other editions of a 
less elaborate character. What do we 
find ? In the words of Professor Bain, ' dis- 
cussions of antiquarian grammar, idiom, 
and vocabulary; changes in the use of 
particular words; explanation of figura- 



112 



ENGLISH (THE STUDY OF) 



tive allusions ; interpretations of doubtful 
passages ; ' and so forth. ' Very little 
attention is usually given to the author's 
merits and defects, which are equally con- 
spicuous, and equally instructive.' So 
with Bacon, or with Milton. There is no 
question of the ability of the writer, or of 
the importance and interest of his work ; 
but the treatment is far removed from 
modern style, and it is almost wholly bad 
example, and the matter itself might be 
profitably replaced by more modern com- 
positions. Such editions ought to be used 
in private study at a later stage. The 
time of the pupil at school ought to be 
directed to the great practical purpose of 
discriminating between the good and bad 
in composition ; in the words of Dryden : 
' to understand the purity of English, and 
critically to discern not only good writers 
from bad, and a proper style from a cor- 
rupt, but also to distinguish that which is 
pure in a good author from that which is 
vicious and corrupt in him.' 

The time of the pupils is so limited that 
the teacher is bound to consider: (1) what 
can and what cannot be taught; and (2) 
what it is more profitable to teach and 
what it is wise to omit. In other words, 
what is the best he can do for his pupils, 
that his pupils cannot conveniently do for 
themselves 1 Keeping the practical end of 
good composition steadily in view, he can 
exercise them in grammatical construction, 
with the right application of words and 
idioms, and the peculiarities of syntax. 
Passing into the borderland between gram- 
mar and Rhetoric {q.v.), he enters the ex- 
traordinarily profitable field of arrange- 
ment or order of words. The figures of 
speech ought to be well studied in a care- 
fully chosen series of examples ; the chief 
intellectual qualities of style (simplicity, 
clearness, energy, or impressiveness) require 
long practice, and the emotional qualities 
I'each forward into the highest criticism 
and practice. Without this preliminary 
training, it is venturesome to embark on 
any of the large forms of composition — 
description, narration, exposition, per- 
suasion, poetry. Genius can no doubt 
overleap intermediate barriers, but even 
genius would be all the better for the dis- 
cipline of continuous many-sided study. 
In essa^/ writing, the composition exercise 
is hampered by the totally extraneous ex- 
ercise of finding the necessary material 
and mastering it for use. In this form of 



English exercise more than in any other 
it is necessary to discriminate the several 
elements of the performance, and to relieve 
learners as far as possible from work that 
cannot reasonably be regarded as entering 
into training in English style. And there 
is much scope for simplification ; for in- 
stance, there ought to be a clear separa- 
tion of the various kinds of composition 
— if the exercise be description, let the 
student keep clear of exposition ; if it be 
narrative, limit him rigidly to narration ; 
and so on. There ought to be much exercise 
and great acquired facility in simple com- 
positions before undertaking the more 
complex efibrts. 

The field of English Literature is a 
sore puzzle to those among us who desire to 
enlarge the appreciation of English, in the 
form of ' School ' or ' Tripos ' in the Univer- 
sities. What is a professor to teach under 
the name ' English Literature ' 1 The lan- 
guage of bygone centuries would always be 
assumed by him ; presumably, the under- 
standing of the old forms would be a 
philological exercise, separate, and purely 
preliminary. The personal history of 
authors, the succession of authors, the 
substance of a poem or a play, or a chap- 
ter of a history — such matters as these 
need no professorial aid. The true work 
of a professor would seem to lie in the 
careful analysis of typical works, with 
a view to displaying their qualities as 
composition and as 'literature.' It is 
an art of literary anatomy. Both teacher 
and student ought to come armed with 
some such full analysis of literary forms 
as may be found in the best books on 
rhetoric and composition, and the appli- 
cation should then be made, and in a 
liberal spirit. Professor Minto's Manual 
of English Prose Co7nposition and Cha- 
racteristics of English Poets (Blackwood) 
contain the finest examples of such work. 
A less tangible, yet useful and suggestive, 
liiie may be seen in Mr. R. G. Moulton's 
studies of Shakespeare's art. The ac- 
knowledged leaders in criticism, past and 
present, must of course be deferentially 
studied ; but the anonymous criticism of 
current literature ought not to be followed 
without deliberate testing by the light of 
well-ascertained principles. The thing is 
to be grounded in principles, with an open 
mind to the possible transcending of lower 
into higher principle ; the greatest danger 
lies in a tendency to narrow criticism. 



ENVY EPIDEMIC DISEASES 



113 



But, above all, the student should leave 
his teacher with two things — ' a strong 
love for the study of English, so steadily 
and tiraeously and judiciously inculcated 
as to be unquenchable, and in kind com- 
panionship with this, a wise and well-tried 
code of directions for the application of 
the love of English to the fruitful study 
of the incomparable literature in English.' 
[See Professor Bain's works : English Gram- 
mar, English Com2}osition and Bheto7'ic, 
and On Teaching English (Longmans) ; 
Professor Minto's works, as above; Preface 
to Professor Murison's Eirst Wo7-k in Eng- 
lish (Longmans) ; Mr. R. G. Moulton's 
Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist (Claren- 
don Press) ; an article ' On the Teaching of 
English ' (Time, May 1887); English Lite- 
rature, and hoio to study it [Pall Mall 
Gazette Office). 

Envy is a form of ill-will to another 
whom we see to be in possession of some- 
thing which we ourselves desire, or at least 
regard as worth possessing. It includes a 
miserable feeling of discontent, and at the 
same time an impulse of malignity towards 
the person who excites this feeling. With 
envy must be taken jealovisy, which is only 
the same feeling viewed from the other 
side. While the pang of envy is excited 
by the sight of another's possessing what 
we desire, jealousy is the vexation and 
dislike which arise when we fear that 
another will take from us, or share in, some 
possession that we value, more especially 
another's love or good opinion. This pas- 
sion is a well-marked characteristic of a 
low stage of mental development, as illus- 
trated in children, in the backward races 
of mankind, and among the lower animals. 
As one of the most repellent forms of 
selfishness, and as the most fruitful source 
of lasting hatred, the impulses of envy 
and jealousy in the child need to be care- 
fully watched and repressed. Where there 
is a strong natural inclination to envious- 
ness, special heed must be taken not to 
give any occasion for the outburst of the 
feeling by the least semblance of partiality 
in the dispensing of caresses, favours, or 
words of commendation. It has been re- 
marked by Miss Edgeworth that ' children 
who have the most lively sympathy (i.e. 
sensibility to others' good opinion) are, 
unless they be jiidiciously educated, the 
most in danger of feeling early the male- 
volent passions of jealousy and envy.' As 
a mode of anti-social feeling the impulse 



to envy others can only be fully eradicated 
by developing the social and kindly feel- 
ings. (On the jealousy of children see 
Perez' The Eirst Three Years of Childhood, 
chap, v., also the same writer's L' Educa- 
tion des le Berceau, chap. vi. ; cf. Schmid's 
Encyclopddie, article ' Neid.') 

Epidemic Diseases so frequently dis- 
organise school-work by reducing the at- 
tendance that a study of their nature and 
mode of propagation is of the highest 
importance to every teacher. The chief 
epidemic diseases which are of importance 
in connection with school -life are scarlet 
fever, diphtheria, small-pox, chicken-pox, 
measles, German measles, mumps, and 
whooping-cough. These are all extremely 
infectious, and apt to be spread by the close 
intercommunication occurring in school- 
life. The following rules may help the 
teacher in taking action in any doubtful 
case: (1) If a child appears at school with 
a suspicious rash on his skin, or if he 
vomits, or is feverish and languid, send 
him home at once. (2) A bad sore-throat 
might indicate scarlet fever, diphtheria, 
German measles, or a simple sore-throat. 
In any case send the patient home at once, 
and ask the mother to keep him away till 
the true nature of the complaint becomes 
certain. (3) If a child is suffering from a 
severe cold, with sneezing and redness of 
eyes, it may mean an influenza cold or the 
onset of measles. As both are infectious, 
send the patient home at once. (4) A 
swelKng in front of and below the ear 
generally means mumps; and a violent 
paroxysmal cough, making the child sick, 
or bleed at the nose, or become blue in 
the face, generally means whooping-cough. 
In all douhtfid cases act as though the 
case were an infectious one. Duration of 
Infection. — The earliest period at which a 
pupil may return to school after the onset 
of an infectious disease should theoreti- 
cally correspond with the end of the period 
of infection, but it is always wise to allow 
a margin ; and even then a medical certifi- 
cate of freedom from infection should be 
insisted on. Thus after scarlet fever school 
attendance should not be resumed until at 
least six weeks from the commencement 
of illness, and then only if all peeling is 
completed. In diphtheria the infection 
lasts two to three weeks, but school at- 
tendance should only be allowed in the 
fourth week, and not then if any sore- 
throat or discharge from ears, eyes, or nose 



114 



ERASMUS 



continues. After small-pox and chicken- 
pox at least four or five weeks should 
elapse. The infection of measles usually 
ceases in two or three weeks, but at least 
three weeks should elapse before school 
attendance is resumed. For German measles 
three weeks are also required; for mumps 
four weeks ; and for whooping-cough at 
least eight weeks, before school attendance 
is allowed. The above periods represent the 
minimum interval allowable. The admis- 
sion to school 0/ apparently healthy children 
from infected households should always be 
forbidden. The only possible exceptions are 
for mumps and whooping-cough. Appa- 
rently healthy children may carry the infec- 
tion in their clothes, or they may be really 
suffering from an early stage of infectious 
disease, or a slighter form of it in a later 
stage. Measles, scarlet fever, &c., are in- 
fectious as soon as the earliest symptoms 
start, and before the appearance of the 
rash. It seems a great hardship that 
healthy children should be prevented from 
attending school because others in the 
same house have infectious disease. The 
only legitimate way out of the difficulty 
is (1) to remove the infectious case to the 
hospital, or (2) to remove the healthy 
children to another house. If either of 
the above courses are taken, then the 
children may resume school attendance 
after an interval has elapsed to allow of 
the development of the disease if it is 
already in the system. This period, which 
we may call the qucorantine period, will 
vary in different cases, according to the 
varying time taken for each fever to de- 
velop. For a trustworthy table of periods 
during which these diseases are not infec- 
tious and no symptoms are present, see Dr. 
Newsholme's School Hygiene. 

In case healthy children have been in 
the same house as a fever patient through- 
out the course of the illness, it will not be 
sufficient to prevent them coming to school 
until the end of the period of infection, 
but for a subsequent quarantine period as 
well. Thus, after scarlet fever six weeks, 
ph(,s two weeks, should elapse ; after 
diphtheria twenty-one, ^^Z-its twelve days, 
and so on. Of course when the healthy 
children have been removed to another 
house, this prolonged quarantine is not 
necessary. 

It occasionally happens that disease 
has been acquired by children from un- 
sanitary conditions of the school premises. 



This more particularly applies to typhoid 
fever (i.e. enteric fever) and diphtheria. In 
this case the school should be closed dur- 
ing the necessary repairs of drains, &c., 
and the water-supply should be strictly 
investigated. In boarding-schools an im- 
pure milk-supply is sometimes the cause 
of an epidemic outbreak. 

Erasmus (6. at Rotterdam 1467, d. at 
Basle 1536), a natui-al son of G-erard Praet,, 
a citizen of Gouda, and Margaret, daugh- 
ter of a physician of Zevenbergen in Bra- 
bant. He was well educated during his 
father's life; but his father dying when he 
was fourteen, he was handed over to dis 
honest guardians, who misappropriated his 
patrimony and drove him into a monastery 
to hide their robbery. He took the vows 
at Stein in 1486. He subsequently became 
private secretary to the Bishop of Cambrai 
owing to his knowledge of Latin, and at 
the close of this engagement he was allowed 
to go to Paris, where he with difficulty 
supported himself by taking pupils. For 
many years he was a wanderer, and visited 
England and Italy. In 1510 he returned 
to England, on the invitation of Lord 
Mountjoy, and was appointed Lady Mar- 
garet Professor of Diviiiity at Cambridge. 
Notwithstanding the friendships he con- 
tracted in England, and the assistance he 
received from Sir Thomas More, Arch- 
bishop Warham, Dean Colet (to whom he 
dedicated his work De Dtcplici Rerum ac 
Verhorum Cojnct), and otlier illustrious ad- 
mirers, Erasmus in 1 5 1 5 decided to return 
to the Continent, where he again became 
a wanderer from city to city. It was 
during this period that he devoted his 
brilliant scholarship to translating the 
New Testament into Latin, and to the 
preparation of those writings which gave 
him the credit of having ' laid the egg 
which Luther hatched.' He thus greatly 
aided the Reformation, and did much tO' 
bring about the revival of sound learning. 
He holds a conspicuous place in the his- 
tory of education, on account, not only 
of his erudition, but of his ideas on edu- 
cational theory and practice. Though 
deeply imbued with the classical spirit, he 
anticipated modern educational reformers 
by his advocacy of the educational value 
of scientific studies, and his insistence 
upon the importance of the intellectual 
training of women. His Colloquies were 
used as an easy school-book for Latin. 
They were published at Basle, but they 



ESSAYS EVOLUTION (DOCTRINE OF) 



115 



were in use in many countries and in our 
own till quite recently. 

Essays. — The art of expressing oneself 
clearly and adequately in one's native 
tongue is not in the main a gift of nature, 
but a result produced by much practice 
and constant attention to good models. 
This practice can be rendered far more 
effective, and the results may be arrived 
at sooner, by a well-ordered and gradually 
progressive plan. We require (a) an order 
in the subjects, corresponding to the growth 
of the pupil's mind and knowledge ; (b) an 
order in the amount of personal original 
effort on the part of the pupil ; and (c) an 
order of treatment — both as to the actual 
complexity of the language employed, and 
as to the faculties called into play. We 
want also a corresponding graduated set 
of models, with which the pupil's composi- 
tions can be and should be compared, the 
gT0u^^d of his inferiority being made quite 
clear. The order of subjects will be best 
derived from that of the growth of the 
faculties ; subjects which exercise the 
senses, observations of things made there 
and then by the pupils, those which require 
mental reproduction or memory, those 
which exercise the constructive imagina- 
tion, and so on. The particular subjects 
chosen will of course depend upon the 
other school-work of the pupil, the know- 
ledge he gets, and the life he leads. The 
order of personal effort will naturally be 
from oral composition to written work. 
The pupil should always be I'equired to 
use complete sentences when answering 
questions, and to be clear. He should 
gradually be encouraged to answer more 
fully. In the written work we should 
begin by reading short passages or stories 
aloud, and requiring the pupil to reproduce 
them immediately afterwards — gradually 
changing the length, difficulty, and cha- 
racter of the piece, and encouraging the 
introduction of additions and variations. 
We may then give merely the main outlines 
of the story or passage, then merely the 
main points, and lastly the bare subject. 
In all these steps it will be well at first to 
choose the story or passage from some 
model — even when we give only the bare 
subject — so that at least one compa- 
rison may be made by the pupil. The 
order of treatment as to language, as far 
as it can be observed, will of course be 
from single short statements with simple 
subjects and predicates to those in which 



the subjects and predicates are more ela- 
borate, and thence to compound sentences 
and complex sentences. As to the order 
of the faculties called into play, this will 
of course be the same as the order of the 
growth of the faculties — observation, me- 
mory, constructive imagination, &c., &c. 
Only in their later stages should essays be 
given as 'home-work.' If not treated as 
exercises in spelling, and if kept tolerably 
short, the work of reading and remarking 
on them need not be excessive. Essays 
should never be given back to a class 
without some oral comments on the leading 
characteristics shown by the class. With 
a large class there will hardly be time for 
much more. 

Ethics is the science which seeks to 
determine the ultimate end of human 
action, and, in close connection with this, 
the grounds of duty and moral obligation. 
It is thus at the head of the Practical 
Sciences, viz. those sciences which have 
to do with things — not as they actually 
exist, but as objects of desire or ideal ends. 
As the supreme practical science, ethics 
directs us in defining the true end of edu- 
cation, (^ee Theory OF Education.) As 
concerned with the end of virtue or moral 
excellence, and with the systematic treat- 
ment of the several duties, ethics connects 
itself in a peculiar way with the problems 
of moral education. A study of ethics, by 
familiarising the mind with the difficulties 
inherent in moral problems, and by com- 
pelling it to harmonise different parts of 
the received moral code by reference to 
some uniting principle, may be regarded 
as a valuable part of the preliminary 
training of the educator. (See Prof. 
Sidgwick's Outlines of the History of 
Ethics, chap. i. ; the same writer's larger 
work. The Methods of Ethics; Macin- 
tosh's Dissertation; or Professor Calder- 
wood's Handbook of Moral Philosophy.) 

Eton. See Public Schools. 

Etymology. See Grammar. 

Euclid. See Geometry. 

Evening Classes. See Adult Edu- 
cation and Provincial Colleges. 

Evolution (Doctrine of). — By this ex- 
pression is meant the theory — mainly ela- 
borated in this country by Mr. Darwin, 
Mr. Herbert Spencer, and others — that 
differences of species among living things, 
plants and animals, are not original and 
unalterable, but that the numerous exist- 
ing varieties have gradually been evolved 



116 



EXAMINATIONS 



out of a few primitive forms. According to 
this doctrine man has attained his present 
physical and mental condition by a long 
series of gradual transitions or transfor- 
mations from a humbler state. The doc- 
trine of evolution has important bearings 
on education. In the first place it em- 
phasizes the fact that human life is pro- 
gressive, and that each generation is con- 
sciously or unconsciously working for a 
higher intellectual and moral condition in 
the remote future. Again, it teaches us 
that human progress is due not merely to 
the improving effect of better external 
circumstances, but to a certain advance in 
native aptitude and disposition. That is 
to say, the effect of the exertions, intel- 
lectual and moral, of each generation, 
transmits itself, to some extent, to its suc- 
cessor, according to the principle of He- 
redity {q.v.). Finally, the doctrine teaches 
us that the successive phases of the mental 
life of the individual correspond, broadly 
at least, with those of the mental life of 
the race. Mr. Spencer has applied this 
part of the theory of evolution to the pro- 
blems of education, urging that the child 
should attain its knowledge as the race 
has attained it, pi'oceeding from the con- 
crete to the abstract, from the empirical 
to the rational. {See Spencer, Education, 
chap. ii. ; W. H. Payne, Contributions to 
the Science of Education, chap, iv.) 

Examinations are of two great classes : 
scholastic and official. The origin of the 
official examinations is distinctly traceable 
to the popularity of the scholastic exami- 
nations. Scholastic competitive examina- 
tions are at present universal in all places 
of education in this country, and are even 
more popular and more rigorous in some 
parts of the Continent. This is especially 
the case in France, where at the Poly- 
technic and at some of the military schools 
the two schools run into each other, scho- 
lastic victories being the best if not the 
only passport to some kinds of official em- 
ployment. In England competitive ex- 
aminations for scholastic purposes are 
comparatively modern. At Oxford the 
system, as applied to degrees, is only a 
little over fifty years old. At Cambridge 
it is considerably older, but within the last 
sixty years it has taken altogether a new 
position, and at present forms the great 
motive power by which the whole of the 
education given at the University is im- 
parted. And at the Inns of Court the 



regular system of examination as a con- 
dition precedent to call to the bar was 
only introduced in 1872. Previous to 
1855 there was much discussion as to the 
mode of filling up junior appointments in 
the public service by nomination, and in 
May of that year, by an Order in Council, 
the result in a great measure of Lord Mac- 
aulay's indefatigable exertions, the first 
step was taken towards the competitive 
system, provision being made for testing 
by examination and by subsequent pro- 
bation the fitness of all candidates for the 
public service. There were many obj ections 
raised to the new mode ; but eventually 
they were found to be futile, or to have 
been grossly exaggerated ; the advantages 
of the new mode were conceded, and the 
principle was accepted as a basis for the 
conduct of examinations, although a nomi- 
nation was still required in many cases. 
The success that attended the system of 
competitive examination as applied to the 
Civil Service of India, encouraged the Go- 
vernment to issue an Order in Council, 
June 4, 1 870, by which the principle of open 
competition was formally adopted. Forty- 
five public departments were now thrown 
open to public competition, At the same 
time advantage was taken of the organisa- 
tion of the Civil Service Commissioners to 
hand over to them the examinations for en- 
trance to the army, which had also been 
placed under the same system, and which 
are now among the most severely contested 
of our examinations. By virtue of the Order 
in Council of June 4, 1 870, the Civil Service 
clerkships were divided into two classes : 
Class I., with salaries from lOOZ. a year to 
400Z. a year ; and Class II. with much 
smaller salaries — no attempt being made to 
equalise the salaries in the various depart- 
ments. In 1876 fresh regulations were 
promulgated, on the recommendation of 
a commission presided over by Sir Lyon 
Play fair, by which public service clerk- 
ships were again divided into two classes: 
higher division and lower division clerk- 
ships. The system of competitive examina- 
tions runs much risk of being abused by the 
professional crammer and his allies; and the 
only way of checking the abuse is to keep in 
mind the fact that the examination has for 
its object the estimating of the power of the 
candidate, and that only. Experience has 
formulated three useful rules in this con- 
nection. Restrict the examination to few 
subjects ; ask only such questions as call 



EXAMPLE (INFLUENCE OF) EYE (CULTIVATION OF) 117 



for method in their answer rather than 
fact ; ever have able examiners, who are 
acquainted alike with the subject-matter 
of the examination and the future work 
to be expected from the successful can- 
didates. 

Example (Influence of). *S'eeIxMiTATioN. 

Experimental Science. See Induction. 

Explanation is either of terms or of 
facts. The first or logical explanation 
is the same as Definition {q.v.). The 
second or scientific explanation has as its 
object to connect what is new and un- 
known with what is kno\vn. Scientific 
explanation concerns itself more particu- 
larly with pointing out the cause of a 
phenomenon. To explain a natural phe- 
nomenon, as the formation of dew, is to 
show by what agencies it has been brought 
about. In all such discovery of causes 
we connect the particular fact to be ex- 
plained with what we already know. In 
other words, we bring the new fact under 
some general class of facts, and so apply 
to it a general principle. The same pro- 
cess of explanation is illustrated when we 
are able to deduce an empirical generali- 
sation from some higher principle or law, 
as when the floating of wood and the 
sinking of metal in water are seen to be 
the necessary consequences of hydrostatic 
principles. {See Empirical Method.) In 
explaining facts to children we have to 
stop short of final scientific explanation, 
contenting ourselves with such partial 
explanation as is rendered possible by 
their previous knowledge. (On the nature 
of scientific explanation, see J. S. Mill's 
Logic, bk. iii. chap, xii.) 

Expulsion. See Law affecting 
Schoolmasters. 

Eye (Cultivation of). — The sense of 
sight is the first in point of intellectual 
importance. Through this we gain our 
most accurate knowledge of external ob- 
jects. Not only so, it shares with hear- 
ing the distinction of being an artistic 
sense - i.e. a sense which is specially ap- 
pealed to by the fine arts. The training 
of the eye is thus an important ingredient 
in intellectual education and in aesthetic 
culture. The exercise of the intellectual 
function of the sense concerns itself with 
the perception of the position of objects 
in space, of their magnitude, and of their 
characteristic form. It is now known 
that seeing things in their right place is 
not original, but is acquired by the aid of 



experience and the association of impres- 
sions of sight with those of touch. The 
educator may do much to render the 
child more ready and exact in recognising 
the distance and the real size of objects. 
The education of the eye concerns itself, 
however, more especially with training it 
to a nice and accurate observation of 
form. Here care must be taken to direct 
the attention of the child to the charac- 
teristic differences of lines — as straight, 
bent, or curved, vertical, horizontal, or 
oblique ; then to the way in which lines 
are combined so as to produce what we 
call an outline or form, and more particu- 
larly to the relations of proportion. A 
fine observation of nature, as well as apti- 
tude in all the nicer manual exercises, 
from drawing and writing upwards, de- 
pends upon an eye trained to the accurate 
perception of form. The other chief func- 
tion of the eye, the discrimination and 
appreciation of colour, though of consider- 
able importance as subserving knowledge, 
subserves in a still larger measure the 
gratification of the feelings. The ability 
to distinguish finely one colour from 
another, and to derive pleasure from 
colour, is one conspicuous element in the 
love of nature. In addition to this it 
forms a principal ingredient in what we 
call artistic taste, as employed not only 
about pictures, but about dress, household 
decoration, &c. Children vary much in 
the natural degree of their colour sensi- 
bility; but, save where there is a distinct 
organic defect amounting to colour blind- 
ness, they may be led by a proper system 
of training to discriminate and enjoy 
colours. This system should begin by 
rendering the child familiar with the 
elementary varieties — viz. red, yellow, 
green, and blue — and then exercising him 
in discriminating the several sub-varieties 
of each of these, including the compound 
tints, as orange (i.e.. reddish-yellow). Such 
discrimination of colours one from another 
should go hand in hand with the classifi- 
cation of like or related colours. Thus 
the child should be able, not only to dis- 
tinguish the several reds, but to group 
them all under the general head ' red.' 
This systematic knowledge of colour im- 
plies a very carefully selected colour voca- 
bulary such as we see employed by artists, 
dyers, &c. Since colour is more inter- 
esting to children than form, and the 
perception of it is much simpler, the 



118 



EYESIGHT 



education of the colour sense should precede 
to some extent that of the sense of form. 
A number of simple and agreeable occu- 
pations fitted to develop the colour-sense, 
such as singling out a number of different 
coloured objects, matching one colour with 
another, arranging colours in a graduated 
series, maj be appropriately introduced 
into the nursery or infant class (cf . article 
Perception). 

Eyesight is often seriously injured by 
school-work under unfavourable condi- 
tions. The prolonged exertion of the eyes 
which is involved in seeing near objects 
implies a strain of the accommodating ap- 
paratus of the child's eye (especially the 
ciliary muscles, which alter the convexity 
of the lens of the eye). This evil is com- 
monly increased by badly arranged desks 
and seats, and by the scholar being allowed 
to read with his head bent over the book, 
and probably in a bad position for receiv- 
ing the light. The eyes should nev^er be 
allowed to come nearer than twelve inches 
from the book or slate ; and if a scholar 
is noticed persistently to hold it nearer 
than this distance, a message should be 
sent to his parents that an examination of 
the eyes by an eye-surgeon is required. 
An inadequate amount of light, or an ill- 
directed light, is another cause of over- 
strain of the eyes. {See also Lighting.) 
The preparation of home-lessons in semi- 
darkness is a common cause of injury to 
the eyes. Improjyer type of reading and 
other books tends to produce the same re- 
sult. Roman is much better than Gothic 
type, and the excess of myopia among 
Germans is to some extent ascribable 
to their use of the latter type. The 
thickness of up and down strokes, the 
spaces between letters and words, and be- 
tween lines, and the length of lines, all 
require attention. If the letterpress is 
derived from a worn-out fount an imper- 
fect impression of the letters is produced. 
The construction of such letters as h and 
6, V and w, should be especially precise. 
Pale ink and greasy slates are very trying 
to the eyes, and so likewise is a glossed 
paper. Maps should contain as few data 
as possible, and the lettering should not be 
too fine. (For further details see School 
Hygiene, -p. 113: Sonnenschein.) Needle- 
ivork in girls' schools is more trying to the 
eyes than any work boys have to do. In 
moderately fine linen, as a shirt-front, 
there are 120 threads to an inch; and as 



what is considered good work consists in 
taking up four threads — two in front and 
two behind the linen — this means working 
to y^-inch. For drawing and needlework 
the best light is from above, and they 
should only be undertaken during the 
brightest hours of the day. The three 
most common defects of the eye in chil- 
dren are hypermetropia, myopia, and 
astigmatism. 

Hypermetropia, or long sight, is a con- 
dition in which the eye is shorter from 
before backwards than usual, and there- 
fore rays of light do not come to a focus 
on the retina, but behind it. Such children 
require to accommodate the eye (making 
the lens more convex) even for seeing ob- 
jects at a distance, and for near vision the 
strain on their eyes becomes still greater. 
Consequently the eyes become inflamed, 
and the lids tend to stick together in the 
morning. The child often makes mistakes, 
and is thought to be idle, when really he 
is labouring under great difficulties of 
vision. The condition is often mistaken 
for short sight, because the efforts at ac- 
commodation are often excessive, and con- 
sequently the book is held nearer and 
nearer to his eyes. A convergent squint 
of the eye is sometimes produced. 

In Myopia, or sho7't sight, the eye is 
abnormally long from before backwards, 
so that rays of light tend to be focussed 
in front of the retina. The child holds 
his book near his eyes, in order to make 
the rays of light more divergent, and 
therefore more easily focussed on the re- 
tina. Myopia is distinguished from hyper- 
metropia by the fact that distant vision is 
improved by a concave lens. If a person 
can see equally as well at a distance 
through a convex lens as without, hyper- 
metropia exists. Hypermetropia is not 
due to school-work, though this may cause 
secondary troubles. Myopia, on the other 
hand, is increased, and sometimes caused, 
by school-work under unfavourable condi- 
tions. 

Astigmatism is a condition of the eye 
in which the curvature of the cornea is 
not uniform, and therefore rays of light 
entering it at different meridians have a 
diffei'ent focus. It is sometimes called 
' slow sight,' and is a common cause of 
what has been called 'artificial stupidity,' 
which is quite remediable by skilfully 
applied glasses. 



FACTORY ACTS- 



-FEAR 



119 



F 



Factory Acts. — These Acts, the most 
important of which was carried early in 
the Queen's reign through the efforts of 
the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, have had 
a most important influence upon educa- 
tion, inasmuch as their adoption was a 
recognition of the right of the State to 
step in between parent and child with a 
view to the promotion of the moral, intel- 
lectual, and physical well-being of the 
latter. The Education Acts were the 
necessary outcome of legislation for limit- 
ing the hours of labour of children and 
young persons. The series of statutes re- 
lating to such legislation were consolidated 
in the Factory and Workshop Act of 1878. 
Amongst other important regulations the 
Act makes provision for ensuring the at- 
tendance at school of children employed 
in factories and workshops. The Act de- 
fmes a ' child ' as any person under four- 
teen years of age, and a ' young person ' 
as any person between the ages of four- 
teen and eighteen. 

Faculty is commonly defined as a dis- 
tinct and original power of the mind, by the 
action of which a particular class of mental 
products arises. The powers commonly 
known as faculties are the intellectual 
powers, marked off as perception, memory, 
imagination, and reason. The division of 
mind into such faculties marks the earlier 
stages of development of psychology, and 
is open to the objection that it resolves 
what is really an organic unity into a 
number of separate agents. Accordingly 
in recent psychology the attempt has been 
made to reduce the operation of the several 
faculties to more fundamental forms of 
activity. Thus, Dr. Bain gives as the 
three fundamental functions of intellect: 
Discrimination, Consciousness of Simi- 
larity, and Retentiveness. The familiar 
distinctions of the mental faculties are of 
great convenience to the educator, espe- 
cially as they answer to successive stages of 
mental growth. {See Development.) At 
the same time the educator should be on 
his guard against the error that the opera- 
tions of different faculties are radically 
distinct from one another. It may be 
safely said that the whole theory of me- 
mory-training has suffered from the erro- 
neous supposition that it is a faculty apart, 



whereas in truth the perfect training of it 
necessarily involves much that is com- 
monly covered by the term observation, 
and not a little of what we mean by judg- 
ment. (*See Memory.) Similarly, the train- 
ing of the imagination and of the faculty 
of thought or reason has been too widely 
sundered by the educator. Rightly con- 
ceived, imagination is an essential pre- 
liminary process in thinking; and the train- 
ing of the imagination, by giving the mind 
facility in separating and recombining its 
impressions, is preparing the way for the 
processes of abstract thought. {See Flem- 
ing, Vocabulary of Philosophy, 'Faculty'; 
Bain, Mental Science, Introd. chap. i. ; 
Sully, Teacher^ s Handbook, p. 45 and fol- 
lowing.) See Universities. 

Fagging. See Bullying. 

Fairy Tales and Fables. See Fiction. 

Fear is an emotion of a disagreeable 
character, having a distinctly depressing 
effect on the energies of mind and body. 
It is the feeling of uneasiness and ap- 
prehension that arises in presence of a 
danger, i.e. a prospect of evil or suffer- 
ing in some shape. It is an instinctive 
emotion, having its root in the impulse of 
self-preservation, which includes the ten- 
dency to shrink from what is painful. As 
such it shows itself in a distinct form very 
early in life, and is indeed one of the lead- 
ing emotional features of childhood. It is 
held by some evolutionists that certain 
forms of fear — e.g. of big animals and 
strangers — which certainly appear within 
the first year of life, are the inherited re- 
sults of ancestral experience. It is a moot 
point whether children have any instinc- 
tive fear of the dark. Fear takes one of 
two forms — that of definite apprehension 
of some known form of evil, as where the 
burnt child dreads the tire ; and that of 
vague foreboding in presence of the un- 
known. This last enters into children's 
dislike of strange surroundings. It also 
has its place in a more disguised form in 
the childish feeling of awe before what is 
great or sublime. Their sense of inferio- 
rity to their elders in physical strength, 
knowledge, &c., favours the development 
of this feeling ; and thus it may be said 
that childish timidity helps to sustain the 
attitude of reverence. From this brief ac- 



120 



FELBIGER, JOHANN IGNAZ VON FENELON 



count of the characteristics of the emotion 
it may be seen that the educator's task in 
relation to it is not a simple one. On the 
one hand the child requires to be shielded 
fi'om the miseries of fear in all its more 
intense and injurious forms. Nothing is 
more to be deprecated in the early train- 
ing of children than a threat of any evil 
which, by its vastness and unfamiliarity, 
overpowers their im agination. They ought, 
too, to be helped to rid themselves of 
foolish and superstitious forms of fear by a 
sounder knowledge of things ; and lastly, 
their extreme liability to fear, with its 
natural moral outgrowth of cowardice, 
should be corrected by a judicious exercise 
of the virtues of courage and endurance. 
{See Courage. ) While, however, the edu- 
cator has thus to repress and restrain fear, 
he must be careful not to undervalue it as 
a feeling subservient to the child's self- 
preservation, and promotive of the attitude 
of reverence and obedience. Foolish reck- 
lessness is almost as far removed from true 
courage as cowardice, and in boys of a 
certain temperament requires close watch- 
ing. The most difficult problem, perhaps, 
in the educational management of fear is 
to assign it its proper place in moral dis- 
cipline. Here it is the correlative of 
punishment, and an appeal to it is conse- 
quently implied in any system of govern- 
ment. At the same time the depressing 
and injurious effects of intense fear or 
terror clearly impose rigid limits on the 
use of the motive. In order to secure the 
disciplinary value of fear without these 
drawbacks we must be careful to avoid 
everything in the shape of harsh tyranny, 
and to threaten only such evils as are 
definite, and such as have a magnitude 
sufficient to deter, but not to frighten or 
overpower. {SeeJjocke on Education, sect. 
115 ; Bain, Education as a Science, p. 66 ; 
and Sully, Teacher's Handbook, p. 366.) 

Felbiger, Johannlgnaz von (b. at Great 
Glogau, 1724, d. 1788).— Roman Catholic 
priest, educated at Breslau, and appointed 
Abbot of Sagan in 1762. He was a great 
reformer of schools in Silesia and Austria. 
Attracted by the work of Hecker at Berlin, 
he founded new schools, published classics, 
and gave himself up to reform the popular 
schools. The Government of Prussia offi- 
cially entrusted him with the work of re- 
organising schools in Silesia. He pub- 
lished various works setting forth his aim 
in education, which was ' to store the 



memory not only with words but things^ 
to train the understanding, and to rouse 
reflection, to unfold the reason of things, 
and make them intelligible, to educate stu- 
dents by means of questions and answers.' 
Owing to the success of Felbiger in Silesia, 
Maria Theresa appointed him director- 
general of schools in her dominions. He 
published (1774) detailed rules for all 
schools, which he divided into three grades. 
Felbiger advocated compulsory education. 
He subsequently received from Maria the 
priory of Presburg and a pension ; but 
when Joseph came to the throne he lost 
favour, and was compelled to retire to 
Presburg, where he devoted himself to re- 
forming the schools of Hungary. 

Fellow. — This term signifies the mem- 
bership of a learned society or of a col- 
lege. At Oxford and Cambridge it is 
apj)lied to a member of a college who par- 
ticipates in its revenue and government. 
Fellows are usually elected from the ba- 
chelors who have taken the highest degrees, 
but in some cases there is an examination 
for the Fellowships. At different colleges 
both at Oxford and Cambridge the Fellow- 
ships are held under varying conditions. 
As a rule, they are worth from 200^. to 
250^. a year, with rooms and commons, 
and are tenable for about seven years. 
When a Fellow holds office in his college, 
he is permitted to retain his Fellowship 
after the prescribed term of years. Under 
the new statutes Fellowships are no longer 
forfeited by marriage. 

FeUow-Commoners. — Generally the 
sons of noblemen or young men of fortune 
at Oxford and Cambridge, who pay a higher 
rate of fees, and are pei-mitted to dine 
with the Fellows, and to graduate without 
examination. They are now coixfined to 
Downing College, Cambridge. (See ' Uni- 
versity Snobs' in Thackeray's Book oi 
Snobs.) 

Female Education. See Education 
OP Girls. 

Fenelon(6. atPerigord, 1651, d. atCam- 
brai, 1715). — This distinguished French 
writer and theologian has a place in the 
history of education, as the author of a 
treatise on The Education of Girls, which 
he prepared at the request of the Due and 
Duchesse de Beauvilliers, who, besides se- 
veral sons, had a family of eight daughters. 
Fenelon also directed the education of the 
Due de Bourgogne, and it was while thus 
engaged that he wrote several charmingly 



FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB- 



FICTION 



121 



didactic works, including the Recueil des 
Fables, and Telemaque, which are still 
favourites with the schoolboys and girls 
not only of France, but of other countries. 

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762-1814). 
One of the epoch makers in the history 
of German philosophy. He endeavoured 
to establish idealism upon the basis of 
consciousness, and to construct science 
upon the assumption that all knowledge 
is an act of the ' ego,' or active principle 
of which the 'non ego' is the postulated 
product. Though Fichte was accused of 
atheism, he had a lofty ideal of Deity. 
'God,' he said, 'must be believed in, not 
inferred. We can only know Him as the 
Moral Order of the world ; and to attribute 
to Him intelligence or personality is to 
fall into anthropomorphism.' Fichte fur- 
ther held that it is action alone that con- 
stitutes reality, and that upon ourselves 
alone depends the manifestation of the 
world, the realisation of which is but the 
full development of ourselves. Therefore, 
it is to ourselves that we must direct our 
attention, and education must aim con- 
stantly at this self-development in the 
eflfort to realise the good, the useful, and 
the beautiful. Man, he held, is commanded 
to be moral by the necessity of his nature. 
To be virtuous is to f ultil an internal law, 
not to obey an external one. Fichte de- 
nied that man was born naturally prone 
to evil, and affirmed that his natural dis- 
position was to love, though it was neces- 
sary for him to arrive at morality by 
constant effort. He held that man is 
perfectible, and that it is possible by 
means of well directed education to effect 
the moral elevation not only of individuals 
but of nations. His educational ideas are 
contained for the most part in his Address 
to the Germian Nation, The Nature of the 
Scholar, and The Characteristics of the 
Present Age. The two last of these have 
Ijeen translated into English. 

Fiction. — Fairy tale and Fable, the 
delight of the childhood of men and 
nations, exert a powerful influence in the 
development of the intellect and the emo- 
tions, and in the formation of character, 
and consequently are indispensable aids 
to education. Not only poets in all ages, 
but other rulers in the empire of thought, 
the early Greek philosophers, the founders 
of religious systems, and even some of the 
great discoverers in science, have recog- 
nised the power of fiction as a medium 



for the communication of truth ; and all 
the great educational reformers — Locke, 
Pestalozzi, Froebel, Comenius — have re- 
commended the judicious cultivation of 
the faculty to which fiction appeals, as 
essential to the healthy development of 
child-nature. 'As soon as a child has 
learned to read,' says Locke, 'it is desirable 
to place in his hands pleasant books, suited 
to his capacity, wherein the entertainment 
that he finds might draw him on, and re- 
ward his pains in reading; and yet not 
such as should fill his head with perfectly 
useless trumpery, or lay the principles of 
vice and folly. To this purpose I think 
jEsojjs Fables the best, which being stories 
apt to delight and entertain a child, may 
yet afford useful reflections to a grown 
man, and if his memory retain them all 
his life after, he will not repent to find 
them there, amongst his manly thoughts 
and serious business.' -iS^sop, however, is 
but one amongst the enchanters with 
whose works it is desirable to familiarise 
the minds of children. Great care, how- 
ever, should be taken in selecting works 
of fiction, that they are works of real en- 
chantment, works constructed on those 
true artistic principles which lie at the 
foundation of a just conception of the 
humorous and the pathetic, the heroic, 
the beautiful, and the good. There will 
then be no danger of the child's reverence 
for truth being violated, even though the 
stories given him to read open up to him 
the vistas of fairyland, which can have no 
existence except in the imagination, and 
recount to him the marvellous adventures 
and occurrences which could never happen 
in actual experience. On the contrary, 
his love of truth will be fostered by such 
stories, which are revelations of the ideal, 
the only truly and permanently real. 
What we call the real passes away, in 
fact, is never existent for two moments 
together in the same state, but the ideal 
lives for ever. The real Homer, the real 
Shakespeare have trodden the road to 
dusty death, but the ideals of Homer and 
Shakespeare, the men and women they 
created, are immortal. It is possible, 
however, to appeal too much to the child's 
imagination, and by means of fiction to 
produce unhealthy excitement, which is 
injurious to the natural development of 
the moral and intellectual nature ; there- 
fore he should be discouraged as much as 
possible from the perusal of the sensational 



122 



FIRST GRADE SCHOOLS FORESTRY 



trash which Mr. Ruskin would place in 
his category of 'foul fiction,' and to which, 
unfortunately, schoolboys have had too 
ready access since the introduction of 
cheap printing and competitive publish- 
ing. Most of the periodicals now pub- 
lished for the special delectation of boys 
and girls belong to the 'foul fiction' class, 
and should be kept out of their way with 
as much caution as we would remove 
from them the temptation to imbibe ar- 
dent spirits. 

First Grade Schools. See Classifi- 
cation. 

Firth College. See Provincial Col- 
leges. 

Flogging. See Corporal Punish- 
ment. 

Floor Space requires consideration in 
the construction of school buildings as 
well as cubic space. A very high ceiling 
will not compensate for deficient floor 
space. A space enclosed within four high 
walls and without a roof would, if 
crowded, speedily become stuffy and of- 
fensive. ' Lofty ' and ' airy,' as applied 
to rooms, are by no means necessarily 
synonymous. Any height above 12 feet 
has but little influence on the purity of 
the lower atmosphere in which the chil- 
dren have to live ; and even free cross 
ventilation near the high ceiling will not 
necessarily purify the lower atmosphere. 
The English Education Department give 
80 cubic feet as the minimum space per 
scholar, and 8 square feet as the minimum 
floor space allowable. In the opinion of 
some sanitarians, however, this minimum 
is much lower than sanitary requirements 
demand. At least 15 square feet of floor 
space, it is urged, should be allowed per 
child, which, reckoning the height of the 
rooms as 10 feet, would give 150 cubic 
feet of space for each child. About 1,500 
cubic feet of fresh air are required for each 
pupil per hour ; therefore, with an allow- 
ance of 150 cubic feet of space, it is 
evident that the air must be replenished 
every six minutes, i.e. ten times in an 
hour. Such frequent replenishment of the 
air, however, is not successfully carried 
out in practice except in warm weather. 
{See Architecture.) 

Foreign Teachers. See Teachers. 

Forestry. — Though nearly every other 
civilised State possesses one or more forest 
schools, there is in this country no or- 
ganised system of forestry instruction in 



existence excepting in connection with the 
Indian Service; and even students for the 
forestry department of that service are 
required to visit one or other of the Con- 
tinental forestry scliools. The witnesses 
examined before the Committee of the 
House of Commons recently appointed to 
inquire into the subject, were generally 
and strongly of opinion that the establish- 
ment of forest schools, or at any rate of 
some organised system of forest instruc- 
tion in this country, would be very desir- 
able ; but they differed considerably as to 
the best mode in which this might be 
effected. As regards the formation of a 
forest school, the Committee considered 
that more than one centre of instruction 
would be desirable ; though in the first 
instance it might be well to establish one 
school only, in order to secure the most 
complete equipment, the best teachers, 
and a sufficiency of students. The Indian 
forest students, they thought, might con- 
stitute a nucleus. The Indian Government 
is already at some expense on their behalf, 
and it is probable that the fees from other 
students would nearly if not altogether 
repay any additional expense which their 
admission would entail. The school would 
doubtless be situated in England, but the 
Committee urged that a school for Scot- 
land is also urgently needed, and were 
also of opinion that it would probably be 
desirable to found another in Ireland. 

The following is a syllabus of the 
course of study at the School of Forestry 
at Neustadt Eberswalde, in Brandenburg. 
This is a superior school, all matters con- 
nected with the management of forests 
being taught theoretically and practically. 
The subjects are : The cultivation of 
woods and forests, forest taxation, politi- 
cal economy in general, and with special 
application to the administration of forests ; 
history and literature of forest manage- 
ment, knowledge of game and gamekeep- 
ing, natural sciences in general, general 
botany, forest botany, the anatomy of 
plants, general entomology, special know- 
ledge of forest insects, natural history of 
vertebrate animals in general, and of birds 
in especial ; arithmetic and analysis with 
reference to matters occurring in the man- 
agement of forests, geometry and trigono- 
metry for the purposes of practical survey- 
ing, the mathematical principles of road- 
making, stereometry and mathematical 
geography, plan-drawing, mechanical phy- 



FORM FREE EDUCATION 



123 



sics, the forms of Prussian forest measure- 
ments, civil law with reference to the ad- 
ministration of forests and game, the pro- 
tection and poKce of forests, chemistry, 
mineralogy, dynamical physics, and the 
physiology of plants. Two days a week 
are devoted to practical studies in the 
forests belonging to the institution, and 
in summer excursions are made daily for 
scientific studies and practice in surveying 
and levelling. 

Form. — This word is used in the public 
schools of England to signify not only the 
bench on which pupils sit, but the class 
to which they belong. It is thus equiva- 
lent to the word ' standard ' as used in the 
elementary schools. There are generally 
nine forms in the great public schools, but 
the number varies, and the order of prece- 
dence commences from the lowest number. 
Thus the first-form boys are those in the 
initiatory stage or lowest class. 

Forster, Rt. Hon. W. E. See Law 
(Educational) and School Boards. 

Foundlings. — Infants abandoned by 
their parents. The great charity in Guil- 
ford Street, London, known as the Found- 
ling Hospital, which has an income of 
about 10,000^. a year, was originally esta- 
blished by private benevolence for the re- 
ception of such infants; but its benefits 
are now extended to poor illegitimate 
children whose mothers are known. The 
governors require to be satisfied of the 
previous good character and present ne- 
cessity of the mother, and that the father 
(if living) has deserted her ; also that the 
reception of the child will be the means of 
replacing the mother in the course of virtue. 
France, Educational Law of. See 
Law (Educational). 

France, University of. See Uni- 
versities. 

Francke, Augustus Herman {h. 1663, 
d. 1727) holds a place in the history of 
education between Comenius and Pesta- 
lozzi. He learnt with great rapidity as a 
boy, and at fourteen entered the university, 
where he studied theology and languages. 
In 1691 he was made Professor of Oriental 
languages at Halle, and afterwards Pro- 
fessor of Divinity and pastor of Glaucha, 
■a suburb of Halle. It was as pastor that 
he began the work which has made his 
name famous. He found the ignorance of 
his people so dense that he began to teach 
the children, whom he supported at the 
same time by small donations. He took 



a few orphans to teach, and their numbers 
rapidly increased till he had to be assisted 
by many charitable persons. It is calcu- 
lated that nearly five thousand children 
have received a free education in his orphan 
asylum alone, and now there are many 
other schools in and around Halle which 
bear his name. 

Free Education. — The controversy 
known to our generation as the free 
education question dates from the intro- 
duction of the law of compulsory school 
attendance which came into operation by 
the Education Act of 1870, and was sub- 
sequently strengthened by the Education 
Act of 1876. Consequently, in this country 
the discussion has turned, not so much 
upon the general principle whether the 
cost of the education of the whole or a 
part of the child population should be 
defrayed by the community, and only in- 
directly by the parent of the child, as upon 
the narrower ground whether — now that 
the State has decreed that the parent of a 
child shall cause it to attend a public 
elementary school, unless it is receiving 
elementary instruction in some other 
manner satisfactory to the local authority 
— it is or is not desirable to demand pre- 
payment of a weekly school-fee from the 
parent towards defraying the cost of the 
education provided. Of course, those who 
have given in their adhesion to the general 
principle of free education, with or with- 
out compulsion — as the United States of 
America have, where compulsion has fol- 
lowed, and not preceded, free education, 
and has not even yet been adopted in the 
majority of the States — take their stand 
solely on social and political grounds ; and, 
if they live in England, would doubtless 
consider the additional fact of compulsion 
in the light of an a fortiori argument in 
favour of their free-school views. But it 
is quite possible that many persons who 
reject the general principle of free educa- 
tion would be prepared to accept the par- 
ticular application of it to a country which 
has introduced the principle of compulsion. 
These would take their stand more upon 
expediency — on the principle that a duty 
enforced upon individuals in the interest 
of the community should be performed at 
the cost of the community and free to the 
individual ; or, more broadly, that ' free 
schooling is a particularly safe and useful 
form of public aid to the working classes.' 
Again, the arguments for free education. 



124 



FEEE EDUCATION 



where the schools (secondary as well as 
elementary) attended by the large majority 
of the population — rich and poor alike — 
are free, will not serve entirely where the 
schools attended only by the poorer classes 
are free. For, in the first case, the richer 
classes, who pay more in taxes, use the 
secondary schools, which cost more to 
maintain ; and the poorer classes, who pay 
less, use the less costly elementary schools ; 
and thus each class obtains an equitable 
quid pro quo for the educational tax. But, 
in countries where the elementary schools 
only are free, the richer classes, who do 
not use these schools, and yet pay the share 
of educational taxation based upon their 
means, receive no similar return for this 
outlay, and can therefore only be recon- 
ciled to the payment of this tax on other 
grounds than the ' fairness ' of its incidence. 
It follows from this that, if a comparison 
with foreign countries be instituted with 
the view of assisting the judgment on 
this question of free education as it affects 
England, a starting-point must be made 
from those countries which hold at this 
moment as nearly as possible the same 
position as England in regard to compul- 
sory school attendance and payment of 
school fees. The next stage would carry the 
inquirer to a review of educational phe- 
nomena in those countries which at this 
moment possess what England would pos- 
sess if the particular change desired by 
educational reformers were an accom- 
plished fact. JSTow, in England, at the 
present time, elementary education is com- 
pulsory, but the elementary schools are 
not 'free.' In these respects England 
most nearly resembles Germany outside 
Berlin and other large towns, Austria, and 
some (if not all) of the provinces of Aus- 
tralia. If the controversy now raging 
were determined by the passing of a law 
requiring all schools aided by government 
grants (i.e. public elementary schools), 
whether further supported by local rates 
or voluntary contributions or endowments, 
to be open free of school fees to all appli- 
cants for admission, then this country 
would be working under similar conditions 
to France, except Paris and some other large 
towns, to Berlin and other large towns in 
Germany, and to some (if not all) of the 
provinces of the Dominion of Canada. 
But the parallelism is not nearly so com- 
plete, nor, therefore, the comparison of 
data so valuable, when we take Switzer- 



land, or Paris and some other large towns, 
in France, where education, secondary as 
well as elementary, is free ; or the States. 
of America, where this is also the case, 
and, in addition, some of them have a 
compulsory law and others not. Lastly, 
no argument at all can be derived from 
Holland or Belgium, as in both these 
countries education is neither compulsory 
nor free. 

But there is one point in which Eng- 
land differs from every other country 
with which comparisons might be made, 
and that is in the existence of a large num- 
ber of elementary schools, denominational 
or otherwise, under private management, 
which rank equally with the schools under 
the public management of School Boards 
as public elementary schools entitled ta 
legal recognition and to a share of the 
Government grant. Of the 3,438,000 
children in average attendance in public 
elementary schools in England (in 1887), 
2,187,000 or 64 per cent, were in Denomi- 
national Schools, 1,251,000 or 36 percent, 
in Board Schools. But in no other of the 
countries named has the voluntary prin- 
ciple obtained such hold. Now a large ma- 
jority of the supporters of these (so-called) 
Voluntary Schools in England have made 
up their minds that the adoption of free 
education would lead to the extinction of 
their schools, and, with this, of all guaran- 
tees for the religious education of the 
children in the principles of religion, as 
viewed from the standpoint of their se- 
veral denominations. When, therefore, it 
is seen how large a hold the denomina- 
tionalists in England have over the ele- 
mentary education of the country, and 
how strongly preponderant, accordingly, 
is the influence of those who, on these 
grounds, look upon free education with 
disfavour, it is obvious that the problem 
of introducing free education into England 
assumes a much more difficult form than 
it could have assumed in France, Berlin, 
or Ontario, or would assume in Germany, 
Austria, or Australia. The introduction 
of free education into England has also 
been opposed on the general ground of its 
costliness. On the face of it, however, 
the adoption of this principle only implies 
a redistribution of an obligation now dis- 
charged by the parents of the individual 
children attending the schools, so that it 
shall in future be met, in the interests 
of the community, by every tax-paying 



FRENCH FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH 



125 



member of it. But, as a matter of fact, 
this comparison of the cost of the free 
system and the fee-paying system cannot 
be fairly made without taking into account 
the extra cost now incurred in enforcing 
compulsion in the presence of the school 
fee, not only directly, in the additional 
staff of officers required owing to friction 
and opposition, but indirectly, in the in- 
adequate result, as measured by the lower 
average attendance compulsion is able to 
secure as compared with what it might 
secure if no school fee were demanded. 
This last is an educational loss, the magni- 
tude of which is estimated very variously 
by educational experts ; but if that loss 
should turn out to be great, and the 
country should awake to the fact, the ad- 
vent of free education would not be very 
long delayed. It would then remain to be 
seen whether the sum lost in fees should 
be recouped to the several schools from 
the local rates or the imperial taxes, or in 
certain proportions from both ; and, fur- 
ther, whether the denominational schools 
should be allowed to share in this addi- 
tional endowment from public sources, and 
still retain all the privileges of private 
and irresponsible management now en- 
joyed by them. 

French. See Modern Languages. 

Freshman. — An undergraduate at Ox- 
ford or Cambridge is termed a ' freshman ' 
to the end of his first year of residence. 
At the present time, when the universities 
are continually widening their schemes 
and extending their influence, the manners 
and customs which obtain there are be- 
coming generally familiar, and the fresh- 
man is hardly distinguishable from his 
seniors. The freshman is now always 
warned lest he should appear at his uni- 
versity in a tall hat, or carry an umbrella or 
stick when he is wearing his cap and gown. 
He would never think in these days of 
making a demonstration when he passes 
his friends in the streets, the slightest nod 
is sufficient, neither would he attempt to 
shake hands when he parts with them in 
the evening. 

Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm August 
(1782-1852), was born at Oberweissbach, 
in the principality of Schwarz-Rudolstadt, 
in Thuringia. He is known throughout 
Europe and America as a strikingly ori- 
ginal and scientific writer on the subject 
of the education of children during the 
earliest years, and as the inventor of the 



Kindergarten (q.v.), or the institution 
in which children between the ages of 
three and seven are to be enabled to de- 
velop their faculties. It will be readily 
seen, however, that his theories and me- 
thods, based as they are on psychology or 
the science of the mind, are by no means 
limited in their application to the earliest 
years of childhood ; nor were they so 
limited by him. We shall not attempt 
here any more than a plain statement of 
his principles ; but one or two events and 
dates may be mentioned as important. 
Froebel studied under Pestalozzi at Yver- 
dun (1808-10) ; published his principal 
work, The Education of Man, in 1826 ; 
opened his first Kindergarten in Blanken- 
burg 1837 — in the year 1840 (the four- 
hundredth anniversary of the invention of 
printing) this was changed into the Univer- 
sal German Kindergarten, supported by a 
joint-stock company, and this is the year 
from which most Froebelians now date the 
movement ; and published his Mutter imd 
Kose-Lieder (songs, games, and stories for 
mothers to use) in 1843. Miss Praetorius 
established the first Kindergarten in Eng- 
land at Fitzroy Square, London, in 1854. 
The Froebel Society (London) was formed 
by Miss Doreck and others in 1874. In 
1877 Miss Shireff was elected president of 
this society. 

The purpose of a Kindergarten, as 
briefly stated by Froebel himself, is as 
follows : ' To take the oversight of children 
before they are ready for school life; to 
exert an influence over their whole being 
in harmony with its nature; to strengthen 
their bodily powers ; to exercise their senses ; 
to employ the awakening mind; to make 
them thoughtfully acquainted with the 
world of nature and of man; to guide their 
hearts and souls in a right direction, and 
to lead them to the Origin of all life and 
to union with Him.' His theory, and the 
principles on which his practice rests, 
start from the idea that human nature in 
a child — though liable to error and tainted 
by heredity — is in its primary elements as 
free from evil and falsity, as completely 
what it should be, as nature under every 
other aspect and in every other manifesta- 
tion. He holds it, therefore, to be the 
mother's and the educator's task to en- 
deavour to develop human nature's in- 
born original capacities and abilities by 
a carefully graduated progress in every 
direction. The child's nature being in its 



126 



FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH 



essence what we call good, what we have 
to do at fii^st is merely to help its normal 
growth by securing for it a proper envi- 
ronment, and by supplying it with, and 
enticing it to use, the fitting means for 
the activities which its nature needs for 
development. Nothing that does not spring 
directly from the natural primary outfit of 
the child — is not a natural outcome of it 
— should be imported into the child in the 
first stage. There should be no prescrip- 
tion nor encroachment, no arbitrary inter- 
ference — nothing but a loving, careful 
guidance under the direction of the broad 
general laws of human nature. To pro- 
ceed : Froebel holds that in everything 
there is an eternal law which always finds 
its expression, with equal clearness, out- 
wardly in physical nature and inwardly in 
the spirit, and also in the life (which is 
the result of the union of physical nature 
and spirit). Beneath this all-pervading, 
all-powerful law lies a single omnipotent 
cause — God. The spirit of God rests, lives, 
and works in nature, expresses itself by 
nature (as an artist expresses his spirit in 
a work of art), impai-ts itself through 
nature, continues to give itself shape in 
and by nature ; but nature is not the 
body of God. The condition on which the 
existence and the development of things 
depend is their agreement with and like- 
ness to this omnipotent cause — in their 
God-like-ness. This Godlikeness, or funda- 
mental harmony with the laws of their 
being, rests in, rules, and operates in all 
things ; all things live and develop through 
the Godlikeness which works in them ; and 
the Godlikeness working in everything is 
the essence of the life of that thing. There- 
fore, the destination and vocation of every- 
thing is to develop, and fitly exhibit the 
essential principle of its being (its Godlike- 
ness) to manifest and reveal God in the 
transitory visible world of things. The 
particular destination, the particular vo- 
cation of every perceiving and reasoning 
human being is to develop his individuality, 
his essence — to become himself; to grow 
fully conscious of, to win a vigorous and 
clear insight into his Godlikeness, so as to 
develop it in practice in his own life, of 
his own free will and desire ; to make it 
effective in every direction which his inner 
capacity admits of. To awaken a human 
being to a full sense of this, and to provide 
him in unbroken continuity with the means 
for putting it into practice, is to educate 



man. Froebel, like Pestalozzi, holds that 
wherever there is life, wherever there is 
development, there must be motion, acti- 
vity — that development is only to be pro- 
duced by exercise. A part, therefore — 
a large part — of education must consist in 
active original endeavour, active original 
work, which compels the child to use its 
own faculties. Education cannot consist 
of mere listening and imitation. 

According to Froebel, from its first 
breath the child comes under the influence 
of three powers : viz. Nature, animate and 
inanimate; Humanity; and the Power 
which pervades and directs these — rising 
to its highest temporal manifestation in 
the latter — the power we call God. The 
child's body connects it with organic and 
inorganic, animate and inanimate, nature ; 
its heart and mind connect it with and 
make it a part of the great whole, hu- 
manity (past, present, and future); and its 
whole being and soul depend upon and are 
energised by God. If this be so, the child, 
he thinks, should grow up under the influ- 
ences of nature ; there it should gradu- 
ally, but in unbroken continuity, learn 
that laws underlie all organic formation, 
and that conformity with those laws is 
the fundamental unvarying condition for 
all true and every-sided development to- 
wards perfection ; should come to see 
gradually that all these laws are in reality 
but various modes and manifestations of 
one law, and thus learn to link together 
or reconcile what seems separate or op- 
posed ; should, through the loving care it 
bestows on plants and animals, enlarge 
its heart and sympathies, and prepare it- 
self for the loving care it is to bestow on 
human beings ; should, in studying and 
imitating' the conformity of His works, 
find and love the great Master as the 
Creator of nature, and its own Creator; 
should breathe in the peace which rules 
in nature, and in occupations connected 
with nature, before the noise of the world 
and of sin enter its being. 

The means that nature chooses for the 
development of a child's body is physical 
movement. Therefore, let the limbs be 
carefully exercised — especially the hand, 
and with it the sense of touch. The 
instinct of construction and the senses of 
sight and hearing should next receive 
attention and be exercised. The occupa- 
tion of gardening should be fostered, for 
by it the child gains his first glimpses of 



FURNITURE 



127 



the wonders and beauties of nature ; learns 
to love labour and to use labour for the 
pleasure and good of others. To lead the 
child from nature to humanity, his inborn 
social impulses should be drawn out and 
kept livingly active. In short, every spon- 
taneous development which the child's 
nature makes a demand for should be 
assisted and directed in one unbroken con- 
tinuity, and witli the greatest care and 
caution. 

On the practical side, the master-stroke 
of Froebel's genius was his organisation of 
children's play. He recognised it as the 
means nature herself had chosen for the 
education of the young. He saw that by 
exercising a wise and thoughtful choice 
of games, and organising them, he could, 
without in any way spoiling the spon- 
taneous delight, make them the means by 
which his ideas of education might be put 
into practice in their first and most ele- 
mentary forms. Games of movement for 
the limbs, for the hands, of construction, 
of childish song — all these might well be 
collected or invented ; and these he did 
collect or invent with admirable success. 
The games and songs will be found or- 
ganised and explained in the Mutter itnd 
Kose-Lieder. The implements for the ex- 
ercise of the intellectual faculties form 
what are called 'Froebel's Gifts.' The 
employment of the games, songs, and gifts 
is what is called the Kindergarten System. 
Gardening — nature's own most delightful 
game — and the care of animals did not 
require his invention. All he had to do 
here was to encourage and lead the chil- 
dren to make use of the results of their 
infant eflforts in the service of others. 
This would draw them to their fellows, 
would link them to humanity; and from 
love of their fellows would be developed 
the love of God. Work, which at the 
same time was the fulfilment of duty, he 
saw was the only true basis of moral cul- 
ture ; but it was necessary that such 
work should not only delight the worker, 
it should also satisfy his instinct of love; it 
should therefore have an object ; and that 
object should be to give help and pleasure 
to others. 

Furniture. — The furniture required for 
an ordinary class-room is as follows : (a) 
desks and seats for the pupils ; (6) teacher's 
desk and seat ; (c) a cupboard ; (d) a black- 
board ; (e) a bookcase for teacher's books ; 
(/) a clock. The best desks for pupils are 



single desks placed eighteen inches apart 
and occupying about two-thirds of the 
floor space. The seats should he slightly 
hollowed, and capable of being raised or, 
lowered; and the backs should slope slightly 
backwards, and should be alterable so as 
to give their chief support just below the 
shoulder-blades of the pupil. There should 
be a rest for the feet somewhat in front 
and sloped upwards so that the fore-leg 
may rest comfortably at an angle of about 
60°. The lid of the desk should slope 
towards the pupil ; and its lower edge 
should come to his elbow and be vertically 
over the front edge of the seat. The lid 
should be twenty-four inches wide, and 
have a hinge about one-third of the way 
up from its lower edge, so that this part 
may be turned back and used as a book- 
rest, and may also give the pupil room to 
stand freely. The box part of the desk 
should not extend towards the pupil far- 
ther than this hinge, and should be capa- 
ble of being raised or lowered. The ink- 
wells should be provided with covei-s. If 
dual desks be used, a slightly larger num- 
ber of pupils may be seated in the same 
floor space. The teacher's desk and seat 
should be placed on a broad platform raised 
about nine inches from the floor. The 
desk should be provided with drawers on 
the left hand, and a cupboard on the right. 
Probably, the most serviceable blackboard 
is one made of wood, and divided into twa 
parts, which can be moved up and down 
like the sashes of a window. Each part 
shovild be about six feet by four feet. Its 
most convenient position is either imme- 
diately behind the teacher's seat, or on 
the same wall, somewhat farther to the 
right of the teacher (when seated). Fixed 
to the wall, close to the teacher's desk, 
there should be a small bookcase (with 
glass door, and lock and key) to hold his 
books. The cupboard should be large 
enough to hold all the apparatus of read- 
ing-books, stationery, ifec, usually required 
by the class. As a rule, its dimensions 
should be seven feet high, by four feet 
broad, and sixteen inches deep. The 
shelves should exteaid from the left side 
three-quarters of the way across ; the other 
quarter being left for the storing of maps 
and other apparatus whose length would 
otherwise prove inconvenient. Hooks 
should be fixed on the top of the black- 
board frame for the hanging up of maps, 
&c. There should be a few pictures on 



128 



GALL, JAMES GEOGRAPHY 



the walls to give the room greater cheer- , some scenes or figures of natural beauty, 
fulness and interest. The subjects of these their object being to charm rather than to 
pictures should be either historical, or I instruct. 



G 



Gall, James. See Education of the 
Blind. 

Gaines. See Play. 

Garfield, James (6. in Ohio 1830, as- 
sassinated 1881), one of the greatest 
American statesmen and advocates of 
popular education, started life in the back- 
woods. His father was a small farmer, 
and left a widow with four children, of 
whom James was the youngest. He had 
but little education as a child, for he began 
to work on the farm early, and later on 
he was a waterman on a canal. But a 
schoolmaster, who had observed his intel- 
ligence, suggested that he should take to 
teaching, and he commenced to study. At 
twenty- one we find him conducting an 
elementary school. Later he became a 
student at Williams College, and took his 
degree in 1856 with distinction. He next 
became a professor at Hiram College, and 
then principal. Then he commenced his po- 
litical career. He was strongly opposed to 
slavery, on which question he made many 
speeches, and won great popularity, so that 
in 1861 he was elected member of the 
Senate for Ohio. He left his college and 
joined the army, where he distinguished 
himself by his ability, and rose to the rank 
of major-general. He was elected by Ohio 
as representative in Congress in 1864. In 
March 1881 he succeeded Mr. Hayes in 
the Presidency of the United States. In 
the following July he was shot by an 
assassin. As member of Congi-ess he took 
a keen interest in education. He fought 
a great battle on behalf of superintendents 
of schools, who desired to have a central 
administration. In this, however, he was 
defeated, but the Bureau of Education at 
Washington resulted from this contest. 
In his presidential address, on March 4, 
1881, he set forth his views most elo- 
quently on the importance of education 
as a guarantee for tlie maintenance of a 
republic. 

Generalisation. See Analysis. 

Geography. — The inquiry into the state 
of geographical teaching in English schools, 
instituted a few years ago by the Royal 



Geographical Society, which resulted in 
Mr. J. Scott Keltie's excellent report of 
1885, proved what few masters doubted — 
that geography was little taught (except 
in elementary schools), and that little 
badly. At the best, children are made to 
commit to memory a vast amount of sta- 
tistics — most of which are of no general 
value ; and not a few of no value what- 
ever. The whole plan is a failure. It is 
with the hope, therefore, of helping a 
much needed reform that the following 
plan is described. The first stage is to 
train the constructive imagination of the 
child ; to enable him to form mental pic- 
tures of what he has not seen by means of 
that which he has seen. The first step, 
therefore, is to exercise the child in ob- 
serving his own natural surroundings, and 
the simplest and commonest natural phe- 
nomena. When he has observed carefully 
a rivulet, a mound, or a sloping piece of 
ground, we may lead him, by the aid of 
exercises in relative magnitudes, to ima- 
gine a stream or river, a mountain, a slop- 
iiag plain or watershed. By the aid of 
rough models, photographs, and verbal 
descriptions we may then enable him to 
form mental pictures of particular places 
and localities which he has not seen. No 
doubt the best plan is to see a place with 
one's own eyes ; to travel in it and exa- 
mine it. But this is only possible for a 
very few. The generality must depend 
on the pictures and descriptions of others. 
What the teacher has to do is to make 
sure that these pictures and descriptions 
are clearly understood, and result in men- 
tal pictures ; that the learner knows how. 
to use them. Maps are of no use here, for 
they help the imagination very little in- 
deed. The time for learning about them 
and using them comes later. What are 
needed are pictures (or, rather, photo- 
graphs) and rough models. The teacher, 
however, has one great difficulty to con- 
tend with at first : viz. that children do 
not care for still life and scenery. It is 
hard to get them to observe still life even 
when it is present. They are still less 



GEOLOGY 



129 



anxious to imagine it. What they care 
for is moving life, action, adventure. A 
place is interesting because of the living 
acting men or animals that have been or 
are in it. Put a British soldier in the Sou- 
dan and every one of us is interested in the 
desert, and eagerly studies every picture 
and every description of it. We must, 
therefore, make the locality which we are 
to mentally picture, in the first place, in- 
teresting. We can do this by stories, ad- 
ventures, travels, historical events — espe- 
cially those in which the physical aspect 
and conformation of the locality are of real 
importance (as in battles, for instance). 
Having acquired some idea of the real 
character of a locality, our next step will 
be to deduce and note the bearing of this 
on ordinary human life and industry, and 
the bearing of human life and industry on 
the locality. Pictures will still help us 
when we pass on to towns, and buildings, 
and industries, as well as for plants and 
animals. How this may then gradually 
branch out into physical, industrial, and 
political geography we need not describe. 
It is when forming mental pictures of 
an unseen locality that the first need of a 
map is felt— something to %vrite and re- 
cord the parts and details which we have 
learnt to see with our mind's eye. Here, 
then, we should begin to enquire how to 
make a good record or memorandum of a 
scene not present — something more handy 
and comprehensive than a picture. We 
shall begin with some simple thing ac- 
tually present. By drawing the verti- 
cal outline of the door or -window of the 
room on the blackboard, and discussing it, 
we may arrive at the idea of relation of 
parts or dravnng to scale. By drawing 
the horizontal surface of the table we 
arrive at an idea of the necessity of fixing 
some side of the board to represent some 
side of the room ; and by trying to insert 
on our blackboard plan some of the objects 
on the table, we arrive at ideas of relative 
p)Ositions, relative directions, distances, and 
areas. We may then draw plans of the 
playground, or the neighbouring fields (in- 
troducing the idea of points of the com- 
pass), and study carefully a local map. 
Turning next to spheres, and trying to 
copy on to a blackboard sphere what is on 
another, we may arrive at the use (in the 
case of an oblate spheroid) of the equator, 
and the ideas of latitude and longitude. 
[With proper arrangement the sphere may 



be made to become oblate by spinning it 
on its axis.] Returning to drawing on 
the flat we may pass on to inventing the 
marks for mountains, rivers, trees, &c. (as 
on the geological survey maps), and so to 
map reading, and the maps of the locali- 
ties of which we have been forming mental 
pictures. 

Limited space makes it impossible to 
describe the details of the plan fully ; but 
enough has been said to suggest them. 
Photographs are more faithful in small 
matters than pictures, but to collect them 
takes time. Of picticres there are several 
good atlases published in Germany. The 
two best are Hirt's Geographische Bilder- 
tafeln (published at Breslau, 7s.), and 
Schneider's Typen- Atlas (Dresden, 2s. Qd.). 
A set of eight large coloured pictures of 
Holland are supplied by its government 
to its public schools ; these can be pro- 
cured in England for about As. Many 
large wall pictures of localities and towns 
were exhibited at the Royal Geographical 
Society's Exhibition of 1885, and are men- 
tioned in their catalogue. 

Geology (y^, the earth ; Aoyos, a dis- 
course) is to the earth that which biology 
is to the living things on its surface ; as 
biology traces the organism from the 
Moneron to Man, geology traces the world 
from its origin to its present condition ; 
as biology exposes the evolution of living 
forms, geology exposes the evolution of 
our planet. It strikes its roots into almost 
every science ; the complete geologist must 
be an astronomer, a physicist, a chemist, 
a biologist ; he must be the most fully 
equipped of specialists. Dr. Archibald 
Geikie divides the science under seven 
heads : 1. Cosmical Aspects of Geology. 
2. Geognosy {yrj, and yywo-t?, knowledge), 
an investigation of the materials of the 
earth's surface. 3. Dynamical (Swa/xt?, 
power) Geology, dealing with the changes, 
internal and external, which the earth has 
undergone. 4. Geotectonic (y^, and re/cro- 
via, workmansliip), or Structural Geology, 
dealing with the architecture of the earth's 
crust. 5. Palseontological (TraAaio?, ancient ; 
ovra, beings ; Aoyo?) Geology. 6. Strati- 
graphical {stratum, a layer; ypa^co, I write) 
Geology 7. Physiographical ((fivcri.<;, na- 
ture ; ypd<f)(i)) Geology. 

1. Cosmical Geology. — The earth is the 
third planet in the solar system, only 
Venus and Mercury circling round the 
sun within its orbit. According to the 



130 



GEOLOGY 



nebular hypothesis it began its separate 
existence as a ring of vapour, thrown off 
by the condensing nebuhi which once oc- 
cupied the whole area of what is now the 
solar system. This ring, by disi'uption 
and condensation, assumed the globular 
form, becoming an oblate spheroid in con- 
sequence of its rotation, and as it con- 
densed throwing oft" the ring of vapour 
which became the moon. It finally be- 
came a body with an equatorial diameter 
of 7925-604 miles, and a polar diameter of 
7899"114-, the equatorial circumference — 
which is an ellipse, not a circle — being 
rather less than 25,000 miles. 

2. Geognosy. — The earth may be re- 
garded as consisting of three parts : the 
atmosphere, or gaseous envelope ; the 
ocean, or wateiy envelope, covering three- 
fourths of its surface ; and the globe itself. 
The atmosphere has a thickness of from 
forty to forty-five miles, and consists of 
twenty-three paints by weight of oxygen, 
and seventy-seven of nitrogen. Tt contains 
also normally carbon dioxide, aqueous 
vapour, ammonia, and ozone. The ocean 
occupies 144,712,000 square miles of the 
earth's surface, and its total cubic con- 
tents are about 400 millions of cubic 
miles ; it is estimated that this is but 
about two-thirds of the primiBval ocean 
which once completely enwrapped the 
globe. The exposed surface of the globe 
is about 52,000,000 square miles ; its' 
highest point is Mount Everest in the 
Himalayan range, 29,002 feet above the 
sea-level ; its lowest the shores of the Dead 
Sea, 1,300 feet below sea-level. With re- 
gard to the globe itself, the older but now 
discredited opinion was that it consisted 
of a crust of solid matter enveloping a 
liquid nucleus. It appears now to be well- 
nigh certain that the globe can only be 
fluid in comparatively very limited spaces. 
The internal temperature is proved to be 
very high by the existence of volcanoes and 
hot springs, as well as by the rise of tem- 
pei'ature observed in descending mines, 
shafts, etc., ainounting to about {^° C. for 
every fifty feet. The period that has 
elapsed since the earliest forms of living 
things appeared on the earth is calculated 
on geological evidence by Dr. Geikie at 
' not much less than one hundred million 
years.' Sir William Thomson reaches the 
same period by physical data. The chemi- 
cal constituents of tlie globe are — so far 
as is known at present — seventy in num- 



ber, but ninety-nine per cent, of the earth's- 
crust consists of the following sixteen ele- 
ments : oxygen, silicon, carbon, sulphur, 
hydrogen, chlorine, phosphorus, aluminium, 
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
iron, manganese, barium. 

3. Dynamical Geology. — The changes 
brought about by volcanoes, earthquakes, 
and other disturbing forces, form the third 
branch of geological science. The solar 
conditions of seismic disturbances are little 
understood. Yaiiations of atmospheric 
pressure, the position of the sun-spots, the 
existence of a species of internal tides, 
causing varying pressures on the earth's 
surface from within, have been suggested. 
In addition to the catastrophic changes 
brought about by these suddenly acting- 
agents, alterations in the form of the 
earth's surface result from long-continued 
and slow upheavals and depressions, proved 
to have occurred by the presence of zones 
of fossilised sea organisms far above high- 
water mark, by raised beaches, such as 
those found in Cornwall, by submerged 
forests, &c. Chaiages in the nature of rocks 
have resulted from fusion, from conti'ac- 
tion, from the action of hot water, and j)i'es- 
sure. All these changes are classed under 
the general name of metamorphism [fxera, 
over ; fxopcli-^, a form), and i-ocks subjected 
to them are called metamorphic rocks. 
Changes on the surface are caused by the 
action of the atmosphere, of rain, seas, and 
rivers, of plants and animals. 

4. Geotectonic Geology. — Under this- 
head is studied the arrangement of rocks 
in the earth's crust. Rocks laid down as 
aqueous deposits show a stratified form, and 
these appear as conglomerate, sandstones, 
shales, and limestones. They are traversed 
by inclined divisional planes, called joints. 
Aqueous rocks left undisturbed lie in hori- 
zontal beds, the oldest at the bottom ; but 
most have acquired what is called ' dip,' 
and make an angle Avitli the horizon in 
consequence of terrestrial disturbaiice. 
Sometimes the strata have been com- 
pletely inverted, sometimes crumpled by 
pressure ; and it is through all these con- 
tortions that the geologist has to find his 
way. The strata are further interrupted 
by eruptive or igneous rocks that have 
burst their way through from beneath, 
and present themselves as bosses, sheets, 
veins, dykes, and necks. 

5. Paloiontological Geology. — This most 
fascinating branch of geology deals with 



GEOMETRY 



131 



the organic remains or ' fossils ' imbedded 
in the earth's crust. These are found in 
the beds of lakes, in peat-mosses, deltas, 
caverns, mineral springs, and volcanic de- 
posits. The bed of the ocean, as revealed 
dui'ing the ' Challenger ' expedition, is full 
of organic remains, and the shores of seas 
also offer rich stores for investigation. 
This leads directly to — 

6. Stratigraplbical Geology, wiiich lays 
down the order of superposition of the 
strata. This order has been established 
chiefly by investigation of the organic re- 
mains embedded in them. Oldest is the 
Archean {apxqi beginning), or Azoic (d, 
privative; ^(j?/, life), or Eozoic (1701?, dawn; 
XoiT)) formation ; in this are no fossils, save 
perhaps the Eozoon {eos ; and zoon, animal) 
in the Canadian Laurentian, and some 
traces of fibrous structure in bands of gra- 
phite, thought to possibly arise from plants. 
The Paleozoic, or primary rocks, have 
seven subdivisions. The Cambrian have 
sponges, crinoids, starfishes, trilobites, and 
various species of mollusca. The Silurian 
are characterised in addition by fishes and 
sea- weeds. The Devonian have a flora of 
land cryptogams, but the fauna is still 
marine with the exception of some in- 
sects and myriapods ; a few conifers have 
been found, and a single fragment of a 
dicotyledonous tree. The Carboriiferoics 
are characterised by the great develop- 
ment of land plants, chiefly lycopods, equi- 
setaceee, and ferns ; spiders and scor^^ions 
make their first appearance in the vast 
iungles of the carboniferous era. The 
Permian have the last specimens of the 
most ancient flora, and show more coni- 
fers ; amphibians appear in considerable 
numbers, and the first European reptile 
is found. The Mesozoic (/xeVos, middle ; 
and ioi-q), or Secondary, commence with 
tlie Triassic, characterised by the great 
development of cycads ; among its fauna 
appear the first deinosaurs, the first cro- 
codiles, and the earliest mammal, a mar- 
supial. The Jurassic formation shows 
no great advance in vegetation, but is 
marked by the great development of rep- 
tilian forms, as the Ichthyosaurus, the 
Plesiosaurus, and the Pliosaurus ; the fly- 
ing reptiles also appear, and the Archeo- 
pteryx, half bird, half reptile. The secon- 
dary rocks end with the Cretaceous, in 
which are found a number of angiosper- 
mous plants, among them the oak, the 
beech, and the poplar; in the fauna huge 



sea-serpents are the most remarkable fea- 
ture; and birds — some of them toothed and 
closely related to reptiles — -become more 
numerous. The Cainozoic (/catvo?, recent) 
or Tertiary rocks include the Eocene, Oli- 
gocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. In the 
Eocene mammalian forms become abun- 
dant, and include the ancestor of the 
horse. Evergreens are a marked charac- 
teristic of the Oligocene flora, and the first 
apes are found in the Miocene. During 
the Pliocene age the plants belonging tO' 
tropical climates retreated from Europe,, 
the European climate gradually cooling 
as the period approached its termination. 
The Post-Tertiary or Quaternary rocks 
consist of the Pleistocene and Recent. 
The Pleistocene saw the glacial period in 
Europe, immediately before which Eng- 
land had an Arctic flora ; it is during 
this period that the first undoubted human 
remains are found, though some geologists 
claim to have found traces of a Pliocene 
man. 

7. Pliysiographical Geology deals with 
the growth of continents, the ' evolution 
of the existing contours of dry land.' 

The best text-books for consultation 
are Dr. Geikie's Text-Book of Geology, and 
Ly ell's Elements of Geology. 

Geometry. — Two questions naturally 
suggest themselves in connection with the 
educational aspect of geometry. First, 
what are the purposes to be sei-ved by 
studies in geometry? Secondly, what does 
a complete course of geometry include, and 
how, and in what order, are the various 
parts to be studied ? The answer to the 
first question is not far to seek, and there 
is little or no difference of opinion amongst 
educators with regard to it. We teach 
some subjects for the practical use of the 
facts or the skill they impart ; others for 
the mental discipline they afford. We 
teach geometry for both reasons— for the 
sake of the habits of mind which this study 
has a tendency to form, and for the prac- 
tical use of the results of its investigations. 
Now, what are the habits of mind which it 
tends to form — which it either streng-thens 
or creates % 

First, the study of geometry develops 
the power of attention. It makes the 
mind able to direct itself to any question 
that may be proposed ; to give that ques- 
tion continuous thought ; to compare it 
with other questions, and to fix its relations 
to them. It enables us to regulate the 



132 



GEOMETRY 



succession of our thoughts. In other words, 
it develops the power of continuous rea- 
soning. This power has to be acquired ; 
it is not given by nature. To learn to 
reason, something must be given to reason 
upon. Of the many possible subjects, it 
is clearly desirable to choose that class of 
subjects in which we can find out by other 
means than pure reasoning, such as mea- 
surement and ocular demonstration, whe- 
ther the results of the reasoning are true 
or not. Geometry fulfils these conditions 
better than any other subject, and has in 
consequence, for many centui^ies, been used 
as the instrument for giving practice in 
reasoning. The truths of geometry are 
simple, easily tested, and capable of exact 
statement. Reasoning on them may be 
built up like a chain, link by link, and at 
every step is coherent and conclusive. 
Again, we study geometry for the use of 
the facts it teaches in building construc- 
tions, in manufactures, and in all the 
mechanical businesses of life. Every fact, 
from the most elementary to the most 
advanced, has myriads of practical appli- 
cations. We teach geometry, then, as we 
teach other sciences, for its direct effect 
on our well-being in its practical uses, and 
for its higher but more indirect efiect as 
a discipline of the intellect. The two ob- 
jects should be sought together. In an- 
swering the second question we have no 
doubt as to the beginning. We commence 
with Euclid's Elements or some equivalent 
system of elementary geometry. The 
famous Elements for twenty-two centuries 
have been the inspiration and aspiration 
of scientific thought. The book was 
written shortly after the foundation of 
the Alexandrian Museum, and, therefore, 
after the science of mathematics had burst 
the bonds which restrained her in the 
Platonic school, and had stai'ted on her 
career of conquest over the whole world 
of Phenomena. It consisted of reliable 
knowledge which was moulded into form 
so nearly perfect that every scientific stu- 
dent of every subject took it as the model 
after which he sought to shape his own 
particular science. ' Far up, on the great 
mountain of Truth, which all the sciences 
hope to scale, the foremost of that sacred 
sisterhood was seen, beckoning to the rest 
to follow her. And hence she was called 
in the dialect of the Pythagoreans, " the 
purifier of the reasonable soul"' (W. King- 
don Clifford). This book of Euclid's has 



had a history as chequered as that of hu- 
man progress itself. It embodied and 
systematisedthe truest results of the search 
after truth that was made by Greek, Egyp- 
tian, and Hindoo. It presided for nearly 
eight centuries over that promise of light 
and right that was made by the civilised 
Aryan races on the Mediterranean shores. 
It went into exile along with the intellec- 
tual activity and the goodness of Eui"ope. 
It was taught, and commented upon, and 
illustrated, and supplemented, by Arab 
and Nestorian, in the Universities of 
Bagdad and of Coi'dova. From these it 
was brought back into barbaric Europe 
by terrified students, who dared tell hardly 
any other thing of what they had learned 
among the Saracens. Translated from 
Ai'abic into Latin, it passed into the schools 
of Europe, sj)un out with additional cases 
for every possible variation of the figure, 
and bristling with words which had sounded 
to Greek ears like the babbling of birds 
in a hedge. At length the Greek text ap- 
peared and was translated ; and, like other 
Greek authors, Euclid became an authority. 
But the question is constantly being asked 
whether the elements form a suitable book 
for beginners. On the one hand it is urged 
that Euclid's book was never designed for 
beginners, that Euclid's object was to show 
how little need be assumed in geometry, 
and how much that is obvious as well as 
obscure may be demonstrated, and that, 
too., under difficulties which are never 
encountered, and in spite of restrictions 
which are never imposed. It is urged 
that the teacher in this, as in other sub- 
jects, should always take advantage of 
the many simple and incontestably true 
notions already in the pupil's possession, 
and should proceed without delay to the 
all-important part of the subject: the pas- 
sage, with absolute certainty and in the 
most direct and simple manner, from 
geometrical properties which are obvious, 
to others which are less obvious or not at 
all so. The progressive character of the 
science is also quoted, and it is pointed out 
that elementary geometry can no longer 
be regarded as a long since perfected 
branch of knowledge ; it is no longer 
classed with the seven orders of architec- 
ture, for instance, that cannot be touched 
without being spoilt. On the contrary, 
it is generally recognised now, that the 
elements of geometry, so far as principles 
and methods of exposition are concerned. 



GEOMETRY 



133 



constitute not a dead but a living science, 
susceptible still of being improved, and 
still capable of furnishing new matter for 
thought to both teacher and student. 

On the other hand, the advantages of 
uniformity are urged in favour of the 
retention of Euclid as a text-book. Every 
examiner in the subject finds that the in- 
convenience of departing from Euclid is 
a very serious one, and plunges him at 
once from order into chaos. Many pro- 
positions have their converse, and unless 
the examinees follow the same system it 
is almost impossible for an examiner to 
frame his questions so as to prevent their 
making false use of the conversion of 
propositions. For instance, the fifth pro- 
position of the First Book may be based 
on the sixth ; the forty-seventh proposi- 
tion may be ofiered as the converse of the 
forty -eighth ; and in fact if absolute freedom 
of choice be allowed with regard to the 
system of geometry used the result will be 
a medley of portions of different systems, 
which will be useless for the pui"pose we 
have described in answering the first ques- 
tion. What, then, is the course which 
should be adopted in this dilemma 1 Com- 
mon sense suggests a compromise. In the 
teaching of the subject the way may be 
smoothed by explanation, by investiga- 
tion, and by the postponement of difficul- 
ties until they can be grappled with. It 
seems wise to adhere as far as possible to 
the order of Euclid for the sake of the 
common standard which this furnishes for 
examination purposes, but no examiner 
should insist on non-essentials. For in- 
stance. Propositions 11. and III., and pro- 
bably VIII., are quite unnecessary. The 
solution of the difficulty will be com- 
pletely met by a freer method of teaching 
on the one hand, and in examining by a 
judicious avoidance of those parts which 
arise from the arbitrary and unnecessary 
restrictions imjDosed by Euclid, and which 
may be omitted without loss of rigour as 
I'egards the remainder. 

The superiority of this mode of pro- 
cedure for educational purposes over that 
of keeping to the dry text of Euclid pure 
and simple, will be contested by no one 
who has observed either the permanently 
pernicious effects of the discouragement 
produced by initial vagueness, tedious- 
ness, and difficulty, or the permanently 
beneficial influence of the encouragement 
arising from early successes, and from the 



fulfilment of the pupil's natural expecta- 
tion that every intellectual effort will be 
followed by a conscious acquisition of 
knowledge. To secure and sustain the 
pupil's interest from the first is also a 
point of unquestionable importance ; and 
although personal qualifications in the 
teacher are here indispensable, this end 
is undoubtedly promoted by a method 
wherein difficulties are judiciously tem- 
pered to the pupil's capacities, and the 
subtleties of the subject to his powers of 
appreciating them. 

It has been urged, and not unreason- 
ably, that by thus rendering geometry 
more accessible its value as an intel- 
lectual discipline may be impaired. This, 
however, is by no means necessarily the 
case. Intellectual discipline is the natural 
concomitant of accurate reasoning, in geo- 
metry as in every other subject ; and ac- 
curacy of reasoning depends essentially 
upon the well-marked distinction main- 
tained at every step between assumption 
and consequence, and upon the manner of 
making the passage from the former to 
the latter. It cannot be said to be im- 
paired by omitting to demonstrate when 
demonstration is not necessary to convic- 
tion, or by postponing inquiry into the 
relation which may possibly exist between 
equally incontestable elementary assump- 
tions. 

The higher parts, that is to say the 
parts beyond Euclidian geometry, take 
two distinct courses, proceeding according 
to two perfectly distinct methods. One 
is called analytical, algebraical or co- 
ordinate geometry, and the other is the 
so-called higher pure geometry. Little 
need be said of the former beyond the 
fact that as regards the treatment of the 
branch included under the term ' conic 
sections,' or curves of the second degree, 
there are two methods — one followed in 
Todhunter's Conic Sections, and the other 
in Puckle's (or Salmon's). Now, experi- 
ence seems to show that a joint and simul- 
taneous study of both is preferable to an 
exclusive but exhaustive study of either. 

The higher pure geometry includes 
what is called in England ' geometrical 
conies ' (i.e. conies treated by Euclidian 
methods), and a larger branch intimately 
connected with the former, which has been 
but little cultivated in England, although 
it was long since introduced into science 
by the illustrious geometers Poncelet, 



i:U 



GERANDO, MARIE-JOSEPH BARON DE 



Mobius, Steiner, Chasles, and Staudt, and 
svstematised in text-books by Sohroeder, 
Keye, and Ci'eniona. This brai\oh is widely 
oultivated with great profit on the Con- 
tinent, but is feebly represented even at 
the universities in England. It is true [ 
tliat it has been well taught at Oxford by 
the late Savilian Professor of Geometiy 
and a few others, and attempts have been ; 
made to give it a footing at Cambridge ; i 
but these efforts have neither been thorough 
nor extensively appreciated, and they have ; 
not been supported in the public schools. [ 
This fact is often ascribed to a too slavish 
adherence to Euclid's Ele)ne)ifs, and to the 
custom here of treating that book as the 
omega as well as the alpha of the science. 
This branch of geometry includes amongst 
its elementary notions that of the projective 
correspondence of the points on two lines 
or two planes, and of the rays of two 
plane pencils or of two pencils in space. 
We are introduced by it to that special 
kind of correspondence known as involu- 
tion, which has lately assumed importance 
on account of its applications in physics. 
The notions of this geometry lead naturally, 
and with marvellous facility, to a compre- 
hensive grasp of the properties of conic 
sections, and a more general familiarity 
with them would dissipate the disorder 
and contradiction which exist in the treat- 
ment by different authors of geometrical 
conies. It will be seen that we have not 
given a distinctive name to this branch, 
and the difficulty of selecting a title will 
appear from the following quofcxtion from 
L^-emona's preface. Having pointed out 
that most of the principal propositions in 
his work owe their origin to mathema- 
ticians of the most remote antiquity, and 
may be traced back to Euclid (285 B.C.), to 
Apollonius of Perga (247 B.C.), to Pappus 
of Alexandria (fourth century after Christ), 
to Desargues of Lvons (1593-1662), to 
Pascal (1 623-1 662),"to De la Hire (16-10- 
1718), to Newton (1642-1727), to Mac- 
laurin (1698-1746), to J. H. Lambert 
(1728-1777), etc., he continues : ' The 
theories and methods which make of these 
propositions a homogeneous and harmo- 
nious whole it is usual to call Diodern, 
because they have been discovered or per- 
fected by tnathematicians of an age nearer 
to ours, such as Carnot, Brianchon, Ponce- 
let, Mobius, Steinei-, Chasles, Staudt, &c., 
whose works were published in the earlier 
half of the pi'esent century.' 



Various names have been given to this 
subject. The title ' higher ' is sometimes 
used, but the things for which this adjec- 
tive at one time seemed appropriate may 
to-day have become very elementary ; that 
of ' modern geometry ' (^neue re Geo met rie) in 
like manner expresses a merely relative idea, 
and is open to the objection that although 
the methods may be regarded as modern, yet 
the matter is to a great extent old. Nor 
does the title 'geometry of position' {Weo- 
viefrie der Lage) as used by Staudt seem 
a suitable one, since it excludes the con- 
sideration of the metrical properties of 
figures. The name of ' projective geometry ' 
seems to express the true nature of the 
methods, which are based essentially on 
central projection or perspective. And 
one reason for this choice is that the great 
Poncelet, the chief creator of the modern 
methods, gave to his immoi'tal book the 
title of Traitc des Proprit'tcs Fi'ojectives 
des Fiffio-es.' {See Mathkmatics.) 

Gerando, Marie- Joseph Baron de {b.nt 
Lyons, 1772, d. in Paris, 1842), was the 
son of an architect. His mother was a 
woinan of rare order of mind. As a boy, 
however, Gerando was considered dull. 
At the age of sixteen he was stricken with 
a severe illness, and vowed to consecrate 
his life to God. He subsequently joined 
the seminary of St. Magloire in Paris. This 
he left at twenty, and came out as author 
on behalf of religious tolerance. In 1793 
he was wounded and taken prisoner, and 
; on being set free he returned to Paris ; 
' but owing to the proscriptions he fied to 
Germany, and there he wrote his first 
philosophical work. On his subsequent re- 
turn to France Napoleon made him a coun- 
cillor of State, and he devoted his energies 
to the caitse of popular education. In 1815 
appeared his eloquent report on ' Schools for 
the Poor.' This roused public sympathy, 
and led to the formation of the ' Society for 
Elementary Instruction.' After this had 
achieved signal success and schools had 
spi'ung up everywhere, Gerando lent his 
vast power to education in many ways. 
In 1819 he inti-oduced singing into the 
schools of the society. He was one of the 
founders of the first savings bank. He 
co-operated with Cochin in establishing 
the first infant school. He had no small 
influence in aiding Abbe Sicard by his work 
! on Tlie £dacafion of the Becy/and Dumb. 
j Gerando was a most enthusiastic and in- 
I dustrious worker, and his works, collected 



GERMAN GLEIM, BETTY 



135 



and completed, are published in eight 
volumes. 

German. Sea Modern Languages. 

German Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Germany, Educational Law of. See 
Law (Educational). 

Girard. — Next to Pestalozzi, Jean Gi- 
rard — or, as he is more commonly called, 
* Le Pere Girard ' — is undoubtedly the 
most eminent sc I loolmaster and educational 
I'eformer whom modern Switzerland has 
produced. He was born at Fribourg in 
1765. Most of his active and kindly life 
was spent in that town or at Lucerne, 
either in teaching in the schools and in 
reforming popular education, or in work 
connected with the Franciscan Order to 
which he belonged. He died at Fribourg 
in 1850. His best known works are 
L' Enseiynement reyulier de la Lanyue 
Maternelle, published at Paris in 1 S44 ; 
and his Cours educatifde la La'iiyae Mater- 
nelle, the last volume of which appeared 
in 1846. These books have had a great 
and lasting influence both in Switzerland 
and in France. The method they so ably 
set forth is distinctly an inductive and 
practical one. Instead of beginning with 
the learning of grammar — the generalities 
and abstractions of which Girard held to 
be beyond the comprehension of children, 
and therefore wholly uninteresting to them 
— the first step is to ascertain what lan- 
guage the children habitually use to ex- 
press their own ideas, and to rectify and 
enlarge it as far as is then and there 
necessary for the children in question. 
Starting from this, the children are gra- 
dually familiarised with the way in which 
words are used in sentences to express 
ideas — both by being helped to examine 
simple sentences already made, and by 
being iiiduced to make statements of their 
own. In the former case they may be 
given all Ijut a noun or a verb, dkc, and 
requix-ed to supply a word which will 
make sense ; or they may add adjectives, 
adverbs, &c., to a simple sentence so as to 
make the meaning more clear or more full, 
and thus learn the value of each word in 
a sentence. From this they may gradually 
proceed to compound and complex sen- 
tences, and to phrases. In the latter case, 
when the children make statements of their 
own, they are only required to speak and 
to write of what has actually come within 
their own experience. They should begin 



quite simply with such a statement as 'a 
bird sings;' and then go on adding to tlie 
statement, as : ' a little bird sings,' ' a 
little bird sings in the garden,' 'a pretty 
little bird sings sweetly in the garden every 
morning;' and so on. Difficulties are to 
be introduced very gradually. Rules are 
to be arrived at l>y the children themselves 
— not complete rules all at once, but rules 
which gradually grow more complete as 
experience widens. Even the conjugations 
of verbs are not to be introduced in com- 
plete elaborate paradigms ; but bit by bit 
as they are wanted. The object of the 
plan is to enal^le children to read with 
perfect intelligence, and to speak with 
perfect intelligence, clearness, and accu- 
racy. For this purpose, Girard maintains 
that what we want is not codified, ready- 
made rules, but copious, well-chosen ex- 
amples, and constant practice in making 
other statements like them. In the later 
stages, the grammar is used as a book of 
reference in which is to be found a careful, 
clear statement of the results of experience. 
For more details we must refer the reader 
to the books themselves — they are well 
worth study. 

Girls (Education of). See Education 
OP Girls. 

Girls' Public Day Scliools. See Clas- 
sification. 

Girton College. See Education op 
Girls. 

Gleim, Betty {h. at Bremen, 1781, 
d. 1827), was a distant relative of the poet 
Gleim, and the daughter of a merchant at 
Bremen. She was interested in questions 
of education early in life, and in 1805 she 
established a school for young girls in her 
native town, which she conducted with 
great success for ten years. In 1815, in 
order to extend her knowledge of educa- 
tional subjects and methods, she left Bre- 
men and visited Holland, England, and 
some districts on the Rhine. Upon her re- 
turn, she I'eopened her school, and continued 
the mistress until her death. She wrote 
several works — one of which, entitled The 
Education and Instruction of Woman, is 
regarded as a classic in Germany. The 
second volume treats of the method of 
Pestalozzi, which she adopted in her school. 
She has unfolded his method with remark- 
able lucidity. She also wrote a second 
work on education of women, entitled 
Wltat has renev-ed Germany the Biyht to 
exi^ect from its Women? 1814. 



136 



GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON 



Goethe, Johann Wolfgang- von (/>. at 
Em)\kt"ort on-Main, 17-49, d. 183:!), has so 
far dominated Geriuan thought that any 
statement of his on education is of the 
highest intei-est. His father was a man in 
comfortable oircuni stances, though of no 
great position in society. Yet he luxd a 
great k^ve for literature, and great taste 
in art, so that he exerted a powerful in- 
fluence on the desiivsand character of the 
young poet. Goethe is said in his tarlt/ 
years to have had anxious thoughts about 
ivligion, and before he was eight to have 
devised a form of worship to the 'God of 
Nature.' He entei-ed the university of 
Leipzig at the age of tifteen. Here his 
poetical turn tirst showed itself in a pro- 
nounced manner, and though his fatlier 
designed him for jurisprudence, instead of 
studying law he tried to tind some satis- 
factory theory of poetry. German litera- 
tui'e \\as simply in its infancy, and he 
could find nothing to his taste. Here, 
howeA'er, he beg-an one of the habits of his 
life, viz. to turn everything that pleased 
or pained him into verse. He also paid 
some attention to the history of the fine 
arts, and even took to etching ; but this 
impaired his health, and in 17tiS he left 
Leipzig. To recover his health he was 
sent to the ivsidence of a lady named 
Klettenberg, the 'fair saint ' of "Wilhelm 
]Meister.' She was a mystic, and exerted 
a lifelong influence on the poet's chan\cter. 
When he left her, and went to Sti-asburg 
to finish his legi\l studies, he neglected 
them and pursued anatomy and chemistry. 
Here he met with Herder, who advised 
hiin to study the Italian poets. On his 
return home, he produced Cotz von Ber- 
Uchinffeyi, 1773, and a novel, Werther, 
1774. This latter fairly took Gennany 
by storm, and Goethe's fame was made. 
He was introduced to the Duke of Saxe- 
Weimar, where he went to live, and when 
.the duke came into possession of govern- 
ment he bestowed every possible honour 
upon Goethe. There the poet lived for 
many years. He had complete control 
over the theatre, and produced the best 
works of Schillei- on the stage. He was 
surrounded by the most refined and lite- 
i-ary society of his time. He was made a 
privy councillor, and afterwards travelled 
in Switzerland and Italy for a long time. 
Meanwhile, he was constantly producing 
those great works which, for their power 
and variety, have placed him at the head 



of Gernaan literature. His dnxma IIcr)»a)i 
itud Dorothea, and his novel WiUifhn 
Jfeistcr, sliow las his views on education, 
though his principles are only scattered 
here and there, and not worked out intt> 
a out-and-dried method. To him, educa- 
tion was an evolution — diiiwing forth from 
the individual that which was best — 'the 
realisixtion, as completely as possible, of 
the general type of the species.' His 
great motto was 'In the beginning was 
action ': therefoi-e, he ever urged 'Do, and 
by doing you will attain to your highest 
and best.' In the education of infants, as 
in the government of nations, he thought 
nothing more futile than repressive mea- 
sures. ' Man, ' he says, ' is natin-ally active : 
open a way for action, and he will follow 
you.' He says much to this etiect, and re- 
iterates that 'negati\-e discipline is power- 
less.' We recognise in all this at a glance 
nuu'h that stamped itself in Oarlyle, who 
found in Goethe a mine of riches. In 
WUIieliu Mtisfer we have something like 
an educational Vtopia, especially in book 
ii. Mr. Carlyle translated Wilhehn early 
in his career, and a most amusing review 
of the tmnslation is found in De Quincey 
(Works, vol. xii.). De Quincey did not 
find (probably did not look for) the lofty 
principles of 'the mute system of education,' 
which Goethe then displayed, and which 
so delighted Carlyle. The first of these 
lofty principles upon which Goethe insists 
is ' Revei-ence — honour done to those who 
ai-e gntnder and better than you, without 
fear; distinct from fear.' This is all well 
put by Carlyle in his address to the stu- 
dents at Edinburgh, when he was installed 
as Lord Rector. Refen-ing to the pas- 
sages in which Wilhelm's instructors come 
to the question of religion in education, 
Carlyle says: 'Goethe practically distin- 
guishes the kinds of religion that are in 
the world, and he makes out three reve- 
rences. . . . The first and sin^plest is that 
of reveience for what is above us. It is 
the soul of all the pagan religions ; thei-e 
is nothing better in man than that. Then 
there is reverence for what is around us 
or about us — re^-erence for our equals, to 
which he attributes an immense power in 
the culture of man. The third is revei"ence 
for what is beneath us — to learn to recog- 
nise in paifi, soi-row, and contradiction, 
even in those thing-s, odious as they ai-e to 
flesh and blood — to learn that there lies 
in these a priceless blessing.' {See Lewes's 



GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION- 



-GRAMMAR 137 



Life, of Goethe (Longmans) ; also Carlyle's 
Wilhehii Meister, itc.) 

Governesses' Benevolent Institution, 
incorporated 1848. Office, 32 Sackville 
Street ; Home and Registration Office, 
47 Harley Street; Asylum, Chislehurst. 
AflPords temporary assistance to gover- 
nesses in distress, a provident fund, annui- 
ties to aged governesses, a home for gover- 
nesses between their engagements, and an 
asylum for governesses above the age of 
fifty. Invested funds, 161,612^. 

Government Schools. — This is a name 
popularly given to schools known officially 
as 'public elementary schools.' An 'elemen- 
tary school' is defined by section 3 of the 
Act of 1870, as 'a school at which elemen- 
tary education is tlie principal part of the 
education there given, and does not include 
any school or department of a school at 
which the ordinary payments in respect of 
the instruction exceed ninepence a week.' 
By section 7 of the same Act a '■public 
elementary school ' is defined as an elemen- 
tary school conducted in accordance with 
the regulations there laid down. These 
are: (1) The admission of children must 
not depend upon their attending or ab- 
staining from attending any Sunday school 
or place of worship, or any religious 
observances or instruction in the school 
or elsewhere. (2) Religious observances 
or instruction must come at the beginning 
or at the end of a school session, and any 
child may be withdrawn therefrom. (3) 
The school must be open at all times to 
Her Majesty's Inspectors, who may not 
enquire into the religious instruction given 
or examine in religious knowledge. (4) 
The conditions laid down in the code (g. v.) 
must be observed. Public elementary 
schools are either Board or Voluntary 
{q.v.). 

Grading. See Classification. 

Graduate {grad'as, a step). — This term 
is used to signify both the act of taking a 
university degree and the person who takes 
it, either Vjy examination or honoris causa. 
In America the term is also applied to the 
act of conferring degrees by universities. 
The regulations forgi-aduation differ widely 
in different universities, but it is usual for 
candidates to graduate first as bachelors, 
and subsequently as masters or doctors. In 
the Scottish universities, however, the Vja- 
chelor's degree in the faculty of arts (though 
not in the other faculties) was abolished 
in 1861, and candidates can proceed to the 



full M.A. degree by passing an examina- 
tion in classics, mathematics, and philo- 
sophy, or can take the degree in three parts 
by passing an examinatioia in each of these 
departments separately. Matriculated stu- 
dents of universities previous to taking 
their degree are called undergraduates.. 
{S'ee Df:GREES.) 

Graham, Isabella {b. in the county of 
Lanark, 1742, d. in New York, 1814), was 
a Scotch governess. After the death of her 
husband, who was an army surgeon, she 
opened a school in Paisley, 1774. She 
visited New York in 1789, and there 
founded an institute for young girls. It 
is largely due to her charitable initiative 
that New York is so rich in benefit socie- 
ties and philanthropic institutions, such 
as the Society for the Succour of Poor 
Widows, the Infant School for Orphans, the 
Society for the Encouragement of Industry 
amongst the Poor Glasses, a Sunday school 
for adults, this latter being the first school 
of its kind in the United States. Her 
memoirs were published in 1816 by Dr. 
Mason. 

Grammar. — Grammar is the science of 
correct speech, i.e. of certain select usages 
of speech. A grammar of any language is 
a systematic classification of the correct 
usages of that language. Thus, grammar 
stands to speech as logic to thought. It 
is true that the term ' grammar ' is often 
used in a wider sense, to cover an ex- 
amination into the relations of different 
families of languages (comparative gram- 
mar), or even an inquiry into the origin 
of language. But these questions belong 
to the more general science of language. 
Etymology and word-formation are no part 
of grammar proper; they are correctly 
described as philology, in the narrower 
sense of that term. Prosody and metre 
are admitted into grammars only by cour- 
tesy. In a word grammar is only part 
of the greater science of speech. The 
laws of correct speech may be summed up 
under two headings : (1) Accidence, or the 
doctrine of correct forms [Formenlehre) ; 
(2) Syntax, or the doctrine of correct sen- 
tences. These two departments are no 
doubt in reality merely two classifications 
of the same set of phenomena from dif- 
ferent points of view. A correct sentence 
cannot be constructed without correct 
forms ; correctness of form has no mean- 
ing except in relation to the function 
w^hich forms exercise in sentences. But 



138 



GRAMMAR 



for convenience words may be considered 
both in isolation (accidence) and as con- 
nected in the sentence (syntax). 

The value of grannnar has often been 
called into question during the present 
century. The great Jacob Grimm, in the 
preface to his (Terman Gram mar, declared 
the grammatical method to be pedantic in 
character and injurious in result. He 
maintained that grammar impeded the 
free development of the faculty of speech, 
which, if left to itself, would grow with 
the growth of the mind, and reach a far 
higher degree of perfection than when 
tutored and tortured by the rigid systems 
of the grammarians. This criticism was 
directed in the first instance against the 
abuses of grammar as taught by the em- 
pirical methods of the time. The only 
grammar that Grimm recognised was his- 
torical grammar — an inquiry into the 
course of development through which lan- 
guage has passed and is still passing. But 
the censures of Grimm undoubtedly ex- 
press a large measure of truth as against 
any grammatical system. G rannnar, being 
the expression of the usages of the literary 
language, no doubt does act as a retarding 
force — ' freezing the current of natural 
speech,' to use Professor Max Miiller's 
metaphor. ' Dialectical regeneration ' has 
a less free held when brought under the 
influence of grammar ; exen the linguistic 
development of the individual may some- 
times sutfer from its constraint. But the 
advantages are not altogether on the side 
of natural speech. If it is desirable to 
maintain at any given time a standard of 
correctness to which individual taste must 
bow, if it is an advantage to a nation to 
possess a connuon medium of communica- 
tion for the educated, with certain well- 
detined usages corresponding to certain 
distinctions of thought, then the raiso)i 
d'etre of grammar is established. It is the 
function of grammar to resist the intro- 
duction of such changes as depend, not 
upon a general consensus of feeling, but 
upon individual caprice or a mistaken idea 
of correctness. At the same time the gram- 
marian must beware of attempting to exer- 
cise summary jurisdiction over speech. His 
function is to register the usage of the pre- 
sent, not to legislate for the futui'e. When 
the current detinitely sets in a particular 
direction, it may be strong enough to over- 
throw grammatical barriers ; and in such 
cases the grammarian must adapt his rules 



to reformed usage. lu many cases, how- 
ever, grannnar may exercise a salutary in- 
fluence in conserving a sense for the re- 
finements of speech, which are apt to be 
obliterated by popular usage. The day 
may come when English will have no sub- 
junctive mood, and we shall say, ' If I was 
you ' instead of ' If I were you.' There is 
a tendency in some parts of Germany to 
use the ' conditionals ' in the if-clauses of 
conditional sentences (' Wenn er es thun 
wiiixle,' itc). But grammar is as yet jus- 
tified in prohibiting such constructions. 
There have indeed been found scholars, 
such as Mr. H. Sweet, ready to defend 
' It is Die,' and similar constructions. But 
they will hardly find support at present 
among the cultivated. 

The practical question for the teacher 
as to the use of grammar may be con- 
sidered under two heads : 

1. The use of grammar in schools where 
the mothei- tongue alone is taught. 

2. The use of grammar in schools where 
foreign languages are taught. 

1. It is perfectly true that children 
belonging to cultivated homes may learu 
to use language correctly and efiectively 
without any formal study of grammar. 
But on the one hand many children do not 
hear correct speaking at home, and on the 
other hand correctness of habit is liable 
to degenerate when the pupil is bi'ought 
into contact with the less refined usage of 
the world at large. Besides, this veiy in- 
fluence of the cultivated home is an arti- 
ficial influence, checking the natural ten- 
dencies of the young mind. Children, if 
left to themseh-es, proceed to develop their 
speech by analogy and in total indifterence 
to accepted usage. They say ' bringed ' for 
' brought,' ' mouses ' for ' mice,' ' it is me ' 
for ' it is I ' (because what usually follows 
the verb is the object). The half-educated 
man who has been taught to say ' It is I,' 
proceeds to infer that he ought also to say 
' between you and I.' But we may go 
much further. Even writers of eminence 
commit solecisms which they would be far 
from attempting to justify if their atten- 
tion were called to them. Mistakes of 
substituting indicative for subjunctive and 
subjunctive for indicative in conditional 
sentences are to be met with even in 
leading writers. ' I should have liked to have 
seen him ' is often heard and read. Numer- 
ous other examples might be quoted from 
Professor Shadworth Hodfi;son's Errors in 



GRAMMAR 



139 



the Use of English. To correct such errors 
is one of the main functions of grammar. 
It is maintained by Mr. Fitch {Lectures 
on Teaching^ 1881, p. 258) that 'the direct 
operation and use of grammar rules in im- 
proving our speech and making it correct, 
can hardly be said to exist at all.' But 
this view appears to rest upon a mistaken 
doctrine as to what constitutes grammar. 
Mr. Fitch considers ' that of pure grammar 
there is very little in the English language,' 
grammar being in his view ' the logic of 
language in so far, and in so far only, as 
it finds expression in the inflexions and 
forms of words ' i^thid. p. 261). Why ? 
Surely there is no sufficient ground for 
•excluding from the scope of grammar any 
means which a language may employ to 
express differences of thought. Inflexion 
is only one of those means ; a more im- 
portant means in English is the use of 
certain substitutes for inflexion. Are we 
to exclude the modes of expressing time 
relations from an English grammar because 
EngKsh has, properly speaking, only two 
tenses, i.e. inflected forms expressing time 
relations % Are we to exclude the equi- 
valents which supplement the subjunctive 
mood where distinct forms are no longer 
■extant ? If so, no doubt English syntax 
will have a very small scope, and its rules 
will be mostly valueless in correcting errors 
■of speech. ' No warning is needed against 
such mistakes as "Give /the book;" "Lend 
the money to he " ' {ihid. p. 259). It was 
some such view as this which led Dr. 
Johnson in his English Grammar to treat 
the whole syntax in ten lines, ' because 
our language has so little inflection that 
its construction neither requires nor ad- 
mits of many rules.' The answer is, that 
to treat English in this way is to ignore 
the essential difference which separates it 
from languages of the classical type, and 
to some extent from other Teutonic lan- 
guages. To deny that English has a gram- 
mar is to deny it law and order, and to 
reduce it below the level of Chinese. The 
grammar of English is a very subtle gram- 
mar, and its usages, if difficult to register, 
demand all the more investigation and 
study. 

There is another use of grammar be- 
sides its practical use. As a science, gram- 
mar ' reveals the laws and pi'inciples which 
underlie, and account for, the speech which 
I am using every day ' (Mr. Fitch, ihid. 
p. 260). Here its character is theoretic. 



and it serves not only to disclose the laws 
which govern an important object of study, 
but also to strengthen the reasoning facul- 
ties. How far such conscious study of the 
mother tongue is desirable in elementary 
schools is a question. Some eminent au- 
thorities hold that one may encourage the 
young mind too early to processes of ab- 
straction and reflexion, and that systematic 
grammar should not be introduced until 
the pupils have command over a large 
vocabulary, and have made considerable 
acquaintance with the concrete phenomena 
of language. This not only from a psycho- 
logical point of view, but also in the in- 
terests of grammar itself : for grammar 
cannot be profitably pursued in vacuo., 
especially the grammar of the mother 
tongue. But at some stage of the pupil's 
development it is well to make conscious 
the principles of the speech which he is 
using. The ear and memory, however well 
trained by habit, will not always serve as 
guides, and the mental discipline derived 
by conscious reflexion on the usages of 
speech is itself a power which emancipates 
from the thraldom of words. ' Words, as 
a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the under- 
standing of the wisest, and mightily en- 
tangle and pervert the judgment' (Bacon). 
In regard to method, sound educational 
theory demands that the teaching of Eng- 
lish be based on analysis rather than syn- 
thesis. ' Long before a child comes to the 
commencement of grammar he has learned 
to speak. . . . That which in teaching 
French is the ultimate goal of your ambi- 
tion, conversation and freedom in using 
words, is the very point of departure in the 
case of your own vernacular speech . . .' 
(Mr. ¥itc\\,ihid. p. 261). This maxim is 
true of the mother tongue of every nation ; 
it is especially true of the teaching of Eng- 
lish to English children, for the logical 
character of the language — its absence 
of inflection, its dependence on position 
for indicating function — forces upon the 
teacher a logical treatment. By breaking 
up the sentence — by effecting that separa- 
tion of its parts by which it ceases to Ije 
an organic whole — the pupil is led to a 
classification of the parts of speech by 
way of their function in forming sen- 
tences. The dead members of the living 
whole may be then studied in isolation 
(accidence), and in their relation to other 
parts of the sentence (syntax). Tlie im- 
portance of the latter study to pupils who 



140 



GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



are sufficiently developed to enter upon it, 
can hardly be over-estimated. Syntax in- 
volves a classification of sentences and 
sub-sentences (clauses), a nice discrimina- 
tion o£ the effects produced by mood and 
mood equivalents in different kinds of sen- 
tences, an accurate use of tenses. All these 
things together will not make a great 
writer, but they will make a careful writer, 
and to some extent an accurate thinker, 
and they will encoui^age an attitude of re- 
spect for the great inheritance which is the 
birthright of English-speaking children. 

2. The utility of grammar in learning 
other languages is still less contestable. 
No methods of teaching, except the purely 
empirical method of the bonne, really at- 
tempt to dispense with it. For in learn- 
ing foreign languages synthesis, i.e. the 
process of building up from simple ele- 
ments, must play a large part. The pupil's 
mind is at first a blank ; the first step 
must be of a very simple and easy nature. 
It is true that very difierent opinions are 
held as to the extent to which it is advis- 
able to imitate the ' natural ' method by 
which a child learns its own language. 
And it may fairly be contended that a 
child whose ear is accustomed to French 
or German from early years will learn 
much by simple imitation. But it is found 
by experience that this process by itself is 
insufficient ; the impressions left are not 
strong enough to form a substitute for 
more methodical knowledge, though they 
may supplement that knowledge in a very 
valuable manner. It is impossible to re- 
produce the conditions under which a child 
learns its own language ; and some degree 
of synthesis soon makes itself felt by the 
practical teacher. Such synthesis must 
be based on a classification of language — 
on grammar. Of course it does not at all 
follow that rules must be learnt by heart ; 
it may be often desirable to proceed per 
exempla, as Comenius said, rather than 
j)er prcscepta ; but the examples will be 
classified and arranged on grammatical 
principles. The 'natural' method pro- 
ceeds by way of unclassified examples. 
But on the other hand the teacher should 
be fully alive to the limitation under which 
grammar labours. As ' subtilitas naturse 
subtilitatem artis multis partibus superat ' 
(Bacon), so grammar is ultimately unable 
to render account of all the phenomena of 
speech. There is a point beyond which 
grammar loses itself in a bewildering maze; 



and though this point may be never reached 
by the pupil, the teacher, if he thinks to 
the purpose about grammar, will find it 
out, and should not be daunted by the 
fact. He must remember that without 
grammar no sciejitific classification of 
speech — no methodical teaching — would 
be possible. {See Parallel Grammars.) 
Gra^nmar Schools. —Grammar schools, 
as their title implies, were founded for the 
teaching of grammar — for the purpose of 
providing, not primary or elementary edu- 
cation for the nation at large, but secondary 
or higher education for scholars. They 
were intended, in fact, to prepare boys of 
more than average ability for the Univer- 
sities, or at least to- give them such a 
learned education as would qualify them 
afterwards for useful service to the Church 
and the State. From the foundation of 
Winchester in 1373 — or even from the 
date of Wantage, which claims King 
Alfred as its founder — down to the pre- 
sent century, the staple school subject, 
sometimes the only one, was Latin ; and 
the way to learn Latin was to learn its 
grammar. Of grammar schools whose 
date is known, there are only eight before 
the foundation of Eton in 1441. The 
number of foundations, however, begins to 
be great even as early as the closing years 
of Henry VII. 's reign ; and the tide ad- 
vances steadily till the reign of James II., 
when it comes almost to a stand. In 
Henry VIII. 's reign (thirty-eight years) the 
number of schools founded is forty-nine ; 
in the six years of Edward VI. the number 
is forty-four ; in Elizabeth's reign (forty- 
five years) we have one hundred and fif- 
teen; and in James I.'s reign (twenty-two 
years) the number is forty-eight. The 
statutes of the grammar schools founded 
by the Crown or by private benefactors, 
were all, or nearly all, on one model, com- 
bining Latin with religious instruction. 
Greek came in with the foundation of St. 
Paul's School by Colet in 1509. But in 
the statutes drafted by Wolsey for his 
school at Ipswich soon after there is no 
mention of Greek ; nor does BishojJ Old- 
ham name the subject for Manchester 
Grammar School in 1525, though he wishes 
the young who 'have pregnant wits 'to be 
given the opportunity of learning grammar, 
'the ground and fountain of all the other 
arts and sciences.' In the statutes of 
Harrow (founded 1571) amongst the au- 
thors mentioned there is only one Greek 



GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



141 



poet — Hesiod ; but the boys are 'to be 
initiated in the elements of Latin versifi- 
cation very early.' The statutes of the 
later schools generally prescribe Greek 
and 'verses.' Archbishop Grindal, for 
example, requires for St. Bees (1583) 'a 
meet and learned person that can make 
Greek and Latin verses, and interpret the 
Greek grammar and other Greek authors.' 
The same applies to Hawkeshead school 
in Lancashire (1588), where 'the chiefest 
scholars shall make orations, epistles, and 
verses in Latin and Greek for their exer- 
cises,' and all the scholars ' shall continually 
use the Latin tongue or the Greek tongue 
as they shall be able.' So again, Arch- 
bishop Harsnet wishes for Chigwell (1629) 
'a man skilful in the Greek and Latin 
tongues, a good poet.' In a few cases, 
Hebrew is required of the head-master, as 
at Bristol, South wark (1614), and Lewis- 
ham (1652). But in by far the larger 
number of schools, Greek and Latin alone 
are specified ; and in some it is especially 
said that 'Greek and Latin only,' or 'the 
classics only' are to be taught. Charter- 
house (1611) is an exception. Li its sta- 
tutes (dated 1627) we find that scholars 
shall be taught 'to cypher and cast an ac- 
count, especially those that are less capable 
of learning, and fittest to be sent to trades.' 
In 1864 a royal commission was appointed 
to enquire into the revenues, management, 
and education of certain endowed schools, 
and to suggest measures of improvement. 
There had been previously two commis- 
sions of enquiry: the first in 1858 to 
report on the education of boys and girls 
of the labouring class : and the second in 
1861 to report on the nine greater public 
schools — Charterhouse, Eton, Harrow, 
Merchant Taylors', St. Paul's, Westmin- 
ster, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Winchester. 
The scope of the commission of 1864 em- 
braced all schools which lay between those 
dealt with by the other commissions, that 
is, the great mass of 'grammar schools, 
and issued its report in 1868. Upon this 
report was founded the Endowed Schools 
Act of 1869, which gave authority first to 
'Endowed Schools Commissioners,' and 
afterwards to the 'Charity Commissioners,' 
to frame new schemes for the better work- 
ing of these 'grammar schools'; and also 
for furthering the advancement of edu- 
cation by diverting for the schools other 
endowments not originally intended for 
educational purposes. Nearly all the 



schools have since been remodelled. A Se- 
lect Committee of the House of Commons 
was appointed in 1886 to enquire into the 
working of the Act, and in the follow- 
ing year issued their report, in which they 
state that the sum of the evidence brought 
before them was conclusive on two points : 
first, the principles laid down by the com- 
mission of 1864, and embodied in the 
Endowed Schools Act, while in some 
respects they must be modified by altered 
circumstances and increased experience, 
are on the whole sound and just; and 
secondly, that the Charity Commissioners 
have in their procedure faithfully attempted 
to carry those principles out. The com- 
plaints made against the working of the 
Act, the Committee add, are founded on a 
failure to appreciate the value of these 
principles and their Ijearing on national 
welfare. The subject is, however, they 
admit, difficult and complicated ; ' and till 
it is more widely and carefully studied, 
till greater publicity has been given to 
the results of the schemes Ijy inspection 
and parliamentary returns, till such adap- 
tation of schools to technical and commer- 
cial purposes has taken place as the 
Committee suggest, and till the schools 
have been allowed time to develop their 
beneficial results, complaints will continue 
to be made.' The denominational diffi- 
culties which occupied so large a place in 
the enquiry of the Select Committee of 
1873 appear in nearly all cases to have 
been accommodated by the lapse of time 
and a better understanding of the real 
questions involved. Disputes of class, in 
some localities, have now replaced them, 
but may in their turn die away under a ju- 
dicious administration governed by an in- 
telligent popular opinion. The tendency to 
attach excessive importance to theoretical 
excellence of educational machinery under 
a fixed system of gi^aded schools, rather 
than to adapt the schools to the practical 
needs of the locality, is now, the Committee 
state, corrected by experience. 'A more 
pressing need now seems to be that we 
should not forget, in the search for more 
immediate advantages of an obvious nature, 
the importance of preserving, even at some 
cost, a high ideal of secondary education, 
both on its own account, and in its con- 
nections either with the Universities, or 
with the excellent colleges which have 
been recently established in our large 
towns with the special object of education 



142 GRAMMATICAL SOCIETY GRANTS (GOYERNMENT) 



in relation to the needs of manufacturing 
and commercial communities.' The Com- 
niittee find that the work done by the 
Charity Commissioners under the Endowed 
Schools Acts, while it has not lost sight of 
this ideal, has done much to bring higher 
instruction, in popular and necessary forms, 
within the reach of classes which otherwise 
would have been shut out from it. 

Grrammatical Society. See Parallel 
Grammars. 

Grants (Government). — It was in 1832 
that Parliament made the first grant in 
aid of elementary education. The sum 
voted was 20,000/., and a similar sum was 
voted annually down to 1838. The grant 
was administered by the Treasury, subject 
to conditions laid down in a minute dated 
August 30, 1833. These were, briefly, 
that the money was only to be used in 
aiding local efibrt towards the building of 
schools ; though the grant was in no case 
to exceed half the cost of the buildings ; 
the applications were to be endorsed by the 
National Society {q.v-), or the British and 
Foreign School Society {q.v. ) ; and that pre- 
ference was to be given to applications 
'from large cities and towns in which the 
necessity of assisting in the erection of 
schools' was 'most pressing.' In 1839 
the grant was raised to 30,000/., and its 
administration was entrusted to a specially 
created committee of the Privy Council 
— the Committee of Council on Education, 
or the Education Depai-tment {q.v.). The 
first minute issued by the new body (that 
of June 3, 1839) recommended 'that the 
sum of 10,000/., granted by Parliament in 
1835 towards the erection of normal or 
model schools, be given in equal portions 
to the National Society and the British 
and Foreign School Society {q.v.) for that 
purpose. The right of Government inspec- 
tion was to be a condition of all future 
aid, and the minute provided for the ap- 
pointment of inspectoi's. The bulk of the 
grant was to be applied, as before, in the 
erection of schools. The minute of No- 
vember 22, 1843, added the building of 
teachers' houses, and the purchase of 
appendages, to the objects for which money 
might be given. On August 25, 1846, a 
very important minute was issued, greatly 
extending the sclieine of State aid. Its 
terms were general, but it was followed, 
on December 21, l)y another minute con- 
verting them into definite regulations. 
These dealt, fii'st of all, with pupil-teachers. 



In schools properly furnished, organised^ 
and disciplined, and possessing a head- 
teacher competent to instruct and train 
pupil-teachers, one such pupil-teacher for 
every twenty-five scholars might be ap- 
prenticed to the head-teacher. The ap- 
prenticeship was to be for five years, at 
the end of each of which there was to be 
a Government examination. If the result 
was satisfactory, the pupil-teacher received 
from the Education Department a stipend 
beginning at 10/., and rising by annual 
increments of 2/. 10s. to 20/., while the 
head-teacher received 'the sum of 5/. for 
one, of 9/. for two, of 12/. for three pupil- 
teachers, and 3/. per annum more for 
every additional apprentice.' Pupil-teach- 
ers who had served their time might 
submit themselves to an examination con- 
ducted by one or more of Her Majesty's 
Inspectors, together with the pi'incipal of a 
normal school or a training college 'under 
inspection.' Those who satisfied the ex- 
aminers became 'Queen's Scholars,' and 
received an exhibition of 20/. or 25/. ten- 
able at one of the colleges. The training 
there might be for one, two, or three 
years. At the end of each year there was 
an examination, and for every successful 
student of the first year the college received 
20/., of the second year 25/., and of the 
third year 30/. When these trained stu- 
dents left, and entei'ed upon school-work, 
they received, in augmentation of salary, 
Government grants varying from 15/. to 
30/. according to the length of their train- 
ing. For teachers rendered incapable by 
age or infirmity the minute promised 
pensions. In 1847 a 'broad sheet' was 
issued containing the conditions on which 
Certificates {q.v.) were to be obtained by 
untrained as well as by trained teachers, 
and offering from 10/. to 20/. a year 'cer- 
tificate money ' according to class and 
division. These regulations exercised a 
very powerful influence upon education. 
By 1851 twenty-five training colleges 
had been established, six thousand pupil- 
teachers were at work, moi-e than eleven 
hundred certificates had been issued, the 
grant had risen to 160,000/. a year, and 
nearly 3,800 schools had been built at a 
cost to the State of 400,000/. and to the 
localities of about 600,000/. more. The 
next important step was taken in 1853. 
A minute (dated April 2 of that year) es- 
tablished capitation grants for tlie suppoi't 
of schools ' in rural districts and small un- 



GRASER, JOHN BAPTIST 



143 



incorporated towns '('small 'being defined 
as containing not more than five thousand 
inhabitants), the amount of grant per 
head varying with the number of scholars. 
If there were under fifty it was 6s. in 
boys' schools, and 5s. in girls' schools; if 
above fifty and under one hundred, 5s. 
and 4s. respectively ; if above one hundred 
4s. and 3s. The payment of the capitation 
depended upon the amount raised locally 
for the school, the fee charged, the salary 
of the head-teacher (who must be certifi- 
cated), and the results of the examination. 
By a minute of January 26, 1856, urban 
as well as rural schools became eligible 
for capitation grants. In 1860, when Mr. 
Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) was the 
guiding spirit of the Education Department, 
the many minutes which had been issued 
were combined into a code, generally 
known as the Original Code. In 1861, 
after the Duke of Newcastle's Commission 
had reported, the Revised Code was issued. 
It i^emodelled the whole system of aid. 
All grants to head-teachers and to pupil- 
teachers were abolished ; pupil-teachers 
were to be apprenticed, not to the head- 
teacher, but to the managers of the 
school, and the promise of pensions was 
withdrawn. The Revised Code intro- 
duced the principle of 'payment by re- 
sults ' (q.v.). There was to be an absolute 
grant of 4s. a head on the average atten- 
dance, and each child who had attended at 
least two hundred times (half-days) during 
the year might earn an additional grant 
for the school. In the case of children 
under six it was 6s. 6d., subject to the 
inspector's approval; in the case of children 
above six it was 8s., subject to the results 
of an indi-\ddual examination. For each 
one who passed a specified 'standard' in 
reading, 2s. 8d. was to be paid, for each 
'pass' in writing 2s. 8d., and for each 
'pass' in arithmetic 2s. Sd. Building 
gi'ants were continued. In the normal 
schools the training was to be for two 
j'ears, and the college was to receive 100?. 
for each master trained, and 701. for each 
mistress. On the passing of the Elementary 
Education Act of 1870 a new Code (q.v.) 
became necessary. The Act provided that 
after December 31, 1870, no application 
for a building grant could be entertained. 
The absolute grant was raised from 4s. to 
6s., the number of attendances qualifying 
for examination from two hundred to two 
hundred and fifty, the conditional grant 



for infant schools from 6s. 6d. to 8s. or 
10s., and for older scholars from 2s. 8d. to 
4s. per 'pass.' In 1875 this 4s. was re- 
duced to 3s., but grants for 'class subjects ' 
and for 'specific subjects ' were introduced. 
'Class subjects' were geography, grammar, 
and history ; and a grant of 4s. on the 
average attendance was to be paid if the 
classes (not the individual pupils) passed 
satisfactorily in two of them. The 'spe- 
cific subjects' were more advanced, and a 
grant of 4s. per subject was to be paid for 
every child in the upper standards who 
passed in not more than two of them. 
When Mr. Mundella became Yice- Presi- 
dent of the Committee of Council, the 
regulations were once more recast. The 
transformed code was issued on March 6, 
1882. It introduced a 'merit grant,' 
varying as the inspector pronounced a 
school to be 'fair,' 'good,' or 'excellent.' 
It abolished a minimum number of atten- 
dances as a qualification for examination, 
and required all children to be presented 
who had been on the rolls during the last 
twenty-two weeks of the school year. In 
infant schools there was to be on the 
average attendance a fixed grant of 7s. or 
9s.; a merit gi^ant of 2s., 4s., or 6s.; a 
needlework grant of Is.; and a grant of Is. 
for singing from notes. In schools or 
classes for older scholars the grants for 
needlework and singing were to be the 
same ; the fixed grant was to be 4s. 6d., 
and the merit grant Is., 2s., or 3s. There 
was also to be 'a grant on examination in 
the elementary subjects (reading, writing,' 
and arithmetic) at the rate of one penny 
for every unit of percentage.' Thus, if 
one hundred children were examined the 
number of possible passes would be three 
hundred ; if the number actually olrtained 
was two hundred and seventy the per- 
centage would be ninety, and the grant 
ninety pence on the average attendance. 
For 'class subjects' (extended to five, of 
which only two could be taken) the grant 
was Is. or 2s., according as the results were 
'fair' or 'good.' The regulations respect- 
ing specific subjects underwent no mate- 
rial change. The Mundella Code remains, 
with very slight modifications, still (1888) 
in force. {See Craik's State and Editca- 
tion.) 

Graser, John Baptist {b. at Eltmann, 
1766, d. 1841), an eminent Bavarian school- 
master, who in 1804 becanie professor of 
theology at Landshut, and the same year 



144 



GREEK 



was appointed by the Bavarian Govern- 
ment inspector of schools at Bamberg. In 
1810 he was transferred to Bayreuth, 
where he wrote his first work, entitled 
Divinity, or the Principle of the only Trtie 
Education. He was influenced largely by 
the philosophy of Schelling, and ui-ged 
that man could raise himself by education 
to the 'divinity of his nature,' i.e. to a 
life in harmony with 'the divine ideal.' 
In the eyes of the Orthodox Catholic 
Church Graser appeared as a heretic, and 
incurred the hostility of the priests. In 
1817 he published the first volume of his 
great work on educational method, called 
The Elementary School for Life. The work 
is in three volumes, the last of which did not 
appear till 1834. Long before this Graser 
had been driven into retirement, and he 
spent his last years in the quiet of study 
and family life. Graser criticised the 
method of Pestalozzi, and declared that 
there was an absence of the practical in 
it, and that one could not talk about the 
' general education of man,' for education 
must be individual, and the first duty of 
a master was to discover the special ca- 
pacity of each child. His view of educa- 
tion was emphatically religious. Owing 
to his influence schools for deaf mutes 
were annexed to many of the Bavarian 
schools. 

Greek. — No one who has ever mastered 
Greek can have any doubt of the advan- 
tage of learning it. It is the vehicle in 
which Greek civilisation, a unique product 
of the human mind, expressed itself. It 
is the language employed by many of the 
men who occupy the highest places among 
the thinkers, the poets, the philosophers 
of the world. The Greek mind gave rise 
to nearly all the forms of literatui'e which 
are now prevalent. Many of its produc- 
tions are among the freshest, the most 
original, and the most beautiful that exist. 
And the Greek writers have been sin- 
gularly stimulative. It was the works of 
the Greeks that created the Renaissance. 
It was criticism of the Greeks that led to 
the outburst of German literature in the 
end of the eighteenth and beginning of the 
nineteenth centuries. And what it does 
for nations it does for individuals. Schiller 
was determined hx his career by the en- 
thusiasm with which Euripides inspired 
him. The value of Greek literature to the 
modern mind is inestimable, and no one 
who has ever enjoyed the Greek works in 



the language in which they were written 
could ever imagine that translations can 
convey an adequate idea of their beauties. 
Besides this supreme excellence from a 
literary point, a special interest belongs 
in the eyes of some to the Greek language, 
because we can trace in its words the first 
dawnings of science ; and in the eyes of 
others because the authoritative docu- 
ments of Christianity were written in it. 

Its place as an instrument of educa- 
tion has been a subject of keen discussion. 
It is necessary that in the training of a 
boy from eleven to eighteen years of age 
some one language and literature should 
form the central educative force, and the 
great majority of educationists have held 
that this language must be Latin (q.v.). 
But some of the greatest philosophers and 
educationists have assigned that place to 
Greek, and among them stands out pre- 
eminently Herbart. This philosopher main- 
tained that the literature ought to deter- 
mine the question of priority. Greek 
literature opens with Homer. Homer 
deals almost exclusively with the con- 
crete. There are no ideas in him beyond 
the reach of a boy of ten or eleven. And 
he is fascinating reading for a boy. There 
is no Latin book that can at all approach 
the Odyssey in its power to interest a 
young boy. The Iliad and the Odyssey 
are products of the early youth of the 
world, and they picture the ideas and 
pursuits of early youth, but it is an early 
youth noble and generous. What could be 
more useful for a boy than to permeate him- 
self with these heroic ideals ? What more 
likely to lay the foundation of a noble and 
lofty character 1 Then from Homer the 
boy can advance to the charming narra- 
tive of Herodotus, and at a further stage 
he could read Plato and Xenophon with 
enjoyment, for most of their ideas are 
within his grasp, and Plato especially 
surrounds them with every literary grace. 
The boy, then, having saturated himself 
with the best and most beautiful parts of 
Greek civilisation, could pass on to Roman, 
and fromRoman to modern times. On such 
a system language forms a subordinate 
element of training. It is not necessary to 
drill the boy in all the minute details of 
grammar. He should learn only so much 
as is required for the comprehension of 
the author. And then, even in respect 
to language it is urged that the plan has 
its advajutages. A knowledge of the 



GR^GOIRE, L'ABBE GRESHAM COLLEGE 



145 



Homeric dialect is essential to a true con- 
ception of the origin of the Attic. The 
boy can see how the forms of the one have 
grown to some extent out of the forms of 
the other. 

The idea that Greek ought to be taught 
before Latin was not first suggested by 
Herbart. A list of those who preceded 
him in this plan is given in Herbart's 
Fdclagogisclie Schriften, vol. i. p. 77, and 
among them is mentioned the famous 
printer and scholar, Henricus Stephanus 
(Henri Etienne, 1528-1598). In recent 
times Alirens prepared a Homeric gram- 
mar, adapted for beginners ; Dissen and 
Passow strongly approved of the plan, and 
some of Herbart's followers carried it into 
practice. Within the last few years Her- 
bartism has revived in great force in Ger- 
many amongst those who take an interest 
in secondary education, and the question 
of the priority of Greek will again come 
to the front. 

The same questions have been discussed 
as to the mode of teaching Greek which 
we have noticed in connection with Latin 
{q.v.), but not with the same intensity. 
After one language has been employed in 
training a boy, there is no need of the 
same elaborate process in teaching a 
second. The boy is advanced in age, and 
can learn a language much more rapidly; 
and he is advanced in logical power and 
streng-th of memory, and can dispense with 
many of the processes necessary during the 
learning of a first strange language. There- 
fore Greek is learned in its elements much 
more easily than Latin, after Latin has 
been mastered. It is for this reason that 
it is very injudicious to begin Greek at too 
early an age if it is to succeed Latin, and 
the whole tendency of the present day is 
to defer the learning of Greek until very 
considerable progress has been made in 
Latin. Then, again, there is no longer the 
same necessity for such frequent exercises 
in turning English into Greek. 

In recent times the application of 
comparative philology to Greek grammars 
has become prevalent. The laws of the 
combination of the root with the inflection 
have been carefully laid down at the com- 
mencement and carried out through all the 
paradigms. Mention should also be made 
of the suggestion that access should be 
made to ancient Greek through modern, 
■w'hich has retained or adopted many of 
tie forms of the ancient. But generally 



the Attic dialect is regarded as the form 
of the language which must be mastered 
first. Some have a superstitious reverence 
for this form, and refuse to proceed further. 
But most proceed from the Attic and ex- 
plain the other dialects by means of it or 
in comparison with it. 

The works which treat of the value of 
Latin in education and the methods of 
teaching it generally discuss also the value 
of Greek and the methods of teaching it. 
To the works mentioned in the article on 
Latin we must add the Erlduterungen of 
Curtius to his Greek Grammar, which 
treat exclusively of Greek. 

Gregoire, L'Abbe {h. Yeho, 1750; d. 
Paris, 1831), was the son of poor parents, 
and was educated by the Jesuits at Nancy. 
He became Professor of Belles-Lettres at 
the College of Pont-a-Mousson. Early in 
life he showed a veliement love of liberty, 
which in the end led liim to advocate the 
abolition of royalty. ' The history of kings,' 
he said, 'is the martyrology of nations.' 
He plunged into all the disquiet of his 
time, through which we cannot follow him, 
but he frequently presented reports on 
education. In 1797 he spoke against a 
system of free education. In the same 
year he presented a report for the suppres- 
sion of academies, and appealed to history 
(Pome, Gi-eece) in support of his view. 
He afterwards brought out a detailed 
account of eleinentary education, specify- 
ing the subjects, treatment, &c. He pre- 
sented a report on the ' Necessity, and the 
means of destroying the patois, and of 
rendering the usage of the French language 
universal.' In this he took what may be' 
called a Republican view of language, and 
on the strength of it the Convention 
passed a decree for a new grammar to be 
written, but the decree was never carried 
out. After this appeared his celebrated 
Report on Vandalism. When he came to 
die, the Archbishop of Paris refused to 
give him the sacraments. Gregoire said in 
his will that he died ' a good Catholic, 
and a good Republican.' 

Gresham College, Basinghall Street, 
London, was founded in 1501, by Sir 
Thomas Gresham, with a view to providing 
free scientific instruction to the people. 
He gave directions for the delivery of 
lectures by qualified professors. Lectures 
are still delivered by professors appointed 
by the Gresham Committee at three diffe- 
rent periods in the year, commencing 

L 



146 



GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG GUIZOT, F. P. W 



respectively the first Monday in October, 
on the fifteenth Monday after that date, 
and on tlie twenty-sixth Monday after the 
first Monday in October, or on the neai-est 
Monday to such twenty- sixth Monday 
which will allow of the condition that no 
lectures be given in Passion Week and 
Easter Week. The value of the original 
bequest of Sir Thomas Gresham has, it is 
believed, enormously increased, and gi-eat 
complaints ai-e made that the accumulation 
has not been devoted to the purpose which 
the munificent founder of tlie lectureships 
intended. In his will Gresham prayed 
that tlie curse of God might rest on those 
who misappropriated his bequest. 

Gresham Lecture. iSee Prelections. 
Grimm, Jacob Liidwig {h. 1785, d. 
1863), the distinguished philologist, was 
a native of Hanau in Hesse. Pie studied 
law at Marburg, and while Secretary for 
War lectured on the literature of the 
IMiddle Ages. Pie was librarian at Kassel 
from 1816 to 1829, and in 1830 became 
])rofessor in Gottingen, where he lectured 
on German language and literature and 
on legal antiquities. In 1841 he was ap- 
pointed professor at Berlin. The grand 
result of Gi'imm's work was his effective 
tracing of the growth and chaiucter of 
the spirit of the German race as displayed 
in its language, poetry, religion, laws, and 
customs. His chief works were Deutsche 
Grmnmatik (1819-37), Deutsche JRechts- 
alterthiimer (1835), and Geschichte der 
dentschen Sprache {\Si8). Along with his 
brother, Wilhelm Karl Grimm {b. 1786, 
d. 1859), he edited in 1835 Kinder- iind 
JIausmdrchen, and in 1854 began lus gi-eat 
dictionary Deutsches M'drterbuch, which 
lias been continued by Wildebi-aud, Heyne, 
nnd Wiegand. 

Growth of Children. — A fair know- 
ledge of the physiological laws of health 
Avould pi-event dangerous mistakes in the 
education of children. It should be re- 
membei-ed tliat every organ of the body is 
rapidly growing, and that height and weight 
are being steadily increased. Children 
not only have to replenish waste tissues, 
but also to build up new tissues. Hence, 
it is necessary that they should be supplied 
with an abimdance of food and fresh air, 
and that their rapidly growing organs 
should not be over-exerted. This is espe- 
cially true of the brain, which in the early 
yiHxrs of life grows more rapidly than any 
other organ. A pexiodical record of the 



height and weight of children would be of 
great ^'alue in the preservation of health 
and detection of early disease. If a child 
ceases to grow or inci-ease in weight, or if 
on the other hand he grows too rapidly, 
he requires a comparative cessation of 
school-work and careful home attention. 
One of the earliest symptoms of incipient 
consumption is a diminution in weight, 
and such loss of weight should at once 
receive medical attention. The following 
statements of the average height and 
weight of boys of the non-labouring classes 
are taken from Dr. Newsholme's School 
Hygiene, wliich may be consulted for 
other tables and charts on the same sub- 
ject. 



Age last 


Average height 


Average weight 


bii-tUiliiy 


ill inches 


ill jiouuds 


7 


■16-10 


50-16 


8 


47-66 


56-10 


9 


50-30 


61-96 


10 


52-65 


67-22 


11 


53-93 


73-31 


12 


55-90 


78.96 


13 


58-30 


85-27 


14 


60-27 


96-40 


15 


63-00 


107-25 


16 


65-34 


115-96 


17 


66-91 


131-93 


IS 


67-38 


136-68 


19 


67-74 


142-00 


20 


68-09 


145-23 



During the first twelve years of life 
boys are from one to two inches taller 
than girls of the same age. At about 
12^ years of age, girls begin to grow 
faster than boys, aiid during their four- 
teenth year are about one inch taller than 
boys of the same age. At about 14A years 
of age, boys again become the taller, girls 
at this age ha\'ing nearly completed their 
growth, while boys continue to grow 
rapidly till nineteen years of age. 

Guizot, F. P. W. (h. at Nhnes, 1787; 
d. at Val Richer, 1874). — This eminent 
French statesman and wi-iter had an im- 
portant position in the history of education 
in France, on account of the reforms he 
instituted as Minister of Public Instruction. 
He passed measures which have been a 
lasting honour to his name. The right of 
education was freely and fully discussed, 
and Gviizot undertook to establish, at least 
primary education. He recommended iics 
being compulsory, and touched upon thie 
question of free education, but thought 



GUTTER TO UNIVERSITY^ 



-GYP 



147 



that though the State should offer education 
'to all, it could only give it to the children 
<of those families which were unable to pay. 
Through Guizot's influence a decree was 
passed for training masters for elementary 
schools; and with a view to their pensions, 
savings banks were established, and in- 
■surance societies founded. 

'Gutter to University.' See Instruc- 
tion (Course op). 

Gymnasium (Greek, yvjxvdcnov, from 
yu/Avos, naked) was originally among the 
Greeks a space measured out and covered 
with sand, for the exercise of athletic 
games. Afterwards, among the classical 
Greeks, the gymnasia became spacious 
buildings or scliools for the mental as well 
as the corporeal instruction of youth. The 
first gymnasia were built by the Lacedae- 
monians, as Plato tells us (No/Aot, lib. i.), 
and after them by the Athenians. Those 
in the immediate neighbourhood of Athens 
are well known : the Academia, where, 
attracted by the pleasant walks which 
surrounded it, and the concourse of people 
of all classes who daily resorted thither, 
Plato held conferences with his pupils ; 
the Lyceum, to which Aristotle resorted ; 
and the Cynosarges. The gymnasia of 
the Romans were on a grander scale, and 
from the extensive baths attached to them 
were not uncommonly called 'thermae.' 
The numerous exercises of the gymnasium 
were conducted under the special direction 
of the State, and were superintended by 
several officers at Athens. The chief 
officer was called gymnasiarchus, who su- 
perintended the whole gymnasium and its 
exercises ; the xystarchus superintended 
in particular the more athletic exercises; 
the gymnastes, being skilled in medicine, 
prescribed the kind and extent of ex- 
ercise of each; the psedotribes assisted 
and instructed those exercising; while 
there were numerous servants set apart to 
each kind of exercise, to anoint, to keep 
the bath, &c. 

In Germany, the Gymnasien are what 
we should call classical schools, the com- 
mercial schools being called Realsciiulen 
{q-v.). The Gymnasien are like our best 
classical schools. There is the same pre- 
ponderance of classics, very nearly the 
same methods of teaching, and to a consi- 
derable extent the same results. It is 
supposed that a boy enters at nine, and 
remains till nineteen. The school is divided 
into six classes. Latin begins at the bot- 



tom, and occupies ten hours of the week 
out of twenty-eight till the head class, 
and then eight hours out of thirty. Greek 
begins two classes from the bottom, and oc- 
cupies six hours a week throughout; Ger- 
man, two hours ; arithmetic and mathema- 
tics, from three to four; French, three in the 
lower classes, two in the higher; geography 
and history, three in the higher and two 
in the lower ; natural science, two in the 
head class and one below. All learn 
drawing in school hours ; singing and 
gymnastics out of school. This programme 
is fixed by the Government, but within the 
programme the masters are free. In gene- 
ral the gymnasium is steadily to regard 
the formation of the pupil's mind, and of 
his powers of knowledge, without prema- 
turely taking thought for the practical 
applicability of what he studies. It is 
expressly forbidden to give this practical 
or professional turn to the studies of a 
pupil in the highest forms of a gymnasium, 
even when he is destined for the army. 
In some places, where it is not possible to 
maintain a complete gymnasium, a pro- 
gymnasium is substituted. A progymna- 
sium is merely a gymnasium without the 
higher classes. Most progymnasia have 
four classes only, some three; some again, 
five, that is, all but the head. All the 
gymnasia are supported by endowments 
and school fees. Very little indeed is 
spent upon them by the State, though, as 
in England, a few belong to the munici- 
palities. The school fees are exceedingly 
low; not only lower than in England, laut 
lower than in France, the average being 
under ?>l. a year for instruction, even in 
the best schools/ The masters do not 
receive the fees, but are paid fixed salaries 
out of the funds thus raised. The maxi- 
mum salary scarcely ever exceeds 300/. a 
year and a house. There are 144 Gymna- 
sien, containing about 47,000 boys, and 
28 Progyrnnasien, containing about 2,600 
boys. In England, the term gymnasium 
is applied strictly to a school for the 
improvement of bodily strength, grace, or 
agility, or for gymnastic exercises. 

Gymnastics. See Athletics, Calis- 
thenics, and Physical Education. 

Gyp (Greek yvxl/, a vulture). — -A term 
applied at Cambridge to the male atten- 
dants on University men in their rooms. 
It is equivalent to scout, the name by 
which the college attendants are designated 
at Oxford. 

l2 



148 



HABIT HAMILTON, JAMES 



H 



Habit is the name of the principle or j 
law according to which every action be- j 
comes easier by repetition. The result of 
such repetition or practice when the pro- 
cess is complete is called a habit. Habits ^ 
are thus acquired possessions, and so dis- 
tinguished from original or instinctive en- 
dowments. The principle of habit operates 
throughout the whole of development, 
bodily as well as mental. Thus all mus- 
cular actions become perfected by re- 
petition and habit, requiring less and less 
co-operation of the conscious mind. We 
thus see that habit, like memory, to which 
indeed it is so closely allied, has its basis 
in certain properties of the physical or- 
ganism. In the region of mental activity 
we observe the efiect of habit in the way 
in which thoughts become firmly associ- 
ated one with another in definite groups 
or series, as the consequence of repetition 
or custom, and also in the way in which 
the thinking processes gain in facility and 
exactness through practice. The emo- 
tional sensibilities again are under the 
influence of the same law, though in a 
less obvious manner. The operation of 
the principle here is seen in the building 
up of firm attachments and permanent 
affections towards the objects and persons 
in the child's environment, with their cor- 
relative sense of want and craving when 
these are absent. Finally, habit rules in 
the domain of voluntary action. All the 
higher exercises of will in checking impulse 
and controlling the thoughts and feelings 
become perfected by customary perform- 
ance, and in this way the so-called Moral 
Habits, as temperance, truth, &c., are built 
up. Habits have been divided into In- 
tellectual and Moral, and also into Active 
and Passive, habits. From this short ac- 
count of the nature and scope of Habit we 
may easily see that it is the great guiding 
principle of education. According to Locke 
it is ' the secret of instruction in all arts, 
and, indeed, in conduct too, to get what we 
Avould teach settled in the pupil hj jjractice 
till it becomes a habit. [*S'ee Mr. Quick's 
edition of the Thoughts concerning Educa- 
tion, Introduction, p. liv.] The whole 
training of the body and of the mind pro- 
ceeds on the principle of habit ; and the 
great object of moral education is to induce 



by steady practice in well-doing a fixed dis- 
position towards d uty. Since the formation 
of habit is only possible where the bi^ain 
and the connected mental faculties have a 
certain plasticity or pliability, it is of the 
greatest consequence in education to lay 
the foundations of good habits in the early 
years of life. While the law of habit is 
thus of the greatest service to the educator, 
he must bear in mind that it tends to pro- 
duce a mechanical and vinconscious mode 
of action, and he must seek to counteract 
this tendency, where it is injurious, by 
exercising the child in the processes of 
reflection and deliberation. {See Bain's 
Mental and Moral Science, bk.iv. chap, ix.; 
Sully's Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 446 and fol- 
lowing, 467 and following ; and P. Rade- 
stock's Gewohnung xind ihre Wichtigkeit 
fur die Erziehiing.) 

Half-Timers. See School Boaeds. 
Hamilton, James {b. London, 1775; 
d. Dublin, 1829), the author of the Hamil- 
tonian Method of acqui7'ing Languages, 
commenced his career as a merchant, and 
visited Hamburg, where he studied French 
under the direction of a military exile, 
General d'Angely, by whom he perfected 
the method to which he has given his 
name. This method consists in translating 
word for word short pieces, and obtaining 
mastery of a vocabulary befoi^e learning 
grammar. By this means he was able to 
read French authors with an occasional 
reference to the dictionary. On the same 
plan he learnt German and Italian. He 
did this at first merely for self-culture, 
but owing to losses in trade he determined 
to go to America, whei^e he commenced to 
teach languages. The novelty of his me- 
thod and the success of his pupils attracted 
great numbers. For a while he taught in 
New York and Philadelphia, then he 
returned to England and taught Greek, 
Latin, French, German, and Italian to 
many thousands, both privately and in 
classes, till he realised a considerable for- 
tune. He issued a number of books com- 
piled on his method, and in which passages 
from the works of classical and foreign au- 
thor's are given with interlinear English 
translation. Some have criticised the me- 
thod of Hamilton as addressed too much to 
mere memory. Hamilton has been fol- 



HAMILTONIAN METHOD HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM F. 149 



lowed by others, who have made great 
improvements, notably W. Prendergast 
in his Mastery Series. Hamilton's system 
was, after all, but a practical application 
of the method recommended two centuries 
before him by Roger Ascham. 

Hamiltonian Method. See Hamilton^, 
James. 

Hartlib, Samuel. See Milton, and 
Petty, Sir William. 

Harrow. See Public Schools. 

Harvard. See Uxiversities. 

Haiiy, M. See Education of the 
Blind. 

Head Masters (Qualifications of). See 
■School Management. 

Hecker, J. J. [h. Werden, 1707; d. 
1768), a distinguished German theologian 
-and schoolmaster. He studied at the Uni- 
versity of Halle, and in 1729 became one 
of the masters of the Pcedagogium there. 
He thus came under the influence of 
Semler, who founded the first Realschulb 
{q.v.) at Halle in 1739. In 1735 he was 
made Professor of the Military Orphanage 
at Potsdam ; three years after he became 
pastor of a church at Berlin. There he 
"threw great zeal into the work of educa- 
tion. Not content with founding free 
elementary schools, he wished to create 
an institution like the RealscUide at Halle. 
This school he opened in 1746. The plan 
of study embraced all the branches which 
could be of any practical utility in life. 
Hecker's ambition was to give universal 
technical instruction in this institution. 
Many other schools sprang up on the 
model of this one, and Felbiger went to 
Berlin to see it. Hecker received instruc- 
tions from Fxederick II. to prepare a gene- 
ral regulation for the Prussian schools, but 
circumstances prevented the order from 
being carried out. 

Hedge Schools. — Under the terrible 
Penal Laws by which Ireland was coerced 
in the last century, instruction in the 
Catholic faith, or by Catholic priests, was 
prohibited under pain of death. In spite 
of the terrible persecution and prohibi- 
tions to which they were subjected, how- 
ever, the priests carried on instruction of 
the people with remarkable courage and 
heroism. ' They were active,' says Mr. 
J. H. McCarthy, M.P., in his Ireland 
since the Union, p. 13, 'in offering to 
their scattered flocks that education which 
the harsh laws denied them. On the high- 
-way and on the hillside, in ditches and 



behind hedges, in the precarious shelter 
of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey, 
or under the roof of a peasant's cabin, the 
priests set up schools and taught the chil- 
dren of their race. With death as the 
penalty of their daring — a penalty too 
often paid — they gave to the people of 
their persecuted faith that precious mental 
food which triumphantly thwarted the 
efforts of the Government to brutalise and 
degrade the Irish Catholic off" the face of 
the earth. In those " hedge-schools," as 
they were called in scorn, the principles 
of religion, of morality, and of patriotism, 
were kept alive, and elements of educa- 
tion, which are the life-blood of national 
existence, freely dispensed. Eagerly as it 
was given, it was no less eagerly sought 
for. The readiness of the priests to teach 
was only equalled by the readiness of the 
people to be taught. The proudest place 
of honour in Irish histoiy belongs to those 
hedge-schools and their heroic teachers. 
But for them the national cause and the 
national existence would have withered 
away under the blighting curse of the 
Penal Laws. From those hedge-schools 
came some of the brightest ornaments of 
modern Irish history. That great Church- 
man who died a few years ago passed his 
childhood under the shadow of the Penal 
Laws. John IMacHale, Archbishop of 
Tuam, received at a hedge-school those 
early lessons which developed into that 
ecclesiastical scholarship and profound 
piety which would have done honour to 
the proudest epoch in the history of the 
Church of the AVest.' The hedge-school 
master has also played a prominent part in 
the history of Indian education (.see Law 
(Educational), sect. ' India '). 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm F. (6. Stutt 
gart 1770; d. Berlin 1831), was educated 
at Wiirtemberg and Tiibingen. He was 
a fellow-student with Schelling, who long 
exercised a great influence upon Hegel 
philosophy. After acting for some time 
as a private tutor in Switzerland and 
Frankfoi"t, he became possessed of a smal 
property by the death of his father, and 
was able to give up his tutorship, and 
take up his residence at Jena, where he 
published his first work, and became ac- 
quainted with Goethe and Schiller. Here 
also he was a lecturer, with four listeners. 
When, however, Schelling left Jena, Hegel 
was appointed his successor. He only 
held the chair for one year, for, as he was 



150 HEIGHT OF CHILDREN HERB ART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH 



writing the close of his rhenomenology of 
Mind, Jena was stormed by the French. 
He quitted Jena and went to Bamberg, 
where he edited a newspaper, till 1808, 
when he was appointed rector of the 
Gymnasium at Nuremberg. In 1816 he 
was called to the chair of philosophy at 
Heidelberg, and in 1818 was invited to 
the chair at Berlin, where he continued till 
his death by cholera. It would be out of 
place here to attempt to give an account 
of the Hegelian philosophy — a kind of 
idealistic pantheism — which has exerted 
so powerful an inlluence in Germany. We 
have only to refer to his work as a prac- 
tical educationist. At Nuremberg, where 
he was for some time rector, his rules and 
his discipline still largely obtain. An idea 
of his position may be gathered from some 
of the fragmentary expressions to be found 
in his writings, as: 'Teaching is the ai-t of 
rendering man moral;' 'It is especially 
the mission of the State to render attend- 
ance at elementaiy schools compulsory.' 
In Hegel's eyes Greek was the founda- 
tion of all higher culture. He insisted 
upon a close study of the classics, and 
maintained that the study of these lan- 
guages and their grammar was in itself 
an instrument of high intellectual culture. 
He made religion the principle of all edu- 
cation, and the foundation of all instruc- 
tion. Hegel's views on education and in- 
struction may be found scattered amongst 
his voluminous writings, esjctecially in the 
EncycJojmdie der Wissenschaften, and the 
GyvmasiaJreden. 

Height of Children. See Growth op 
Childeek. 

Herbart, Johann Friedrich (b. 1776; 
d. 1841), an eminent German educationist 
and philosopher, was born at Oldenburg, 
where his father held the position of 
Jtistizratli , and was educated at the Olden- 
burg gymnasium and the university of 
Jena. Young Herbart was intended for 
the law, but he eschewed it, and gradually 
directed his attention to the study of 
philosophy and the science of education. 
The works of Leibnitz and Kant formed 
his introduction to philosophy, and at 
Jena he had personal relations with Fichte, 
whose Wissenschaftslehre (Theory of Sci- 
ence) awakened in him a spirit of opposi- 
tion, as is evideiiced by his critique on 
the first two works of Schelling. In 1797 
he accepted the position of private tutor 
at Berne, in Switzei'land. During the 



next four years he made a study of the- 
pedagogical works of Pestalozzi, whom he 
visited at Bingdorf in 1799. In 1800 he 
returned to Germany, and, after a brief 
residence at Bremen, settled at Gottingen. 
Here, until 1809, when he accepted a call 
from Konigsberg as prqfesso)- ordinarins- 
of philosophy and pedagogy, he published 
the first results of his mature thought.. 
Among these may be mentioned Pesta- 
lozzi's Idea of the A B C of Observation 
Scientifically Treated (1804), Universal 
Pedagogy (1806), and the Principles of 
Metaphysics (1808). In Konigsberg he 
divided his time between his own re- 
searches, his academic duties, and work as 
a practical teacher in directing a seminary 
of teachers founded at his instance, and 
held after 1812 in his own house. In thus 
uniting under his own roof the advantages 
of school and family, Hei'bart endeavoured 
to utilise the powerful influence of each 
by making them supplement and assist 
each other. His ideal was education in 
the family, guided and assisted by the 
counsel of an experienced and a profes- 
sional teacher, and his ideal method em- 
braced brevity and vividness. In 1833 
he accepted a call to Gottingen, where in 
1 841 his studious and uneventful life came 
to a close. Shortly before his death he 
published a Plan of Lectures on Pedagogy 
(1841). Pedagogics is, according to Her- 
bart, closely connected with ethics and 
psychology, and really depends upon both. 
He divides the complete work of educatioi^ 
into discipline {Regierung), instruction 
(Unterricht), and dialectic training [Zucht), 
These are necessary since the child has no 
ability to concentrate the action of his 
organs upon one object to the exclusion of 
the rest, and since his individual will is 
the result of practice. It is the office of 
discipline to keep order and to subject the 
naturally unruly inclinations of the indi- 
vidual. Such subjection, howevei^, can 
only be effected by a power strong enough^ 
and acting so frequently as to be completely 
successful, before indications of a genuine 
will persisting in wrong are exhibited by 
the child. But all discipline must cease 
before training ceases, and should as soon 
as possible be relieved by the latter. In- 
struction must be educative. The aim of 
instruction should not be solely, or even 
predominantly, the amount of knowledge; 
nor should it be the acquisition of merely 
technical skill, but culture of the per- 



HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED VON^ HISTORICAL NOVELS 151 



sonality. Dialectic training embraces all 
direct action upon the disposition of the 
pupil which is prompted by the intention 
to purify and supplement his energies and 
to lead him towards objective liberty. It 
has thus to deal with the character of 
man. Character manifests itself by in- 
dividual preferences and is twofold, either 
objective or subjective. The objective 
factor of character consists of the indi- 
vidual's particular construction of incli- 
nation, indicated by the relative proportion 
of action, and the subjective in the en- 
joyment of complementary opposites, criti- 
cising the individual inclinations. In- 
deed, the great problem running through 
the whole of Herbart's writings on educa- 
tional science is — how to realise the five 
ideas of freedom, perfection, right, equity, 
and benevolence within the province of 
education. Herbart's philosophy was in 
great part a protest against the idealistic 
systems founded on Kant by Fichte and 
Hegel. His works have been collected in 
twelve volumes, and edited by his disciple 
Hartenstein (18.50-52). 

Herder, Johann Gottfried von (6. Moh- 
rungen, 1744; d. 1803), sometimes called 
the German Plato, became in 1764 assis- 
tant-teacher in the school of the cathedral 
at Riga, and preached there. He subse- 
quently became acquainted with Goethe, 
and in 1775 was appointed professor of 
theology at Gottingen. He spent his last 
years at Weimar. Richter often saw him, 
and has left us some pleasing sketches of 
him. He was appointed inspector of schools 
at Weimar, and carried out many important 
practical reforms, and caused new institu- 
tions to be founded, so that he takes an 
important place in the history of German 
education. In his Ideal of a School (an ap- 
pendix to his Sophron, or Collected School 
Speeches) he sketched a plan of studies. 
He divided his ideal school into two parts 
— the school proper or practical {Real), 
and the school of languages. The former 
he divided into three classes. In the 
' School of Language ' he rose against the 
excessive importance attached to Latin, 
and placed French very largely in its place. 
In this latter idea perhaps he stands alone 
amongst German educationists. He made 
three divisions of French, according to the 
age of the pupil. He said Latin should 
follow French, and Greek follow Latin. 
When, however, in 1783 he was required 
to furnish a plan for the reorganisation of 



schools, he did not proceed according to 
this theory. 

Heredity (Law of). — By this is meant 
the tendency of peculiarities, physical or 
mental, to transmit themselves from parent 
to offspring. This may show itself in a 
more general and uniform manner, as in 
the transmission of the typical characters 
of the species, or of some variety of that 
species, as a particular race of mankind. 
Thus, the English child may be said to 
inherit all that is distinctively human as 
well as the more special traits, physical 
and mental, which distinguish our par- 
ticular race and national type at its pre- 
sent stage of development. More com- 
monly, however, heredity refers to the 
handing down of more special and vari- 
able characters in particular families. 
Thus, children frequently inherit pecu- 
liarities of bodily structure, as features, 
of bodily action, as gesture, together with 
well-marked mental and moral peculiari- 
ties. It is not yet known how far the 
action of this principle extends, and what 
proportion of the peculiarities which make 
up what we call individuality are referable 
to it. According to the doctrine of evolu- 
tion the results of habitual modes of action 
of ancestors tend to transmit themselves 
by heredity to posterity (.see Evolution). 
Viewed in this way heredity corresponds 
in the development of the race to the laws 
of memory and of habit in the smaller 
domain of individual growth ; it is the 
conservative force by which the race re- 
tains all useful acquisitions, organising 
them into perfect habits or instincts. The 
study of the laws of heredity is useful to 
the educator as helping him not only to 
account for, but to anticipate, family traits, 
and also as accustoming him to look upon 
his work as su.bserving not merely the edu- 
cation of the individual but of the race, 
[See Th. Ribot's work. Heredity.) 

Heuristic Method. See Method. 

Hibbert Lectures, ^'ee Prelections 
(Extra Academic). 

Higher Grade Schools. .S'ee Classi- 
fication. 

Historical Novels. — Teachers have 
found that the history work of a school 
is considerably freshened and enlivened if, 
when any period is being treated, care is 
taken to let the pupils know what are the 
best novels and tales which relate to that 
period, and to persuade the pupils to read 
them. The little harm which the fancy 



152 



HISTORY (THE TEACHING OF) 



and invention of the writer niay clo — note- 
worthy perhaps in the case of adult stu- 
dents, but hardly perceptible in the case 
of children — is amply compensated for by 
the extra brightness of interest which is 
sure to be gained. To interest beginners 
in the work which they are just entering 
is, after all, the main thing ; n thoroughly 
scientilic inquiry may come afterwards — 
it certainly will not come before. Moi-e- 
over, the ' sportive instruction ' afforded 
by a novel does not absolve the pupil from 
the necessity for real exertion. It will 
rather, when the interest has been created, 
not only facilitate, but even necessitate, 
the strongest exertion on his part ; par- 
ticularly if the teacher is careful to start 
with his pupils a discussion of one or two 
of the novels read. In order to help 
teachers in this matter a descriptive cata- 
logue of historical novels and tales has been 
compiled by Mr. H. Courthope Bowen, and 
published bv Mr. Stanford, 55 Charing 
Cross, S.W.' 

History (the Teaching of). — In the 
teaching of history, as in that of every 
other subject, it is necessary for us to 
begin by deciding why we teach it. Do 
we seek to produce a scientific, well- 
reasoned knowledge of humanity — at least 
of civilised humanity ? As far as school 
is concerned we can only create a desire 
for this knowledge ; we can render our 
pupils capable of gaiiiing it hereafter ; 
and ill the latest periods of school-life we 
may even enable them to begin to acquire 
it. Are the facts of history in themselves 
of direct utility 1 We must answer. Sel- 
dom or never. Can the subject be used 
to train the mental faculties 1 Yes, all of 
them ; but in especial the imagination and 
the higher sentiments. Probably the most 
valuable results of the teaching of history 
at schools are the love of fatherland, an 
interest in humanity, and a delight in all 
those nobler feelings classed under the 
head of ethic or moral sentiments. Then 
must follow questions as to choice of sub- 
ject-matter and method. Should we begin 
with English or with universal History 1 
The people about whom children are most 
i-eadily interested are those with whom 
they come in contact — who in some way 
inliuence their lives; who bear names fa- 
miliar to them; who dAvell or have dwelt 
at places they know, or know at least by- 
name. The things they care about are 
those which they can see and touch; which 



they can be enabled readily to imagine ; 
which can be connected in some way with 
them and their lives. For these reasons 
it is best for English children to begin 
with English history. But they should 
not stop there. In the later stages they 
should proceed to acquire a general know- 
ledge of universal, or at least of Eui'opean, 
history. On the continent almost every 
country begins with national history ; and 
only very few schools h-.xxe followed the 
example of the Seminary School of Berlin, 
and stai-ted their curriculum with bio- 
grai:)hical sketches from universal history. 
Poi'tugal and France are the only countries 
whose codes recognise universal history. It 
is set down as a subject for the later periods. 
At the great public schools of England 
English history is almost wholly neglected 
— at least on the classical sides — epitomes 
of tlie histories of Greece and Rome tak- 
ing its place ; the modern sides, however, 
generally add English history to these, 
and occasionally glimpses of continental 
epochs. The next question is: Should we 
begin with the present and work back to 
the past, or continue to use a plan the 
reverse of this ? There is much to be said 
for both views. Tliis at least is agreed to 
by all, tliat the teacher when planning his 
lessons should himself work back from the 
present to the past, and should be always 
keenly alive to the great questions of the 
day, both at home and abroad, and to the 
bearing of the past upon them. On the 
whole it seems that though the present 
should always be the goal to be aimed at 
and reached by our pupils, it is better for 
them to begin ^\•ith the past and to work 
up to and into the present. Events of 
to-day are too complicated, too unfinished, 
too out of perspective for children to pro- 
perly appreciate their value and meaning 
at fii'st. They want something less crowded 
and varied, with cleai-er outlines, with a 
more decided beginning and end. A child's 
interest, hoAvever, is in the present, and 
the past is only interesting to him by its 
connection Avith the pi'esent, and as food 
for imagination and feeling. Should we 
begin with skeleton outlines to be gradually 
filled in, or take epoch by epoch ? Neither 
plan is quite satisfactory. It is waste of 
time to learn the outlines of anything 
which is itself still unknown. At best 
the memory only is exei'cised, and that at 
considerable disadvantage. The study of 
epochs is apt to produce scrappy and dis- 



HISTORY- 



-HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOC. 



153 



continuous knowledge, while attention is 
directed to matters of secondary import- 
ance within the epoch instead of to others 
of primary importance witliout it. It 
would seem best to comhiae the advantages 
of both plans by choosing a series of the 
most remarkable personages and events 
stretching from some point in the past 
down to the present ; to treat these more 
and more fully in successive stages, con- 
necting them in each stage by a brief 
narrative; and to fill in the interstices 
more and more in each successive stage 
with events and persons next in import- 
ance — the continuity and oneness of the 
Avhole history being carefully kept up in 
every stage. Should the subject-matter 
be political or social ? Although university 
professors may decide upon the former for 
their adult students, school-teachers will 
answer, ' Both.' They will not enter much 
at first into treaties and constitution ; they 
will be moderate in the use of ' drums and 
trumpets,' and, while eschewing wide gene- 
ralisations and vague abstractions, they 
will attend most to what illustrates and 
reveals social character and life. The de- 
tails of politics and constitutional matters 
are interesting to children in the last stage 
only of school-life. The teacher will find 
the following division into stages useful : 
In the first stage what interest children 
most are: action, personal adventure, per- 
sonal charactistics. Let everything be 
striking, dramatic, single — not compli- 
cated with argument or reflection ; with 
not too great a variety of interests. In 
the second stage children will want to 
know something of why and wherefore, 
and will be capable of maintaining more 
than one interest at a time. We may 
begin to criticise actions and character, 
and to look for causes and consequences 
of events. Individuals Avill cluster into 
classes, as classes will hereafter cluster 
into the nation. We may begin to sketch 
the first ideas of a State; and to get first 
ideas of public duty; and a curiosity as to 
what other nations were doing and think- 
ing about at the time may be started. In 
the third stage all this will advance a step. 
We may now treat of the nations as a 
whole ; enlarge and continue the ideas of a 
State and of public duty ; touch upon the 
greater matters of constitutional history; 
inquire more into the doings of foreign 
nations ; and gain larger and clearer views 
of social growth and progress. 



Holland (ITniversities of). See Uni- 
versities. 

Holloway College. See Provincial 
Colleges. 

Home and Colonial School Society. — 
The founder of this society was Mr. John 
Stuckey Reynolds, a distinguished civil 
servant. After filling in succession many 
important offices in the Treasury, he re- 
tired in 1835, and thenceforth devoted his 
whole time to the religious and philan- 
throphic work which had till then been 
the occupation of his leisure. His interest 
in the establishment of infant schools 
brought him into contact with Dr. Mayo 
of Cheam (the chief apostle in England of 
the views of Pestalozzi) and with Miss 
Mayo. The result of their intercourse 
was a determination on the part of Mr. 
Reynolds to introduce the principles of 
the Swiss reformer into English schools. 
With the co-operation of other public- 
spirited men and women, in the beginning 
of 1836 he established the society. The 
committee was formed on February 23, 
arid the institution opened on June 1. 
The object of the association was indicated 
by its original name — 'The Home and 
Colonial Infant School Society.' ■ The 
society was at first unsectarian. Its aim 
was stated in the orighial rule ii. to be 
the 'extension of the infant school system 
on Christian principles.' In 1841 a more 
definite meaning was given to the expres- 
sion by the addition, after 'Christian, 
principles,' of the words : ' As such prin- 
cij)les are set forth and embodied in the 
doctrinal articles of the Church of Eng- 
land.' The original rule iv. ran: — 'That 
considering it the province of the local 
committees of infant schools to select their 
own teachers, the society will educate 
teachers of different religious denomina- 
tions if holding the fundamental prin- 
ciples of the Bible, and of decided piety.' 
Though the rules were recast in 1848, no 
change was made in the wording of the 
two quoted, and no change has been made 
since. A change has, however, been made 
in the practice of the society. At first, most 
of the students trained were Dissenters ; 
most of the applications for teachers, on 
the contrary, came from Church schools. 
The committee, therefore, sent a circular 
to the clergy asking them to use their 
influence in increasing the number of 
Conforming candidates, and also tried to 
attract such candidates by inserting ad- 



154 



HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOCIETY 



vertisements in tlie newspapers. As a 
consoqnenoe, the (.'onimittt^e was able to 
announee, in their Tenth Animal Report, 
that 'nearly three ont of four now trained 
in the institution ai^e members of the 
Establishment.' The next step was the 
introduction of the present plan of insist- 
ing upon candidates for admission and 
students in training taking the archbishops' 
examination in religious knowledge. This 
maile the college practically a Church 
institution, though managed by a society 
nominally unsoctarian. From the begin- 
ning the Home and Colonial ditlei-ed in 
one important respect from the British 
and Foreign and the National Societies. 
The primary object of the older bodies 
was the establishment of schools, and they 
only opened colleges because they found 
trained teacliers essential to the success of 
tiieir schools; on the other hand, the pri- 
mary object of the younger body was the* 
provision of teachers specially prepared to 
educate infants, ai\d it left the establish- 
ment of schools to the enlightenment of 
managers. The society's students were 
originally male and female. Single men 
were not i-efused, and married couples 
were particularly invited. The number 
of single men tnxined was always insigni- 
ficant, and the eleventh report states that 
the supply of \narried couples was greatly 
diminished. Soon afterwaixls it ceased 
altogether, since when only mistresses 
have been trjxined. It was in 19 South- 
ampton Street, Holborn, that the society 
beg-an its operations in 1836. Next year 
a house was taken in Gray's Inn Road, 
with a large stable at the back. The 
stable was converted into a school, and 
the house (the middle one of the nine now 
occupied by the institution) became the 
nucleus of a college. The society saw 
clearly that if ti-aining is good and neces- 
sary for the teachers of the poor, it is 
equally good and necessary for all other 
teachers. The First Report dAvelt on the 
desirability of forming a class for the 
instruction of nursery governesses and 
teachei'S for infant schools of a supei'ior 
social grade, and the Fourth announced 
that an adjoining house had been taken 
and a separate department established for 
this branch of the work. The two de- 
partments have gone on side by side ever 
since, and it will thus be seen that for 
neaj-ly forty years the Home and Colonial 
School Societv was the only institution 



whicli offered even the rudinients of pro- 
fessional training to secondary teachers. 
In 1839, when the Education Pepartmei\t 
was established, the society carefully con- 
sidered the question of State aid. 'Without 
entertaining any very strong feeling on 
the question of parliamentary intei'ference 
with education,' the committee reported: 
' The majority of the committee would 
certainly have wislied that the Government 
should have confined its plan to the 
manufacturing districts until it had been 
ascertained what the public, intei-ested as 
it is now, could have accomplished, and 
they are more inclined to this opinion 
from the doubt they entertain whether 
any goven\ment would be disposed to give 
to the people an education as decidedly 
I'eligious as this committee would deem 
indispensable.' In 1843 the committee 
asked the Department ' to direct an exa- 
mination to be made into the system of 
education pursued' by the society, and 
Mr. Seymour Ti'emenheere accordingly 
visited, the establishment. His report 
describes the state of the institution, and 
speaks (generally with approval) of the 
method of training, which, if not the best 
possible, was perhaps as good as could be 
expectetl under the circumstances. When 
the famoxis minutes of 184(.> were issued 
the grants to colleges induced the com- 
mittee to apply for Government aid. The 
application was preceded by mature con- 
sidei'ation oi\ the part of the society, and 
followed by considerable correspondence 
with the Department ; but the Twelfth 
Report announced that thirty ' Govern- 
ment students' would be trained for a year 
or more. The next Repoi-t stated that the 
plan was working well, and it was extended 
gradually till it embraced the whole of the 
' Government department.' To the Revised 
Code of ]Mr. Lowe the society ofiered long 
and uncomprou\ising resistance. Of the 
Act of Mr. Forster, the society, on the 
whole, approved. The 'Government de- 
partment ' of the college at presei\t provides 
accommodation for a hundred and forty 
students. Connected with it are foiir 
schools — a model infant school ; a model 
and practising school for boys and girls in 
Standards lY.-VII. ; an upper practising 
school for boys and girls in Standanis II.- 
IV.; and the Reyiwlds practising school 
for boys and girls in Standards I.-IV. 
The 'Non-Government department' otfers. 
accommodation for an indetinite number of? 



HOME EDTJCATION- 



-HOME-LESSONS 



155 



students. Connected with this department 
is a middle-class school. 

Home Education. — By this term we 
mean the instruction and training of the 
young in the house of their parents, by the 
parents themselves and by tutors and go- 
vernesses. The advantages of such a plan 
are : the greater individual attention (as to 
mental powers, temper, physical health, 
etc.) which each child may receive ; greater 
security from evil influences, physical, in- 
tellectual, emotional, &c., which may be 
provided ; gTeater room and opportunity 
for individual development of poAvers, 
tastes, Arc. ; less publicity, more quiet, 
more gentleness, and the possibility of 
a closer and moi'e constant intercourse 
with pai'ents and brothers and sisters. 
The disadvantages, however, even in the 
best of homes, are great ; and in ordinary 
homes are almost overwhelming. At home, 
even when the family is large, there is 
great danger of there being too much 
supei'intendence and interference. The 
child has less incentive to exertion, less 
opportunity for measuring himself oi- her- 
self than at school. The general stimula- 
tion of numbers, the mutual education of 
those of like age, is lost. The ethical 
training produced by companionship with, 
and interests and i-esponsibilities in com- 
mon with, those who are not related to or 
connected with the child, and come from 
a distance — of all that may hereafter pro- 
duce social and civic virtue — is niissed. 
The self of the child is too prominent an 
object at home, and the discipline at home 
is apt to lack sound experience and to be 
fitful and uncertain. The play of child- 
hood, which is now recognised as a valu- 
able part of a child's training, requires 
numbers for its full, healthy enjoyment. 
The teachers employed at home are likely 
to be much inferior in skill, learning, and 
experience, and less varied in accomplish- 
ments. At school everything is arranged 
and continuously condu.cted for the special 
benefit and training of children ; while at 
home this can rarely or never be the case. 
The children at home are liable to too 
constant intercourse with adults; are ex- 
posed to dissipations, distractions, irregu- 
larities of all kinds ; and are likely to be 
thrown too much with servants, who, 
though kindly and Avorthy in many ways, 
are neither well-educated nor skilled 
trainers of the young, and are prone to 
* spoil ' them. The peculiar prejudices. 



narrownesses, &c., of the home and family 
are almost certain to be left uncorrected, 
and even to be emphasized. Other points 
might be mentioned ; but enough has been 
said to show that true wisdom lies in care- 
fully apportioning the time of the young 
between school and home; and that edu- 
cation requires the co-operation of both. 
(See Miss C. M. Mason's llonie Education ; 
Dr. Abbott's Hints on Home Teaching , 
etc.) 

Home - Lessons. — This is the name 
given to the work which a day-pupil is 
set to do betAveen the final dismissal of 
the school in the afternoon and the hour 
of reassembling next morning. It may 
consist either of Avritten woi-k or of learn- 
ing from a book ; and this Avork may take 
the form of either the practice, applica- 
tion, completion, revision of lessons pre- 
viously given; or it may be preparatory to 
lessons yet to come. Except Avhen written 
it is mainly an exercise of the memory. 
The younger the child the fcAver and 
shorter should the home-lessons be, and 
the less should they take the form of pi'e- 
paratoiy work. It is very doubtful whether 
an ordinary child under the age of nine can 
ever pi^operly pi'epare new work except 
while under careful guidance and super- 
vision. Eor children in a day-school under 
this age, therefore, it is generally wise to 
deA'ote the last hour of afternoon school 
to what would otherwise be 'home-lessons.' 
Few homes, except of the comparatively 
Avell-to-do, can provide the children with 
the isolation and supervision which home- 
lessons require ; and even Avhen these are 
provided, if the lessons are not very short 
there is no time left for free intei-course 
between parents and children. Moreover, 
in schools where the teaching is really 
good, and Avhere the boys and girls play 
heartily, pupils are generally too tired in 
the evening for much mental effort. In 
a day-school where the hours are from 
9.30 a.m. to 4.30 p.m., home-lessons for 
normal pupils under ten should never ex- 
ceed one hour, for those between ten and 
thirteen, one hour and a quarter, for those 
between thirteen and sixteen one hour 
and a half. The Avork done as ' home- 
lessons ' should be tested and corrected 
without fail on the following day. Its 
subjects should, therefore, be taken from 
those of that day, and the correction or 
testing of the home-lessons should occupy 
the first part of the divisions of time set 



156 



HONOUR- 



-HYGIENE OF SCHOOL LIFE 



down to those subjects on the time-table. 
In the case of written work, the teacher 
Avill, of coarse, have to inspect and mark it 
afterwards as well. Exercises should be 
corrected orally in class as soon as possible 
after they have been written : the marking 
(with red ink or chalk) of the mistakes 
made may come later. In very large 
classes it is easier to make sure that 
irrlften home-work has been done than 
that lessons have been learnt. But, on 
the other hand, the correction of this 
written work may become very burden- 
some. This again points to the necessity 
of care as to the kind of work chosen and 
of moderation in the amount set. 

Honour. — Tlie thirst for distinction or 
honour is a powerful motive in the young, 
and is directly appealed to in education, 
not only by the whole system of scholastic 
rewards and distinctions, but by the or- 
ganised system of physical contests that 
grows up in the playground, &c. As an 
intense degree of the love of reputation, 
ambition to gain honours is specially open 
to the objections that maybe urged against 
this moti^'e in general. The term ' honour ' 
lias come to have a special ethical signi- 
ficance. In addition to the common rules 
of right and wrong which bind us all, 
special rules, known as ' codes of honour,' 
are adopted by particular classes of the 
community, or coteries, for the purpose of 
maintaining their dignity and reputation. 
As we see in the case of duelling, such 
laws of honour are often mischievous, as 
overriding the plain dictates of morality. 
The formation of a standard and rules of 
honour by every community of school-boys 
is a valuable supplement to the moral dis- 
cipline of the schoolmaster. At the same 
time the tendency to impose a code of 
honour in the playground and classroom 
must be cai'ef ally watched, lest it tend to 
pervert a boy's notions of moral distinc- 
tions. The schoolmaster can help to form 
a higher notion of the claims of honour by 
throwing a boy on his honour, as, for ex- 
ample, when allowing him to go out of 
bounds. An appeal to the feeling of honour 
in this way, which was often resorted to by 



Dr. Arnold, may prove the most etiectual 
way of inciting a boy to moral effort, by 
encouraging him to act worthily thi'ough 
another's belief in him. (See Schmidt's 
EncycJopadie, ai-ticle ' Ehrgefiihl.') 

Horn-book. See Criss Cross Row. 

Hulsean Lecture. See Prelections. 

Humanities. — The Romans gave the 
title ' humanitas ' to the study of letters 
and the liberal arts, since by these man 
distinguishes himself from other animals 
and raises himself to the true dignity of 
his natui'e. Aulus Gellius (xiii. IG, quoted 
in the Dictionnaire de Pkiagogie) says : 
' Humanitas, that is, instruction in good 
arts, the which whosoever truly take to 
and seek after are in very deed most 
human. For the caring for this know- 
ledge and its discipline out of all living 
things is given to human beings only ; 
and therefore liath it been called hii- 
mnnitas.' The first and the chief leaders 
of the Italian Renascence called them- 
selves ' humanists,' and the name was 
adopted elsewhere. Later on the term 
' humanities ' was used in colleges and 
universities to signify that part of the 
studies which includes all that is, strictly 
speaking, litei'ary and classical. In this 
sense tlie term 'humanists' has often been 
used, from the seventeenth century down to 
our day, in contradistinction to ' realists ' — 
the name given to cliampions of the study 
of things (instead of 'words) and of physical 
science generally. The term ' Professor of 
Humanity' is still used in the universities 
of Scotland, as equivalent to Professor of 
Latin. Sre Middle Ages (Schools op). 

Hygiene of School Life. — The subject 
of health in relation to school life naturally 
divides itself into that of healthy schools 
and healthy scholars. Under the former 
head the i-eader should refer to articles on 
Architecture of Schools, Ventilation, 
Temperature of Air, Impurities op Air, 
Dormitories, Warming Apparatus, Sana- 
torium ; under the latter head refer to 
articles on Overpressure, Physical Edu- 
cation, Rkcreation, Sex, Smoking, Eye- 
sight, Epidemic Diseases, Communicable 
Diseases, Sleep, School Surgery. 



ILLUSTRATION IMITATION 



i5r 



I 



Illustration in its most comprehensive 
meaning is the rendering of an idea or 
truth clear to another mind. This is 
effected by setting what is presented in a 
relation of likeness to some known thing, 
and so promoting the process of mental 
assimilation. Hence all illustration pro- 
ceeds by connecting by some link of 
similarity, affinity, or analogy, what is 
new and obscure with what is old and 
familiar. Illustration may be employed 
in the description of some concrete object, 
as in the use of illustrative analogies in 
setting forth geographical or historical 
facts. It is chiefly required, however, in 
expounding all abstract ideas and prin- 
ciples. Here intelligibility depends upon 
a selection of suitable examples or in- 
stances which may serve to exhibit the 
abstract idea in a living concrete form. 
This illustration of the general rule by the 
particular case may be regarded as an 
extension of the inductive method, which 
proceeds by leading a child to grasp a 
general principle through a comparison of 
particular instances. [See Method.) It 
may be added that illustration, though it 
commonly refers to bringing out points of 
similarity, inckides the setting forth of 
contrast as well. {See Contrast.) 

Imagination is the name of that faculty 
or power by which we form or make a 
mental representation of a concrete object 
which is not presented to the senses at the 
time. It may be popularly defined as the 
power of mentally picturing things. If 
this pictviring means the recalling to mind 
of something which we have actually seen, 
it is known as Reproductive Imagination, 
whereas if it means the formation of anew 
mental image it is known as Constructive 
Imagination. It will be seen from this 
definition that imagination is exercised 
not merely about the fictitious creations 
of poetry and art, but about common 
realities. The cultivation of the imagina- 
tion thus subserves two main ends, know- 
ledge and aesthetic delight. The first is 
illustrated in the teaching of concrete sub- 
jects, as geography and history, where the 
pupil is required to reproduce the impres- 
sions of his past experience, with a view 
to constructing images of the new objects, 
scenes, and events, described by the teacher. 



It is further illustrated, though in a less- 
obvious way, in science-teaching, the ab- 
stract principles of which can only be 
reached by preliminary processes of imagi- 
nation. The cultivation of the imagination 
for aesthetic purposes is carried on in close 
connection with the development of the 
feelings and the taste. Here the object of 
the educator should be to render the child's 
mind sensitive and responsive to what is. 
beautiful, pathetic, or sublime in the poet's 
creations, so that his imagination may be 
stimulated to a vivid realisation of the 
same. The imagination is commonly in- 
cluded among the faculties which are strong 
or highly developed in the child; yet it is 
important to distinguish between the ran- 
dom, unguided movements of childishfancy 
and the orderly progress of a trained, 
imagination (cf. Coxstructive Faculty). 
{See Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psyclio- 
logy, chap, xi.) 

Imitation is the name for the propen- 
sity or impulse to copy the actions which 
we see others perform. In a comprehensive 
sense we may be said to imitate or repro- 
duce the modes of thought and feeling as 
well as the actions of others, but in mental 
science imitation is regarded as a principle 
which especially governs the actions — as 
where a child imitates a bodily movement 
or a vii'tuous action. Imitation is com- 
monly spoken of as instinctive or original, 
but it has recently been shown that the 
first imitative movements occur about the 
end of the fourth month. This fact sug- 
gests that in order to imitate another's 
action, the child must have progressed a 
certain way in the association of the sight 
of a movement as executed by another, 
and the impulse to perform a similar 
movement. This association is brought 
about, first by looking at his own organs 
when in movement, and then recognising 
the similarity of others' movements. Imi- 
tation plays a very important part in the 
early development of the bodily powers. 
Children learn to use their limbs and their 
voice under the lead of others' example. 
The impulse to adopt the movements of 
others tends also to the reproduction of 
their emotional states as manifested in 
certain definite expressive movements, e.g. 
frowning. Besides such imitation pure 



158 



IMPOSITIONS IMPURITIES OF AIR 



and simple, whii'li aims at iiognititioatiou 
beyond itself, there are eertaiu mixed 
forms. C">f these we may iustanee mi- 
micry, which, as now understood, implies 
the gratiticatioi\ of the feeling- of the 
ludicrous, a childish propensity which 
needs to be kept within proper bounds; 
ai\d that emulative form of imitation 
which is a conspicuous feature in all kinds 
of youthful contests. Imitation takes on 
ii more conscious and dignitied form in all 
deliberate attempts at copying N\hat is felt 
to be worthy in the sentiments and conduct 
of others. This kind of imitation, which is 
correlated with what we call the force of 
example, is one of the chief iiids to moral 
education. The influence of companions, 
and of the personality of the parent and 
of the teacher, owes its moral signilicance 
to tlio operation of the principle of imita- 
tion. This often works unconsciously, as 
where a ehild passively adopts the man- 
ners and even the feelings aiui nuttives of 
others without any conscious etibrt. Imi- 
tation, liowever, only attains its highest 
moral value when the child distinctly sets 
up aiiother's mode of feeling and conduct 
as an example, and a model for his own. 
Such imitative etfort plays a larger part 
as years advance, and ought to become a 
powerful means of ntoral growth towards 
tlie end of the school period. It is in re- 
lation to the imitative tendency of child- 
hood and youth that the teacher's per- 
sonality and character become a matter of 
the highest moral consei.]uence. Know- 
ingly or unknowingly he is always acting 
upon this impulse, and moulding the ways 
of his pupil into conformity with his own. 
(See Bain, Art')ital and Moml Science, book 
iv. chap, ii.; SuUy, 'Teacher's Ifandbook, 
chap, ix.) 

Impositions. ^V(> Rewards. 

Impurities of Air are more likely to 
collect in schoolrooms than in private 
houses, owing to the close aggreg-ation of 
children. It has been well said tlu\t ' our 
own breath is our greatest enemy,' and it 
is fivm this source that the most danger- 
ous impurities arise. The air expii-ed from 
the lungs contains a large excess of car- 
bonic-acid gas. Ordinary out-door air con- 
tains four parts of carbonic acid in ten 
thousand of air, but in expired air this is 
increased to four hundred parts. Five 
liundred children asaembled in one room 
produce in an hour as much carbonic acid 
as is equivalent to tlje solid charcoal or 



carbon contained in '20 lbs. of coal. Expired 
air also contains volatile organic matter in 
suspension, which is of a highly putretiable 
nature, and gives to a crowded room its 
characteristically close and stuffy smell. 
The carbonic acid is far from harmless, but 
this organic matter is still more poisonous 
and injurious to the health. The fact that 
expired air contiuns considerable aqueous 
vapour is another reason why free ventila- 
tion is I'equired. 

Testtt /or Aeriallmpui'ities. — The sense 
of siurU is perhaps one of the best ; only 
it must be exercised after a few minutes' 
exposure to the open air, and before it has 
become blunted by staying in a vitiated air. 
On entering a. room of which the atmo- 
sphere is impure, it will be found percepti- 
bly stufiy if the carbonic acid in it reaches 
six parts in ten thousand of air, and the 
degree of stufUnessor closeness as perceived 
by the educated smell is a very fair indi- 
cation of the amount of impurity present. 
The stufty smell is not due to the carbonic 
acid, but to the organic matter associated 
Avith it. Inasmuch as the two are in fairly 
constant proportion to each other, and the 
quantitative tests for carbonic acid are 
much easier to apply than for organic 
matter, the amount of cai'bonic acid is 
usually taken as a criterion of the state of 
a given atmosphere. The following simple 
c/ni)iical test may be applied : Take a 
bottle capable of holding ten and a half 
fluid ounces, blow the air of the room into 
it by nu\it\s of a bellows, pour in a table- 
spoonful (half an ounce) of clear lime- 
water, and after corking tightly, shake the 
bottle well. If no milkiness is produced 
— by the chemical combination of lime and 
carbonic acid producing chalk — then the 
amoxmt of carbonic acid is below what is 
regarded as the limit of purity: viz. six 
parts in ten thou&md of air. 

£^'ects of Jiespiratory Impurities. — 
When these are very concenti'ated, head- 
ache, giddiness, and faintness are pro- 
duced. When the impurity is less ex- 
treme there is a general lowering of the 
system, owing to the excess of carbonic 
acid and the organic matter preventing 
the oxidation processes of the body, and 
poisoning the blood. A general lassitude 
results, and an increased proneness to fall 
the victim to respiratory and other diseases. 
Drowsiness, languor, and yawning in 
schools are an indication for thorough 
flushing of the rooms with fresh air. 



INATTENTION- 



-INDUCTION 



159 



Mental work cannot be successfully carried 
on when the blood which supplies the 
brain is vitiated with impure air, and the 
mind is therefore kept in a sort of mental 
fog. Where furnaces and stoves are used 
carbonic-oxide gas is ajot to get into the 
rooms, producing giddiness, headache, and 
depression of the general Jiealth. The use 
of coal-gas for lighting purposes is another 
common source of polluted atmosphere. 
Both carbonic acid and sulphurous acid 
are produced in the combustion of coal- 
gas. By the combustion of 1 cubic foot 
of coal-gas 2 cubic feet of carbonic acid 
are produced. A medium gas-burner burns 
3 cubic feet of gas per hour, and therefore 
produces 6 cubic feet of carbonic acid, i.e. 
about as much carbonic acid as ten adults 
produce in the same time. 

Inattention. See Attention. 
India (Educational Law of). See 
Law (Educational). 

Indian Association (National) was 
•established under influential auspices in 
1870, for the promotion of social and 
educational progress in India. The as- 
sociation {inter alia) gives grants in en- 
couragement of education — especially fe- 
male education — in India, for promoting 
the employment of Indian medical women, 
for selecting English teachers for Indian 
families, and for helping Indian teachers 
and students in England. There are 
several branches of the association in 
India. Hon. Sec, Miss E. A. Manning, 
35 Bloomfield Road, Maida Hill, Lon- 
don, W. 

Indian Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Individuality, so far as it needs to be 
considered here, may be defined as the 
sum of mental and moral qualities which 
characterise a particular person, distin- 
guishing him from other persons. Such 
individual peculiarities have their condi- 
tions in the physical organism, a fact 
clearly recognised in the doctrine of Tem- 
perament [see Temperament). Accord- 
ing to the universal biological law, that 
all living forms tend to differ one from 
another (within certain limits), every 
child's brain, together with its constitu- 
tion as a whole, has its own peculiar stamp 
from the first. And these physical pecu- 
liarities serve to determine the special 
mental traits, intellectual and moral. 
Within the limits of the typical human 
development every child is impelled to 



follow a line of development of its own. 
This impulse is much more marked in 
some children than in others. A strong 
individuality is an integral element in 
that later moral product which we call 
Character (q.v.). The educator is per- 
haps naturally inclined to regard indi- 
viduality as an obstacle and a limitation, 
since in extreme cases it implies resistance 
to his moulding influences. Here, how- 
ever, we must distinguish between indi- 
viduality which involves no deviation from 
the normal type, and eccentricity which 
implies such deviation. Rightly con- 
sidered, individuality is not something 
wrong which the educator has to correct, 
but one chief aim of the work of educa- 
tion itself. The object of tlie teacher 
should be to make a careful study of every 
child's intellectual and moral peculiarities, 
with a view to develop all that is valuable 
in these, and so produce a fine individual. 
This furtherance of individuality has to 
be harmonised with the development of a 
typically complete human being. Thus, 
in intellectual education we should aim at 
securing a certain general culture of the 
faculties by a common plan of study, and, 
at the same time, a special training of 
individual aptitudes by selected or optional 
studies. The value of individuality as an 
element of personal and social well-being 
has been emphasized by a number of recent 
thinkers, among whom may be mentioned 
W. von Humboldt and J. S. Mill. {See 
J. S. Mill, On Liberty, chap, iii., and the 
article 'Individuality,' in Schmidt's Ency- 
clopddie.) 

Induction is reasoning from particular 
cases to a general truth or principle, and 
so is the converse of deduction, which is 
reasoning from a general truth to a par- 
ticular case {see Deduction). In induc- 
tion we start from experience, employing 
the instruments of passive observation 
and active experiment. Children begin 
to reason spontaneously by passing from 
particular facts or experiences to similar 
concrete cases. This may be called a crude 
or imperfect form of induction. Induction 
proper only begins when the mind frames 
a general proposition, as : ' All plants have 
roots.' The early inductions or generalisa- 
tions of childhood are characterised by 
haste and want of a sufficiently wide com- 
parison of facts and an adequate inspec- 
tion and analysis of the facts observed. 
Scientific induction, which is concerned 



160 



INDUCTIVE METHOD- 



INSPECTORS OF SCHOOLS 



with the discovery of the causes of natural 
phenomena, proceeds by the employment 
of a method which it is the special busi- 
ness of inductive logic to formulate. Such 
methodical induction is best illustrated in 
the so-called inductive sciences and — so 
far as they employ experiment — experi- 
mental sciences, such as experimental 
physics, chemistry, &c. The study of these 
sciences is, therefore, the best training in 
inductive reasoning. [See Mill, Logic, 
bk. iii. chaps, i. and ii. ; or Jevons, Ele- 
inentary Lessons, xxv. and following; 
Bain, Education as Science, p. 154, &c.) 

Inductive Method. See Method. 

Industrial Schools, as defined by the 
consolidating Industrial Schools Act of 
1866, are schools in which industrial 
training is provided, and children are 
lodged, clothed, and taught. They are 
really schools for the reclamation of juve- 
nile vagrants, and the neglected children 
of criminal parents. Any child found 
begging, or wandering homeless or desti- 
tute — whether an orphan or having one or 
both parents in prison; or living in the 
company of thieves and prostitutes; may 
be taken by any person before a magistrate, 
who may order the child to be sent to a cer- 
tificated industrial school. Refractory 
children whether in the workhouse or in 
charge of parents or guardians may also 
be sent by the justices to such a school, as 
may also children under twelve on convic- 
tion for a criminal ofi'ence. Provision is 
made for sending the child, if possible^ to 
a certified industrial school controlled by 
the religious denomination to which the 
parents or guardians belong. There are 
also day industrial schools for children 
whom it is not thought desirable to send 
to the ordinary elementary schools. Pa- 
rents, if able, are required to contribute to 
the maintenance of children during their 
detention iia industrial schools, which are 
mainly supported, however, by contribu- 
tions from the Treasury, the local rates, 
and private individuals and societies. (See 
Truant Schools.) 

Infant Schools. See Home and Colo- 
nial School Sojiett, and Classifica- 
tion. 

Infectious Diseases of School Life. 
See Communicable Diseases. 

Inspectors of Schools. — The appoint- 
ment of Government Inspectors of Schools 
in the United Kingdom dates from 1839, 
when Parliament voted 30,000/. to assist 



in the work of erecting and enlarging- 
schools. The duty of the inspectors at 
first cotLsisted in seeing that this and 
subsequent building grants were properly 
appropriated. It was not until 1846 that 
a regular system of examining and report- 
ing upon schools receiving Government aid 
was instituted. This was the year of the 
celebrated Minutes under which augmen- 
tation grants to teachers for pupil-teachers 
were made, and the Queen's Scholarships 
(q.v.) instituted. Still greater importance 
was attached to the work of inspection in 
1863, when capitation grants (see Grants) 
were first voted by Parliament. Another 
memorable date in the history of school 
inspection is 1861, the year of the Code 
(q.v.) drawn iip by Mr. Lowe (afterwards 
Lord Sherbrooke) as the result of the report 
of the Duke of Newcastle's Commission. 
The report urged that the only way to secure 
the efliciency of elementary education was 
'to institute a certain examination by 
competent authority of every child in every 
school to which grants are to be paid, with 
a view of ascertaining whether those essen- 
tial elements of knowledge are thoroughly 
acquired, and to make the prospects and 
position of the teachers dependent to a 
considerable extent on the results of the 
examination.' Inspectors were appointed 
to carry out this recommendation. Though 
the system of inspection under the Code is 
much more rigid than under the Minutes 
of 1846, the inspectors under the former 
have been relieved of much of the respon- 
sibility which was imposed upon the in- 
spectors under the latter, who wei'e required 
to give their opinions upon the religious 
as well as the intellectual merits of each 
school. It is now no part of the duty of 
the inspector to enquire into any instruc- 
tion in religious subjects. Various objec- 
tions have been raised, however, against 
the present system, and especially against 
the practice which prevails in England, 
Scotland, and Wales, though not in Ire- 
land, of appointing inspectors, without 
requiring them to give conclusive evidence 
of special qualification for the duties they 
have to discharge. In Ireland candi- 
dates for the ofiice of inspector of schools are 
required to give proof of their knowledge 
of the theory and practice of education, 
and of school management, by examination 
as well as by a subsequent course of pro- 
bation under a chief inspector. In the 
rest of the United Kingdom, however^ 



INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION (COUr.SE OF) 



161 



this precaution is not taken, and official 
favouritism and political exigency have 
much to do with the appointments of 
inspectors of schools. Elementary teachers 
themselves are not eligible for inspector- 
ships, though Mr. Matthew Arnold, Dr. 
Fitch, and other important witnesses before 
the Education Commission of 1887, gave 
evidence in favour of appointing successful 
teachers. Mr. Matthew Arnold expressed 
the opinion tlaat the great bulk of inspec- 
tors might with advantage be drawn from 
the ranks of elementary teachers, as they 
are in France, Germany, Switzerland, Bel- 
gium, and indeed almost every European 
country. Mr. Arnold further expressed 
his preference for the Continental system 
of inspection generally, inasmuch as it is 
not so mechanical as our o"wn. The Con- 
tinental insjDectoi-s merely have to see 
that the law is observed, that the school 
programme is carried out, and that the 
teachers do not neglect their duty, but 
they have little or nothing to do with the 
examination of the children. 

Instruction (from the Latin instruere, 
to build up or form) means the informing 
of the mind by a communication of know- 
ledge. It is commonly distinguished from 
education, which aims not so much at the 
distribution of knowledge as at the deve- 
lopment' of faculty or power {see Intellec- 
tual Education). Instruction or teach- 
ing is correlated with learning, or the 
acquisition of knowledge, and its methods 
must be determined by the conditions of 
this last (see Teaching and Learning). 

Instruction (Course of). — It has been 
stated under the article Classification 
that great convenience arises from defining 
the several grades of schools by the average 
age at which the school life of the scholar 
ends. So that an elementary school may be 
usefully defijied as one in which the course 
of instruction is laid down for those whose 
school life ends at thirteen or thereabouts; 
and a third-grade secondary school, as one 
in which the course of instruction is laid 
down for those who leave school at four- 
teen or thereabouts ; a second-grade, at 
sixteen or thereabouts ; a first-grade, at 
eighteen or nineteen. Yet although age is 
the principal factor, there are other factors 
to be taken into account in determining 
the course of instruction to be pursued in 
each school ; some external, as the social 
aims of the parents and the future careers 
of the scholars; and some internal, as the 



number of hours each week, and the num- 
ber of years, for which a given subject can 
find a place in the time-table, having due 
regard to the claims of the other subjects. 
The chief thing, however, to be borne in 
mind is that the average age of leaving 
school does essentially differentiate the 
curriculum of a school of a particular 
grade, from the schools of other grades. 
This point needs strongly enforcing, because 
a popular fallacy has associated itself with 
the idea of the ' Educational Ladder ' 
through the schools of various grades, from 
the elementary school to the university, 
which requires to be disposed of in the in- 
terests of the scholars for whom it is desired 
that that ladder should be provided. This 
fallacy consists in supposing that a talented 
child 'from the gutter' should be kept at an 
elementary school until he has finished 
the course there, and should then be passed 
on to a third- or second-grade secondary 
school till he has reached the limit of 
age for that school; and then, again, be 
transferred to a first-grade school to be 
prepared for the university. The fallacy 
takes another form, injurious to a more 
numerous, though less able, class of young 
persons, when it is assumed — as it is by 
many parents — that a boy who stays at a 
first-grade school until he is sixteen or 
thereabouts gets the same kind of educa- 
tion, and has been as well fitted for his 
future career, as if he had been under in- 
struction in a second-gTade school up to 
that age. But the facts are that it is almost 
fatal to keep a talented lad at any grade of 
school in the ladder until he has completed 
the course laid down in that school, before 
passing him on to the next ; and it is 
highly prejudicial to the interests of an 
average boy to place him in a higher grade 
of school than that which corresponds to 
the limit of age at which it is intended 
that his education should cease. The mis- 
conception has arisen partly from the 
impression that a scholar of a given age is 
doing very much the same kind of work 
in whatever grade of school he may be ; 
partly from inability to realise the fact 
that a widening of the course of instruc- 
tion, according to the grade of school 
and increased length of school life, takes 
place from the very lowest class in each 
school upwards. The curricula of schools 
of various grades cannot in fact be com- 
pared to so many inverted frusta of cones 
piled one on the other, the base of each of 

M 



162 INSTRUCTION (COURSE OF) INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION 



which, as you ascend, exactly fits on to the 
upper side of the tViistuni ininiediately 
below; but rather to a series of frusta, each 
of which starts from a wider base as the 
grade of the school is higher. Some of 
the subjects may be taught in all the 
grades of schools, and yet the mode of 
treatment of the subjects, the particular 
stage taught to a scholar of a given age, 
and the extent to which the subject is ulti- 
mately carried will vary according to the 
grade of school. Thus English, Latin, 
science, mathematics, may be taught in 
elementary schools and in all three 
grades of secondary schools. But a scholar 
in each of these classes of schools will be 
at an entirely different stage of knowledge 
in these subjects, at a given age. Again, 
a boy of sixteen leaving a first-grade or 
second-grade school will, in either case, 
have spent so many hours of school life, at 
Latin, for instance; but, in the first case, 
his knowledge, though wide, Avill be in- 
complete, as the curi'iculum contemplates 
his staying at school until eighteen or 
nineteen; in the other case, it will be 
complete for its purpose, as the curriculum 
was laid down with a view of giving such 
a course of instruction in that language as, 
though narrower, would meet certain well- 
defined I'equirements, possible of attain- 
ment by the leaving age. Two things fol- 
low from wliat has been said : first, that one 
subject of instruction cannot be definitely 
called an ' elementary ' subject, and another 
a 'secondary' subject, for a subject may 
be common alike to the cui'ricula of every 
grade of school : only its treatment and 
range will be diftei*ent ; secondly, that it 
is absolutely necessary for the effectiveness 
of the educational ladder that the scholar 
who is to be passed up it should leave the 
elementary school some years — prob;i,bly 
two — before he has reached the superior 
limit of age for such a school, and should 
be transferi'ed to a second-grade school, if 
it is proposed to pass him on to a scientific 
or engineering course at sixteen or seven- 
teen, or to a first-grade school, if circum- 
stances are favourable, and he shows signs 
of such literary or other ability as would 
promise him a successful career at one 
of the older universities. It is similarly 
true that, if such a scholar as this should 
be found at a second-grade school, he 
should have facilities given him for passing 
on to a first-grade school at thirteen or 
fourteen, rather than at sixteen years of 
age. 



The question of the retention of Latin 
(see Latin ; Classical Culture) in other 
than first-grade schools in England has been 
mooted again and again, as in Gei'many 
in connection with the curricula of Real- 
sciiULEN {q.v.). Up to this time the 
genei'al feeling has been in favour of its 
retention. If this language were excluded 
it is certain that boys of exceptional talent 
would find a serious impediment to their 
rising to the higliest education. Looking 
generally upon Education as the 'social 
bridge which unites all classes of society 
in England,' some have averred that ' the 
cement is furnished directly or indirectly 
by tlie Latin language. ' It is felt, too, that 
the divorce of the second-grade schools and 
grammar-schools in small towns (wliicli ai'e 
in reality second-grade) from the medical 
and legal professions — both of which re- 
quire Latin in their preliminary examina- 
tions — and from the univei'sities Avou.ld be 
a formidable price to pay for the abandon- 
ment of Latin. Up to the pi'esent time, 
then, Latin holds its own; and, subject to 
the common-sense maxim ' Either good 
Latin or none,' has justified its position. 
But whether it will do so always, in 
presence of the increasing cry for ad- 
vanced technical training, and for better 
and more colloquial knowledge of French 
and German to fit English pupils to com- 
pete successfully in connuerce with youths 
of foreign nationality, is doubtful. It is 
certain that the curriculum of second- and 
third -grade schools does not admit of any 
great extension in either a technical or 
modern-language direction, without the 
dropping out of some other subject; and, 
as the cry for tliis gains in intensity, it 
looks as though Latin would be the subject 
that will have to drop out. But this would 
mean a great revolution in English modes 
of thought and methods of education ; and 
as, in general, English movements do not 
progress by revolution, the abolition of 
Latin, if it takes place at all, will probably 
come about very gradually. (For the 
course of instruction in public elementary 
schools in England and elsewhere see under 
Standards.) 

Intellectual Education is that branch 
of education which concerns itself with 
the intellectual faculties, and seeks to 
develop these harmoniously, and in the 
order of their development. This can 
only be efiected by putting the child's 
mind into an attitude of inquiry in relation 



INTEREST JANSENISTS (THE) 



163 



-fco certain materials of knowledge which 
are presented to it, either in the shape of 
objects to be observed by the senses, or 
Tvords to be interpreted and understood. 
That is to say, faculty is developed in and 
by the process of gaining knowledge. And 
i;o this extent the aims of instruction and 
education are identical. 

Interest (from inter-esse, to be of 
importance) describes the effect of feeling, 
and more particularly pleasurable feeling, 
in rousing and sustaining the attention. 
The feeling may be the immediate result 
of the action of an object on the mind, as 
•when a child is attracted by a pretty pic- 
ture; or may be due to a process of asso- 
ciation and suggestion, as when a child is 
interested in watching the preparation of 
its food. Interest is closely connected 
with curiosity. A child desires to know 
what can be known about objects that are 
interesting to him, such as his pet animals, 
his toys, &c. From this it is apparent 
that the intellectual educator has at the 
■outset to seek to awaken in the child's 
mind a feeling of interest in the subject 
presented to it. This he will do partly by 
"bringing out all that is striking, pretty, 
&c., in the subject, and partly by connect- 
ing it with known sources of interest in 
the child's surroundings. One chief aim 
of the instructor should be to develop 
new interests, answering to the different 
domains of knowledge to be dealt with, as 
history and natural science. It is evident 
that in order to awaken such a feeling of 
interest and study attention must be paid 
to individual differences of sensibility; 
cf . Attention. (See Sully, Teacher's Hand- 
book, p. 87 and following.) 

Intermediate Schools. See Classifi- 
cation. 



Intuition, Intuitive Method. — In its 
original and proper sense intuition is the 
apprehension of an object by one of the 
senses, and more particularly the sense of 
sight — in other words, the act of percep- 
tion (q.v.). In a secondary manner it has 
come to mean the grasp or understanding 
of an idea in so far as this approximates 
in character to a perception of the senses. 
Thus the distinct imaginative picturing or 
realisation of any object, as a volcano, is 
a mode of intuition. We may thus be 
said to have an inttcitive knowledge of any 
object or idea that we can distinctly per- 
ceive or imagine. Such intuitive know- 
ledge is marked off from symbolic know- 
ledge, e.g. that of large numbers, which 
does not admit of being reduced to a 
sensible or picturable form. From this 
definition it will be evident that the In- 
tuitive method in teaching consists in re- 
ducing abstract ideas as far as possible to 
sensible concretes, in setting out in the 
exposition of any abstract notion, such as 
an angle, a verb, justice, with concrete 
illustrations addressed to the senses or to 
the pictorial imagination. It thus corre- 
sponds pretty closely with the Inductive 
Method (see Method). On the nature of 
Intuition and the Intuitive Method see 
Jevons' JEJl. Lessons in Logic, p. 57 and fol- 
lowing; Compayre, Coursde Pedagog., pp. 
265-69; Buisson, Diet. dePed., art. 'In- 
tuition ' ; and Schmidt, EnGyGlopddie, art. 
' Anschauung.' 

Ireland, Education in. See Law 
(Educational). 

Irish Universities. See Univeesities. 

Italian. See Modern Languages. 

Italian Universities. See Univer- 
sities. 



J 



Jansenists (The). — This was the title 
given to the recluses, both men and women, 
whose chief retreat was the Abbey of 
Port-Royal, fifteen miles s.w. of Paris, 
and who had adopted many of the views 
of the learned Jansen, Bishop of Ypres 
(died 1638). The women of this sect 
lived chiefly at the Abbey and in a re- 
tired convent in Paris; the men chiefly in 
the neighbourhood of the former; some- 
times on the farm of Les Granges, or at 



Chesnai, sometimes at the Chateau des 
Trous, not far off. The sect was never a 
large one, and suffered much persecution 
through the instrumentality of the Jesuits, 
who were completely triumphant in 1660. 
The last trace of a Jansenist house disap- 
peared in 1790; but many of their reKgious 
views and most of their educational prin- 
ciples are still powerful in France. In 
the petites ecoles, or little schools, which 
they established about the year 1643 — but 

m2 



164 



JANSENISTS (THE) 



Tiphich were only fully at work between 
1646 and 1656, and ceased to exist in 
1660 — the Port-Royalists (as they are 
often called) sought to realise Erasmus's 
idea of a place of education which should 
combine all the good qualities, and avoid 
all the drawbacks, both of home and of a 
public school. Their aim was neither to 
proselytise nor to make profit of any kind 
by their little schools; but 'with God's 
blessing to be of some service to little 
children.' Never was a more earnest, 
unselfish, loving endeavour made to put 
into practice the most liberal and en- 
lightened views possible at the time to 
educational thinkers. Into t]\e,\v religious 
views, which were ascetic and gloomy, we 
cannot here enter. We shall restrict our- 
selves to stating some of their most marked 
opinions on the education of boys. 

It is in the character of the teachers 
and of the teaching, not in any outward 
advantages enjoyed by the schools, that 
we must look for the explanation of the 
fame of the Port-Royalist system of edu- 
cation. The master-mind of the Port- 
Royalists was Hauranne de Yerger, Abbot 
of St. Cyran. He had hoped to establish 
a church- seminary, and had thought of 
Lancelot as a man who had that gift, 
'one of the rarest,' of fitness for the work 
of education. But St. Cyran fell under 
Richelieu's displeasure, and an imprison- 
ment, to last till within a very few years 
of his death, prevented him from carrying 
out in person his scheme. The very 
intentions, however, of men like St. Cyran 
are worth more than the deeds of ordinary 
men. Those who had come under the 
spell of his influence seldom rested till 
they found means of realising the ideas 
with which he had inspired them. His 
hopes were to be realised in the j^etites 
ecoles, whose existence, curiously, dates 
from the same year as that of his death. 
Of these schools, Lancelot was always to 
be, to say the least, one of the moving 
spirits. Both he and his colleagues were 
men of singular energy, piety, and devoted- 
ness. Lancelot writes to a friend, ' II faut 
que les precepteurs s'estiment heureux de 
sacrifier leurs travaux, leurs interets et 
leur vie pour ces petits, que Dieu leur a 
confi^s '; and this feehng that their pupils 
were a sacred charge lies at the root of 
all their character and conduct as teachers. 
It leads them to startling conclusions on 
the subject of discipline', it makes them 



memorable reformers in matters of instruc- 
tion. The Jesuits had substituted for the- 
old monastic regime of incessant punish- 
ment, mainly corporal, an elaborate system 
of rewards. Appeal to the spirit of emu- 
lation was, in fact, a leading principle of 
the Jesuit schoolmaster. The Port- Roy- 
alists, on the other hand, thought of this^ 
spirit as a relic of the old Adam. A 
striking sentence in Pascal's Pensees shows 
us how he was alive at once to the beauty 
of the Port-Royal theory, and to the dan- 
ger in its practice : 'L'admiration gate- 
tout des I'enfance. Oh ! que cela est bien. 
dit ! qu'il a bien fait ! qu'il est sage ! Les. 
enfants de Port-Royal, auxquels on ne- 
donne point cet aiguillon d'envie et de 
gloire, tombent dans la nonchalance.' Dis- 
ci2yline siipjjorted by little punishment and 
no reivards — this seeming like a counsel 
of perfection. Yet Pascal's hint at the 
failure in practice is not, so far as we know, 
borne out by the facts of the case. In. 
estimating its probabilities, too, it must be 
remembered that there were never at one 
time, and perhaps not in the whole sixteen, 
or seventeen years during which the schools 
lasted, more than fifty pupils ; that each- 
teacher seems to have been responsible for 
only six pupils ; and, above all, that Port- 
Royalist scholars, as well as teachers, were 
choice spirits : the pupils were sent to these 
schools on no conventional grounds, but 
because their parents ^e^ieveo? in the system. 
Yet even more interesting than the dis- 
cipline is the instruction of these teachers^ 
Like the Jesuits, they treated the Huma- 
nities as at once the root and the flower 
of their education. But there was an im- 
mense diflference in the methods pursued.. 
The Jesuits taught the classical languages 
mainly through books of extracts; the Port- 
Royalists preferred to read the authors, 
themselves, or, at least, large portions of 
them. The phrase-books, which had been 
introduced by the Jesuits to help their 
scholars while struggling with the difii- 
culties of composition, were disliked by 
the Port-Royalists. For again, while the- 
Jesuits cultivated composition at the ex- 
pense of translation, the Port-Royalists 
argued that familiarity with the languages 
themselves should precede the attempt to 
compose in them. Consistently with this,., 
they recognised that while Latin verse- 
making might be a useful and refining 
study for a limited number of pupils, there' 
must also be a considerable number quite- 



JANSENISTS (THE) JESUITS (THE) 



165 



unequal to the task — in this, again, unlike 
the Jesuits {q.v.). These, again, used, 
grammars wi'itten in Latin, while the Port- 
Royalists introduced grammars written in 
Erench. With the Jesuits, once more, 
form or style was the first, and almost the 
sole, consideration, whereas the Port- Roy- 
alists argued that 'the utility of things 
should, be joined with that of words, in 
order to form the judgment of the young 
while their memory is stocked, and even 
to ease the memory by fixing the words to 
things, which always make a greater im- 
pression on the mind.' In brief, while 
other educators were putting words be- 
fore things, the Port- Royalists were put- 
ting things before words. This is the 
ground on which Ste. Beuve assigns to 
them the same high rank among educa- 
tors as he assigns to Descartes among 
philosophers. 

The fact that Latin had ceased to be 
necessary as a medium of conversation, and 
was ceasing to be necessary as a literary 
instrument, enabled the Port- Royalists to 
carry out reforms which could not have been 
expected from the Jesuits, whose schools 
had been in full working order half a cen- 
tury when the petites ecoles were founded. 
In the teaching of Latin itself, composition 
had been emphasised as the readier way 
to conversation. It could now be subor- 
dinated to translation just because there 
was no longer need for this accomplishment. 
Similarly, now that it was not necessary 
to give Latin so large a place in the school 
curriculum, more room could be found for 
Greek. And thus the greater attention 
given to this language is among Port- 
Royalist reforms. It has been said that 
the Port-Royalists wrote grammars in 
Erench. The importance, indeed, attached 
to the teaching of the mother tongue in 
their schools is among the most memorable 
of their reforms. That Erenchmen in the 
second half of the seventeenth century 
came to write true Erench, and not, as 
hitherto, a kind of Latin-Erench, is, ac- 
cording to Ste. Beuve, largely to be attri- 
buted to Port-Royalist wisdom. Other 
subjects found a place in the curriculum. 
Pascal and Arnauld, the two men whose 
influence far outweighted that of all others 
in the Port- Royalist Society, were both 
geometricians. Arnauld wrote a work on 
Elements of Geometry, on reading which 
in manuscript Pascal burnt his own essay 
•on the same subject. Lancelot was ap- 



pointed to teach mathematics (and Greek). 
So that we may reasonably conclude that 
geometry, at any rate, had its fair share of 
attention. 

Lancelot wrote books upon the me- 
thods of learning Italian and Spanish ; 
and Racine, the most famous of Port- 
Royalist pupils, knew both languages 
within a short time of leaving school. 
Eor promising pupils, then, the range, if 
we except science, may well have been as 
wide as that of the most advanced of 
modern schools; that is, it probably in- 
cluded the classics, taught by methods on 
which, according to Breal {Qttelques Mots 
sur V Instruction, p. 183), in France at 
least, no improvement has been made — 
modern languages, mathematics, and care- 
ful instruction in the mother tongue. The 
best authorities on the subject are the 
Port- Royalists' own books, e.g. the Logic, 
of which there is a good English edition 
by T. S. Baynos, the General Grcornmar, 
the Greek and Latin Grammars, many 
editions of the classics, and the books 
referred to in the course of this article : 
Ste. Beuve's Port-B,oyal, bk. iv. ; Gom- 
payre's Histoire Critique des Doctrines de 
V Education en France, bk. ii., chap. iii. ; 
Beard's Port- Royalists; and Verin's Etude 
sur Lancelot. 

Japan, Imperial University of. See 
Univbesities. 

Jesuits (The). — -The order of the Jesuits, 
founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, was 
formally authorised and established in 
1540. It was an attempt — and a highly 
successful one — to check the progress of 
the Reformation, and to bring back tlie 
wanderers to the fold of Rome. The 
means employed were preaching, confes- 
sion, and education. Despite of strong 
and often violent opposition, the order 
rapidly increased, and spread its schools 
and houses all over Europe. At the end 
of the seventeenth century it possessed 
180 colleges, 90 seminaries, 160 resi- 
dences, and its members numbered 21,000. 
Here we shall confine ourselves to speaking 
of that part of their educational work in 
which the Jesuits most excelled — their 
secondary schools. Their universities were 
never very brilliant successes ; and though 
the teaching they provided was gratuitous, 
they never sought to make it primary or 
elementary. The school system of the 
Jesuits received its definite and permanent 
form under Acquaviva, the fifth General 



166 



JESUITS (THE) 



of the order, who ruled between 1581 and 
1615. In 1599 the Ratio Studiorum, or 
plan of studies, was produced; and has 
continued, with very few additions, to be 
the plan down to the present day. The 
most important additions to the Latin, 
Greek, and religion of the earlier period 
have been a little history, some slight 
attention to the mother tongue, and some- 
thing in the way of modern languages. 
Latin and religion (a catechism and scrip- 
ture history) have, however, always been 
the most prominent subjects. 

As a rule, no one but a member of the 
society is allowed to be a teacher in the 
schools; and his watchwords must be kind- 
ness, thoroughness, repetition. It was an 
admirable, but in those early days an almost 
revolutionary, innovation, that masters 
should be directed 'to unite the grave 
kindness and authority of a father with 
the tenderness of a mother,' and 'to become 
as little children amongst little children,' 
so that they might win the young to study 
with pleasure. The thoroughness was best 
set forth in the advice to seek to teach a 
few things clearly and distinctly, rather 
than to give indistinct and confused im- 
pressions of many things; while the value 
of repetition was rated so highly that one 
whole day was devoted to it every week; 
and in the second half of the year the 
classes generally went over again the work 
of the earlier half. At the head of the 
school stood the rector, who did not him- 
self teach, but appointed the staff, and care- 
fully watched the progress of the pupils. 
He held his office for three years. Under 
him were the masters, who also were 
somewhat frequently moved about. Out- 
side boarding establishments were some- 
times connected with the schools, in which 
the children of the rich and noble were 
received at a moderate charge. Sometimes 
there were day-schools, which, under cer- 
tain restrictions, were open to Protestants. 
Otherwise, the children were 'interned' 
all the year round, and cut off as much as 
possible from their families and all other 
outside influences. This contempt for, 
and destruction of, the home life is probably 
the most fatal mistake of all in the Jesuit 
school system. Its evil effects are visible 
in every country where their schools have 
been numerous. The course of study may 
be broadly described as follows. It occupies 
six years, usually those between fourteen 
and twenty. Tlhe first year is devoted to 



the rudiments of Latin, viz. the forms and 
correct sounds of the letters, and how ta 
read; the second to grammar in its first 
elements; the third to syntax. These are 
called the grammatical classes. The fourth 
year is given to philology and verses ; and 
ihe fifth and sixth to rhetoric. These last 
two are called the Humanity classes. The 
chief object is to produce a mastery over 
Latin, as over a modern language. The 
classics are read for their style, not for 
their ideas; and for this reason considerable 
portions of them are committed to memory,, 
so as to supply words and phrases. Greek 
is also studied, as a rule, in every class ; 
but it occupies a very subordinate place. 
Of arithmetic, geography, history, at first 
we hear nothing ; and only of late years 
has attention been paid to them at all, and 
that very grudgingly. The same may be 
said with regard to the mother tongue. 
Religious instruction — that is, a catechism, 
and some facts of Bible history — is, of 
course, a distinct feature throughout. 

The work has never been excessive ; 
generally two and a half hours in the morn- 
ing, and the same amount in the afternoon, 
with an interval of about three hours. In 
the summer there is generally one whole 
holiday a week. The masters are directed 
to make the lessons as pleasant as possible,, 
consistently with their being thorough. 
Amusements within the school walls are 
plentiful. The bodily health of the pupils 
is carefully attended to; and on holidays 
excursions are made into the country. 
There is nothing ascetic in the regulations. 
The punishments, too, are always made as 
light as possible ; only the graver offences 
being visited with flogging. Where flog- 
ging does not have the required effect the 
offender is expelled. Emulation and ri- 
valry of every kind are employed to induce 
the boys to work. Sometimes individual 
boys are pitted against each other ; some- 
times one half of a class against the other;; 
and prizes, praises, marks of distinction,, 
(fee, are profusely distribu.ted. To manners 
and deportment special attention is paid. 
The boys are taught to speak distinctly 
and elegantly, to write a clear and hand- 
some hand, to walk with an erect and easy 
carriage, and to conform to all those 
external habits which mark a well-bred 
gentleman. To aid them in gaining ease 
and assurance of manner, and readiness of 
address, great use is made of the acting o£ 
Latin plays. 



JUDGMENT JUSTICE 



167 



We may add that the master in 
Jesuit schools is generally rather a lec- 
turer than a teacher. He expounds some- 
times a piece of a Latin or Greek author, 
sometimes the rules of grammar. He 
does not aim at developing and training 
his pupil's intellect. The boys are required 
to get up the substance of his lectures, 
and to learn the rules of grammar and 
passages from classical authors by heart, 
'When the young man,' says Mr. Quick, in 
his excellent account of these schools, ' had 
acquired a thorough mastery of the Latin 
language for all purposes, when he was 
well versed in the theological and philoso- 
phical opinions of his preceptors, when he 
was skilful in dispute, and could make a 
brilliant display from the resources of a 
well-stored memory, he had reached the 
highest point to which the Jesuits sought 
to lead him. Originality, independence of 
mind, love of truth for its own sake, the 
power of reflecting and of forming correct 
judgments, were not merely neglected — 
they were suppressed in the Jesuits' sys- 
tem.' They have fallen behind in the 
progress of the world ; and in nothing is 
this so marked as the text-books used. 
In conclusion, we may note that the great 
public schools of England have taken 
Bacon's advice, and copied freely the 
schools of the Jesuits ; but they have 
progressed somewhat, and their pupils are 
given a chance of a freer and wider de- 
velopment. But practically — even in their 
system of monitors or prefects — they are 
modelled on the outlines of the Batio 
Studiorum. 

Judgment. — This term refers to the 
mental act by which we determine the 
relations of our ideas one to arnother, as 
when we decide that mercury is a metal, 
or that an ellipse is not a circle. The 
result of the act of judgment is a proposition 
which affirms or denies something. That 
of which we affirm or deny is called the 
subject, and that which is affirmed or 
denied the predicate. We are able to 
judge just in proportion to the variety and 
clearness of the notions gathered by way 
of observation and tradition, and stored 
up in the memory, and also to the degree 
of care with which we reflect on these. 
Children are weak in judgment, partly 
because they lack experience and ideas, 
and partly because they are not capable 
of that sustained effort of will which is 
involved in comparing objects or ideas one 



with another on all sides, so as to see 
exactly how they are related. Hence, the 
rashness and crudity of many early judg- 
ments. The faculty of judging requires 
careful training in special directions, as 
that of the probable in human affairs, the 
good and bad in art, the right and wrong 
in conduct. Here the object of the edu- 
cator must be to help the child by careful 
observation and reflection gradually to 
buildup a correct standard of truth, beauty, 
and goodness, by a reference to which 
sound decisions may at once be reached. 
Care should be taken further by a sufficient, 
and yet not excessive, assertion of autho- 
rity, to restrain, without repressing, the 
impulse to form independent judgments. 
Lastly, the teacher should closely watch 
all the influences which tend to warp or 
bias the judgment ; more particularly the 
effect of prejudice and antipathy. Judg- 
ment is viewed by the logician as the second 
stage in thought, following abstraction or 
conception, and preceding reasoning. The 
three operations are, however, very closely 
connected. An element of inference 
enters into most judgments ; and it should 
be the object of the educator in training 
the judgment, to exercise the child in 
connecting his decisions logically with the 
facts and principles on which they depend. 
In truth, to train the judgment is a part, 
and an important part, of training the 
reasoning faculty {see Reason). (On the 
nature of Judgment see Bain, Education 
as Science, p. 122; SuUy, Teacher's Hand- 
hook, chap, xiv.) 

Justice. ^ — The nature of justice has 
given rise to much discussion. The idea 
is closely related to that of equity or 
fairness, and it has actually been defined 
as 'equality as between man and man.' 
It refers, too, to the recognition and satis- 
faction of all rights, which rights, so far as 
natural, are regarded as equal or alike in all 
cases. The idea of justice is thus ethically 
correlated with that of right, and of duty 
or obligation. The feeling of justice in 
its crude form is the instinctive impulse of 
the individual to resent injury, an impulse 
that forms the prominent ingredient in 
the instinct of self-preservation. Children 
are keenly sensitive to any invasion of 
their rights, and particularly to anything 
like an arbitrary withdrawal of a customary 
privilege, and to all appearance of parti- 
ality. This feeling, however, is largely 
personal. The higher moral sentiment of 



168 



KANT, IMMANUEL 



justice presupposes the development of 
tlie social feelings. It is the resentment 
of an injury, not to oneself, but to the 
community of which one feels oneself a 
member. This higher sentiment has to be 
gradually developed by a cultivation of 
sympathy and a habit of reflection. The 
parent and, in a more limited region, the 
teacher have much to do with determining 
the child's ideas of what is just. The 
customary manner of dealing out favours 



and rewards, as well as punishments, sup- 
plies to the young mind its first standard 
of justice. Hence the importance of strict 
impai-tiality, and of a clear definition of 
the boundaries of individual liberty and 
obligation in all our dealings with children. 
{See on the nature of Justice J. S. Mill, 
Utilitarianism, chap. v. ; and Prof. Sidg- 
wick. Methods of Ethios, bk. iii. chap, v.; 
and on its educational aspects, Schmidt's 
Encyclopcidie, article ' Rechtsgefiihl.') 



K 



Kant, Immanuel (1 724-1 80i), the 
German philosopher who has exerted the 
widest and most profound influence on the 
thought of this century, has left his mark, 
among other subjects, upon that of educa- 
tion. When Professor of Philosophy at 
Koiiigsberg he was required by an old 
regulation to lecture publicly on Pedagogy, 
or, as the subject appeared in one of Kant's 
courses (1776-7), 'Practical directions for 
educating children.' These lectures, Ueber 
Pddagogik, were published later on (1803) 
by F. T. Rink, one of Kant's pupils. 
Kant's occupation with the problem of 
education was not, however, wholly due to 
an external necessity. He felt himself 
drawn' to the subject in more ways than 
one: He had had considerable experience 
in teaching, having been private tutor nine 
years before entering on his academic career 
as Frivatdocent. Not only so, he was led 
to think of education by Montaigne (q.v.), 
who, for a time at least, was his favourite 
author, and still more by Rousseau (q.v.), 
whose influence on Kant's mind in the 
earlier stages of his philosophic activity 
was very powerful. The Lectures unmis- 
takably betray the influence of Rousseau's 
Emile. How deeply questions of education 
interested him is attested by the fact that he 
warmly advocated the schemes of Basedow 
and Campe in a Konigsberg journal. In 
order to understand Kant's views one must 
eke these out by references to some of his 
philosophical works. Thtis, his ideas on 
the moral education of the young are 
sketched out in the second part of the 
Critic of the Practical Reason. In the 
later period of his literary activity, in 
which he fairly broke with the teaching 
of Rousseau, he seems to have given less 
attention to education. Still, there are 



evidences that he now and again reverted to 
the subject, as when he gives us a fragment 
of a moral catechism at the close of his Meta- 
•physih der Bitten. 

Kant's general conception of education 
flows from his philosophical principles, and 
more particularly his idea of man and his 
destiny. The true end of man is moral free- 
dom, that is, freedom from all external con- 
trol, and a willing self -subjection to the 
moral law. Intellectual development is in 
this view subordinated to moral. The at- 
tainment of this moral freedom is the result 
of self -improvement. The self-development 
of the individual is, however, connected 
with, and in a manner included in, the self- 
development of the race. Man, says Kant 
at the beginning of the Lectttres, can only 
become man by education. The education 
by each generation of its successor is 
viewed by him as a necessary factor in the 
upward striving of the race towards per- 
fection. Hence, he conceives of the object 
of the educator as the adaptation of the 
child, not to the world as it exists at this 
particular moment, but to the idea of 
humanity and to its destiny as a whole. 
In defining the scope of education, Kant 
touches on the question since named ' na- 
ture and nurture.' He Avoukl like to see 
' the great ' busy themselves with the work 
of teaching, so that we might know how 
much education can accomplish. He is 
also strongly in faA^our of freedom of edu- 
cation from State control, so that experi- 
mental schools may be established. This, 
and other remarks, clearly show how fully 
he recognised the difliculty of the art, 
and the need of illuminating it to the 
utmost on the side of experience, as well 
as on that of science. He divides edu- 
cation into two chief branches, physical 



KANT, IMMANUEL KINDERGARTEN 



169 



and practical. In illustrating the first 
Kant, like Locke, does not disdain to 
•enter into the homely details of children's 
diet. He has some good things to say- 
about the training of the- senses, and par- 
ticularly the eye, by means of throwing 
and other games. He follows Rousseau 
and Basedow in emphasising the need of 
a hardening regimen in physical education. 
Practical education has for its end the 
development of personality. Under this 
head Kant makes, according to his habit, a 
number of distinctions of his own. It has 
a negative side, discipline, which consists 
in keeping away faults, and a positive 
side, instruction and guidance. This last 
is either scholastic, aiming at skill {Ge- 
sehicklichkeit), -pragmastic, at wisdom {Klug- 
?ieit), or moral, at morality (Sittlichkeit). 
By the first (the work of the Informator) 
the child gets worth as individual; by the 
second (the woi'k of the Hofmeister), worth 
as a citizen; and by the third, woi-th as a 
man. 

Kant places moral training or morali- 
■sation in strong contrast to culture, the 
latter of which prepares for all sorts of 
ends, whereas the former prepares for 
good ends only. He deviates from Rous- 
seau in his method of moral education. 
Though he distinguishes a lower obedience 
derived from compulsion, and a higher 
and free obedience derived from trust, and 
■emphasises the greater importance of the 
latter in moral development, he insists 
also on the necessity of the first in the 
earHer years. He is strongly opposed to 
an indiscriminate indulgence of children's 
wishes, and especially to gratifying them 
when they make themselves burdensome 
to others by crying. At the same time 
the influence of Rousseau is seen in his 
observations on punishment. After obe- 
dience to law, which Kant regards as the 
first chief feature of moral character, the 
moral educator has to develop truthful- 
ness and sociability. As may be seen 
from these extracts, Kant's chief contri- 
bution to education is the elevation of its 
end. The Lectures are the outcome of a 
strenuous efibrt to harmonise the claims of 
freedom and duty, and as such form a 
valuable corrective to the one-sided theory 
of Rousseau. With respect to intellectual 
education, Kant's remarks are very un- 
satisfactory. The bearing of intellectual 
on moral development is not dealt with, 
nor is there any adequate recognition of 



the disciplinary value of learriing. The 
only approach to this point of view is 
when he sets the lower faculties, and 
more especially memory, in subordination 
to the higher (understanding and reason), 
and urges that the former should only be 
exercised so far as necessary for the best 
discharge of the latter. {See Dr. "Will- 
mann's edition of the Lectures, with in- 
troduction, itc, in Karl Richter's Pad. 
Bihliotliek, Band x. Of. article 'Kant' in 
Schmidt's EncyclojKidie.) 

Kindergarten. — Frederick Froebel 
founded the first Kindergarten at Blank- 
enburg in 1837. The name expresses the 
analogy between child and plant life, to 
which he constantly referred. The system 
which he elaborated is intended for chil- 
dren old enough to speak and to run alone, 
and was the practical embodiment of the 
philosophic study and experience of years, 
devoted to the science of education. He 
maintained that the mother should begin 
the child's training from the cradle, she 
being the teacher provided by Nature. In 
accordance -with the indications of Nature, 
he sought to develop the child's body by 
wisely directed jDhysical movements. He 
saw that the cliild's inborn desire for acti- 
\\tj manifests itself in play, and that chil- 
dren love to play together. His system, 
therefore, guides this inclination into or- 
ganised movement, and invests the 'games' 
(unknown to the child) with an ethical 
and an educational value, teaching, among 
other points, besides physical exercises, 
the habits of discipline, self-control, har- 
monious action, and purpose, together with 
some definite lesson of fact. Thus, the 
Kindergarten games develop the all -sided 
activity of a child, of its body, mind, and 
spirit. The same method is followed in 
the development of its sensibiKties. The 
child's eye is trained, its sense of colour, of 
size, propoi'tion, distance, form ; the ear, 
its sense of sound, articulate and inarti- 
culate, and in conjunction with its voice, 
as in music ; the hand, the organ of touch, 
of manipulation, of mechanical skill ; all 
these are brought into play, both singly 
and in relation to each other, and also in 
co-operation with the mental and moral 
faculties. The child's will, observation, 
perception, memory, thought, ingenuity, 
are all considered in the properly organised 
Kindergarten. The Kindergarten training 
has, however, a far wider sphere than a 
mere systematic organisation of the activi- 



170 



KINDERGARTEN 



ties and sensibilities of a child as regards the 
child individually. It recognises Eroebel's 
principle of the threefold relationship of 
the child, that is to say, to Nature, animate 
and inanimate, to Man, and to God. This 
gives to the Kindergarten a high standard 
of moral and religious training. The child 
is brought, in every good Kindergarten, into 
actual practical contact with Nature. The 
care of plants and of animals, which Froebel 
designed as part of his system, quickens 
the child's sympathies, enlarges its sphere 
of interest. This interest, this sympathy, 
will by wise direction be gradually ex- 
tended, and the child will recognise the 
duties which it owes to its fellow-men, and 
begin, as it were, to enter into its social 
duties. It will also see both in nature at 
large and among its fellow-men, the work- 
ings of the supreme power and wisdom of 
God the Creator, providing for and over- 
ruling His creatures, and thus its religious 
instincts will be guided and brought into 
action. If the Kindergarten is to be worked 
out to its full, it has need of wise and ob- 
servant teachers to fulfil its designs. Its 
virtue depends upon the right understand- 
ing of its principles, and also upon the 
proper application of them. The whole 
system may be turned by an ignorant 
teacher into a mere mechanical contrivance, 
its teaching vitiated, its spirit misinter- 
preted, and its significance lost. There- 
fore, teachers must themselves be taught 
before they can hope to carry out the 
system in its full, though simple methods. 
Not only must they learn the games, the 
occupations, the songs, and the various 
methods of which each good Kindergarten 
has many in its repertoire not learnt from 
books, but they must study the child's 
nature, must understand not only its phy- 
sical structure, the laws which govern its 
health, but, also, they must learn what 
they can of its inner life. For a child is a 
plant to be trained, not a piece of clay to 
be moulded by outward force, by the ex- 
ternal will of the teacher. Its growth, 
like a plant's, is from the inner to the outer 
world. A teacher must therefore under- 
stand something of that inward development 
of the growth, not only of the body, but of 
the child's mental and moral natui-e, must 
actually be able to comprehend the reason 
of a child's action before that action can 
be properly dealt with. Not only must a 
teacher be able to understand children in 
general, but a good Kindergarten teacher 



should make a special study of each indi- 
vidual child, for, as plants vary in the 
treatment they require, so also do children. 

For the purpose of obtaining good Kin- 
dergarten teachers, training colleges have 
been started in many countries, and it is 
principally because of the want of good 
teachers that the Kindergarten has not, 
until lately, taken a greater hold in Eng- 
land. Further, though a teacher may have 
learnt both the mechanical and the theore- 
tical part of the system, the practical part, 
the actual teaching, has at first to be done 
under supervision, in order that practice 
and theory may coincide, and for this pur- 
pose training colleges have Kindergarten 
schools attached to them. In order to ob- 
tain a uniform system of teaching, and to 
avoid what may be called spurious Kinder- 
garten teaching, the Joint Board of the 
Froebel Society and the Kindergarten As- 
sociation, Manchester, hold examinations 
and confer certificates on successful candi- 
dates. Candidates for the Elementary 
Certificate have to pass, among other sub- 
jects, in natural science. Kindergarten gifts 
and occupations ; in the biographies, prin- 
ciples,, and methods of Pestalozzi and 
Froebel ; in class teaching, and in music 
and singing. For the Higher Certificate, 
they must also pass in geometry, in two 
out of four sciences, in theory, history, and 
practice of education and hygiene. It will 
thus be seen that the teachers of the 
Kindergarten system are required to know 
far more than the mere occupations and 
games, and it is hoped that teachers 
thus trained may be able to carry out the 
true spirit of Kindergarten teaching, and 
train not only the memories, brains, and 
mechanical and physical faculties of the 
children, but also their whole natures, 
bringing into full and healthy activity the 
moral and religious part of their being, so 
that the development of the whole may be 
harmonious and symmetrical. Students 
can be trained at the various colleges, 
which send up candidates to the examina- 
tion of the Joint Board.- The following 
list may give the reader some idea of the 
methods employed in the Kindergarten to 
carry out the principles already mentioned; 
and it is well to remember that form, 
geometrical and symmetrical, and numbers 
enter largely into these methods. Kinder- 
garten Occiqyatio^is may be generally de- 
scribed as below. 

I. Six Gifts, i.e. — 



KINDERGARTEN 



171 



Gift 1. Six coloured woollen balls — 
teaching colour, roundness, softness, tex- 
ture, exercising the body in the game, and 
teaching dexterity, quickness of eye, accu- 
racy of aim. 

2, A wooden ball, roller, and undivided 
cube. Teaches comparison of forms, detail 
of forms, i.e. corners, edge, sides, qualities 
and motions of each form, difference of 
appearance when in motion. 

3, Cube formed of eight small cubes, 
being halved across each of its faces, to 
teach number, simple exercises in the four 
rules, and an elementary idea of fractions. 

4, 5, 6. Cubes still further divided, and 
teaching not only number, but design and 
symmetrical forms, and the inter-relations 
of numbers. 

II. The further occupations are stick- 
laying, laths, bead-work, drawing, rings, 
sewing, bead-threading, paper-twisting, 
paper-folding, paper-cutting (in the Board 
Schools weaving in list and in cane are 
also practised), mat-plaiting, colouring, 
planes of wood, i.e. tablets. To these may 
be added singing, gymnastics, which are 
greatly used in the games, and also object 
lessons, and stories illustrated by natural 
objects and by blackboard drawing. At 
the end of the article are the names of some 
of the books which best illustrate both the 
practice and theory of Froebel's teaching. 
The Kindergarten has flourished in many 
countries, and though in Germany, the 
land of its birth, it has not been adopted, 
as in some other Continental States, by the 
Government, still, in the large cities, there 
are a good many schools for the poorer 
classes conducted by cultivated and phi- 
lanthropic ladies upon the principles of 
I'roebel. Among others, may be noted 
the Pestalozzi and Froebel House, of which 
Frau Schrader is the promoter and orga- 
niser, and which combines with the Kin- 
dergarten industrial and cooking schools, 
and classes for Kindergarten students. In 
Germany private training colleges have 
also been started, and are exceedingly 
useful to students from foreign countries. 
The theories of Froebel have also found 
many expositors among his own country- 
men, and the philosophical nature of his 
work is ably maintained in treatises and 
periodicals which have greatly promoted 
the spread and knowledge of the system. 
In Italy, where education is closely allied 
with the growth of a young and vigorous 
State, Froebel's principles have been carried 



out with great success and energy. The 
Italian Government has recognised the 
work done by Mrs. Salis Schwabe, and the 
Froebel Institute at Naples, originated and 
designed by her, is now under the per- 
sonal direction of Madame de Portugall. 
The Government has granted a large build- 
ing in which a remarkable organisation of a 
series of graded schools is based upon the 
Kindergarten, and includes a normal school 
for Kindergarten teachers. This valuable 
institution now forms a part of the public 
educational system, and, as a model school, 
its permanence and position are thus en- 
sured : its name is to be associated with 
that of the late King Victor EmmanueL 
In Belgium, as in Italy, Froebel's principles 
were adopted by the State at an early 
period of its existence, and the Kindergarten 
is part of the public educational system in 
that country, and Government inspectors 
recognise the value and importance of the 
'■jar dins d'enfants.' In France, the Creche, 
Salles d'Asile, in some degree fill the 
ground which would be covered by the 
Kindergarten. But gradually Froebel's 
principles are permeating the soil, and 
have been more widely adopted in infant 
education. In Austria and Hungary the 
Kindergarten system is looked upon with 
more favour than in Germany, and has 
been partially introduced into the elemen- 
tary schools. In Switzerland it is also 
favourably regarded, and has been en- 
grafted on to the public schools in the 
canton of Geneva. In America, Brazil 
and the Argentine Republic have adopted 
the method in some degree — but it is in 
the United States that the Kindergarten 
has found, as Froebel prophesied, its most 
genial soil. Since its introduction there, 
some fifteen years ago, it has become a 
popular institution. In Philadelphia, it 
has been incorporated with the State 
schools, and public schools in general 
throughout the States are more and more 
unreservedly adopting the system. Free 
Kindergartens are numerous throughout 
the States, notably in San Francisco, Cin- 
cinnati, Philadelphia, New York, and Bos- 
ton. Training colleges have also multiplied 
very rapidly of late, and several public 
normal schools consider a Kindergarten 
class a necessary adjunct to their practice- 
schools. Among the names connected with 
the rise of the Kindergarten system in. 
America are those of Dr. Adler and Mrs. 
Quincy Shaw. Miss Peabody, whose enthu- 



172 



KINDERGARTEN KNOWLEDGE 



. siasm and generosity have given the move- 
ment powerful assistance, has identified 
herself with the objects of the system, and 
has written and lectured with great success 
on the subject. In Canada, Ontario has 
adopted the Kindergarten as part of the 
State system in many of its schools, notably 
in Toronto, where a Kindergarten forms 
part of a model school under the Education 
Department. In India the Kindergarten 
has been introduced into some of the schools 
of native children with great success, the 
materials for the occupations, the songs, the 
games, having been carefully adapted to the 
new soil and to the circumstances of the far 
East. In Japan the Kindergarten is a part 
of the school system. The history of the 
Kindergarten in England is as follows : 
In 1854, two years after Froebel's death, 
the Kindergarten system was introduced 
into England, almost simultaneously in 
London and Manchester, and Madame von 
Marenholtz Biilow published in that year a 
pamphlet in England on Infants' Gardens. 
In 1869 Eraulein Heerwart and Madame 
de Portugall were working separately at 
Manchester. Later Eraulein Heerwart 
worked at Dublin and Belfast, and Miss 
Praetorius and Miss Douck in London. 
But it was not till about 1874 that much 
energy was displayed. The Kindergarten 
Association of Manchester had been started 
earlier, but from that year date the Froebel 
Society and the Croydon Kindergarten 
under Madame Michaelis. In 1874 the 
London School Board appointed their first 
lecturer on the Kindergarten system to 
the teachers in their infant schools. Miss 
Bishop being the instructor. In the same 
year the British and Foreign School So- 
ciety established a Kindergarten Training 
School at Stockwell. Since that year the 
system has made much progress throughout 
England. The Froebel Society, under the 
able presidency of Miss Shirreff, and aided 
by Mrs. William Grey, has established a high 
standard of excellence for Kindergarten 
teachers who take its certificate, and seeks 
to difiuse throughout the United Kingdom 
general interest in and knowledge of the 
system. There are Kindergartens in most 
of the large towns, such as Bedford, Chel- 
tenham, Liverpool, Manchester, Inverness, 
&c. The British and Foreign School So- 
ciety established a most admirable Kinder- 
garten in connection with the training 
college at Safii'on Walden. The vaidous 
School Boards throughout the country re- 



cognise more or less the excellence of the 
system. The London School Board have 
continued to approve it, and have appointed 
a Mistress of Method, who, with her as- 
sistant, holds classes for the elementary 
teachers, and instructs them in the princi- 
ples of the method. The system is also 
adopted in the Jewish Free Schools, and 
in the schools for the deaf and dumb. On 
the whole there seems to be good reason 
to expect the further successful application 
in England of the wise and simple principle 
of the German village schoolmaster to the 
problem of education among the working 
as well as among the richer classes. {See 
Fboebel and Pestalozzi.) 

The following books on the Kindergarten 
may be consulted : Froebel's Education of 
Man. Translated by Miss Jarvis. (Lovell 
and Co., New York, U.S., 6s. M.) The Child 
and Child-Nature. Baroness de Maren- 
holtz-Biilow. Translated by A.M. Chiistie. 
(Sonnenschein, 3s.) The Kindergarten at 
Home. Miss Shiri'eff. (Hughes' Teachers' 
Library.) Kindergarten Essays. Miss Shir- 
reff" and others. (Sonnenschein, 3s.) Edu- 
cation in the Home, the Kindergarten, and 
the Primary School. Eliz. P. Peabody. 
(Sonnenschein. ) Principles of the Kinder- 
garten. Miss Lyschinska. (Isbister, 4s. 6c?.) 
The Kindergarten and Child - Gttlture. 
Henry Barnard. (Hartford, U.S., 15s.) 
Froebel's Mittter- und Koselieder. Trans- 
lated by Miss Lord. (W. Rice, 86 Fleet 
Street, 7s. 6d.) Kindergarten Songs and 
Games. Mrs. Berry and Madame Michaelis. 
(Myers, Is. 6d) 

Knowledge. — By knowledge we under- 
stand the product and end of all intellec- 
tual activity. It is something more than 
a mere subjective state of certainty, for we 
may feel certain and yet not know. It 
has an objective reference, and implies a 
correct grasp of reality or truth, or, in 
other words, a legitimate or justified cer- 
tainty. In the case of the direct appre- 
hension of objects by the senses (immediate 
cognition) knowledge implies a careful 
method of obsei'vation, and a comparison 
of our observations one with another and 
with those of other persons. In the case 
of all inferred knowledge (mediate cogni- 
tion) the validity of the mind's convic- 
tion depends on a due observance of the 
logical conditions of correct thought. It is 
now commonly admitted that the ultimate 
purpose of intellectual education is not 
so much to furnish the learner's mind with 



KNOWLEDGE-YAI.UES KNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN 



US' 



a definite amount of information, as to put 
it in the way of gaining true knowledge of 
any kind, and to supply it with a criterion 
by which it may discriminate real know- 
ledge from doubtful opinion. And this 
result will be reached in the measure in 
which the teacher succeeds in rousing to 
activity the child's faculty of thought in 
the process of communicating information. 
The more clearly the pupil thinks out every 
new acquisition for himself, connecting it 
logically with that he already knows, and 
so recognising its inherent probability, the 
more skilled will he become in the detection 
of what is true and what is false. Know- 
ledge has been divided into different kinds. 
Besides the distinction between immediate 
and mediate cognition already referred to, 
there is the contrast emphasised by Leibnitz 
between intuitive knowledge, such as we 
gain by the senses, and symbolic knowledge, 
as that of all vast numbers, which cannot 
be clearly imagined, and are only known 
symbolically. (On the nature of Knowledge 
see Fleming's Vocabulary of Philosophy, art. 
Knowledge ; on the distinction between in- 
tuitive and symbolical knowledge, consult 
SeYon?,' Elementary Lessons in Logic, lesson 
vii.) 

Knowledge-Values. — The expression 
knowledge- or education-values refers to 
the comparative worth of the various sub- 
jects of instruction. This may be deter- 
mined either by the practical utility of 
the positive results, as by the informa- 
tionalists, or by the gymnastic efficacy 
of the study in training the intellectual 
powers, as by the educationalists or dis- 
ciplinarians. Commonly, both standards 
of value are referred to. Thus, in the 
modern discussion of the comparative worth 
of languages and science, and of ancient 
and modern languages {see Classical Cul- 
ture and Science Teaching), emphasis 
is laid now on the practical usefulness of 
the particular information gained, and now 
on the benefit accruing to the learner's 
mind from the discipline involved. It is 
not by any means obvious antecedently 
that the two scales of value as thus deter- 
mined will coincide. At the same time, 
the attempt has been made, notably by 
Mr. H. Spencer, to show that the subjects 
which are best for guidance are best also 
for discipline. [See Spencer, Education, 
chap. i. ; Bain, Education as Science, chap. 
V. ; Payne, Contributions to the Science of 
Education, chap, iii.) 



Known to the Unknown. — To know a 
thing is not merely to be aware or con- 
scious of its existence, but to perceive 
its relations to other things, and of its. 
parts and properties to one another. We 
know a demonstration of Algebra when 
we perceive the relations of its parts to one 
another and of it as a whole to other de- 
monstrations and facts of Algebra — these 
relations in their most general and com- 
prehensive form consisting of difference 
and agreement, or unlikeness and likeness. 
Knowing therefore means discriminating 
or detecting the differences of one impres- 
sion, object, or idea from another or others;, 
and assimilating or detecting the agree- 
ments of this same impression, object, or 
idea with yet another or others. It is plain 
that we cannot discriminate a thing from,, 
or assimilate it with, another or others of' 
which we know nothing. That with which 
we compare and contrast it, or to which 
we liken it, must itself be in some measure- 
known. In other words, Knowledge {q.v.y 
advances from the known (not necessarily 
completely known) to the unknown ; and 
its growth depends not only upon the 
number of things known, but also upon 
the number and truth of our perceptions, 
of their relations to one another and 
of the relations of their parts to one 
another. To know a flower we examine' 
and distinguish its parts and properties ;. 
and further, we endeavour to learn in 
what it differs from and in what it re- 
sembles other flowers previously seen. If 
we are asked to give the value of, say, the' 
sum of the angles of a polygon, we search^ 
amongst those facts of geometry which 
we already know to find one or more to 
which we may attach it. We find that 
we know the sum of the angles of a tri- 
angle, and then by dividing our polygon 
into triangles we arrive at the knowledge 
required. The fact that knowledge ad- 
vances from the known to the unknown 
has been recognised from the earliest times. 
The first to make it markedly prominent 
when dealing with practical school-work 
were Ratke, Comenius, and Rousseau. 
The first to make it largely influence their 
practice were the Jansenists of Port- Royal 
\q.v?j But even at the present day there 
is no fundamental truth which is so widely 
and so persistently ignored in school- work;, 
and in no subject more than that of lan- 
guage. Not only do we begin with gram- 
mar, or generalised and abstract statements. 



174 



KNOX- 



-LACED^MONIAN EDUCATION 



concerning what is still quite unknown, 
Itut we even in the grammar itself begin 
with defining what we have not yet ob- 
served. The true method in language, as 
in all knowledge, is to begin with observa- 
tion, and proceed with comparison, dis- 
crimination, and assimilation in the way 
already indicated. 

Knox, John (b. 1505; d. 1572), the 
Scottish Reformer, was the prime mover 
in the reorganisation of the educational 
system in Scotland in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. Born in East Lothian of well-to-do 
parents, Knox enjoyed a liberal education 
at the Grammar School of Haddington, at 
the University of Glasgow, and at Geneva. 
Before 1530 he became a regent at St. 
Andrews University in the department of 
scholastic philosophy, and subsequently 
entered orders. His philosophical studies 
led him to believe that the children of the 
people belonged as much to the nation as to 
the family. Hence, he reasoned, the State 
ought to see that every child had the bene- 
fit of the whole educational resources of 
the country, if found likely to profit by 
them. This was the first duty a State 
owed to its people, for Knox's theory of 
political liberty was not that all men have 
an equal right to interfere with, to help, 
or hinder the afiairs of the commonwealth, 
but that all men have an equal right to 
the same means of training and educating 
themselves, and so finding out and prov- 
ing whether they are ' fit to rule in civil 
policie, or to live in godly reverence and 
subjection.' His scheme, therefore, con- 
tained in the First Book of Discipline, pre- 
sented to the Scottish Parliament and sub- 
scribed by the Secret Council in 1560, by 
taking advantage of the survey of the 
country which was then being made by the 
superintendents, was to plant a school 
wherever they recommended a church. 
' If the parish be upland,' i.e. thinly popu- 
lated, ' where the people convene to doc- 
trine but once in the week, then must 
either the reider or the minister there ap- 



pointed take care over the children and 
youth of the parish, to instruct them in 
their first rudiments, and especially in the 
catechism.' In all towns and populous 
parishes there was to be a thoroughly good 
school taught by a master ' able to teach 
at least grammar and the Latin tongue.' 
Such schools were meant to be training 
grounds for the children of every class in 
the community, whether noble or com- 
moner. The scholar was to be taught to 
read, write, and cipher, the catechism and 
Bible lessons, grammar, Latin, frequently 
also French and music — those branches 
of mental training which would really 
educate and enable a lad to show whether 
there might be ' a spirit of docilitie in him 
or not.' The teaching must be thorough. 
Each school was to be examined every 
quarter by 'discrete, learned, and grave 
men.' If the examiners found any 'apt to 
letteris an d learnyng ' at the end of their 
school course, they were to direct them to 
' proceid to farther knowledge.' If not, 
they were to be taught some handicraft. 
Education was to be compulsory, the pun- 
ishment being visitation on the parents 
with the censures of the Church, a social 
punishment deterrent enough in the days 
of Knox. Second-class schools were to 
be established in all the principal towns, 
to fit boys for the university by being 
trained in logic and rhetoric, and also the 
' tongues,' i.e. Latin and French, probably 
Greek, and also Hebrew. The Scottish 
Universities were also to be remodelled 
in accordance with the spirit of the Re- 
formation. The several institutions were 
to be endowed out of the surplus property 
of the Church. The great feature of 
Knox's scheme was its thoroughly na- 
tional and non-ecclesiastical character. 
Foiled by the nobles, Knox appealed to 
the people, and they answered his call. 
Within fifteen years after he had pro- 
pounded his scheme there was scarcely a 
town or parish that had not its school and 
schoolmaster. 



Laboratories. See Architecture op 
Schools. 

Lacedaemonian Education. — Tradi- 
tion connects this system with the semi- 
or wholly mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus. 



The training of the young at Sparta con- 
sisted almost entirely of physical exercises. 
If the new-born child was weakly it was 
not allowed to live ; if healthy and strong 
it was £civen over to the care of its mother 



LANCASTER, JOSEPH 



175 



up to the age of seven. At that age the 
boys were taken from the mother once and 
for all, and sent to a large boarding esta- 
blishment, where they were placed under 
a director appointed by the ephors. Here 
they were kept and trained at the public 
expense — being divided into three classes 
(boys of from seven to twelve, those from 
twelve to fifteen, and those from fifteen to 
eighteen) — and these again subdivided and 
officered by the boys. Every citizen had 
the authority, and was bound, to punish or 
reprimand any boy he found committing a 
wrong act. It is not to our purpose here 
to enter into details concerning the military 
and gymnastic exercises, and the harden- 
ing processes through which the children 
and young men had to go, with the object 
of making them fine human animals, and 
of teaching them obedience, courage, and 
frugality. We may mention, however, that 
besides gymnastics the young were taught 
to sing and to play on the seven-stringed 
cithara. This music was used partly as an 
accompaniment to the dance (which itself 
was an exercise or ceremony rather than 
an amusement), and partly under the idea 
that it would exercise and train the mind 
and emotions in the same way as gym- 
nastics exercised the body. Not many of 
the Spartans could read or write^these 
accomplishments not being part of the 
plan — and some could not even count. 
On the moral side the children were often 
led, after the evening meal, to discuss the 
morality of some recent public deed, or the 
honesty of some noted fellow-citizen, and 
were flogged if they answered at random. 
At the age of eighteen the boys — still 
under the control of the State — passed into 
the hands of other directors. It was only 
at the age of thirty that a young man 
could leave the establishment, marry, and 
enter on active military service. The train- 
ing of the girls difiered but slightly from 
that of the boys, and the two sexes were 
often mingled in their gymnastic exercises. 
In both cases the idea of a family life, 
of domestic influence, was wholly absent. 
The child, the youth, the adult, all lived 
solely under the guardianship of the State, 
and for the State. 

Lancaster, Joseph, educational re- 
former, was born in Kent Street, South- 
wark, 1778. His father was a Chelsea 
pensioner. When the boy was about 
fourteen years old Clarkson's essay on the 
slave-trade fell into his hands, and so 



impressed him that he resolved to go to 
Jamaica to teach the negroes to read the 
Bible. He walked all the way to Bristol, 
where he found a ship, but he was, after 
a few weeks, restored to his parents. After 
returning to London, Joseph became usher. 
His friends (who were Calvinists) destined 
him for the ministry, but he destroyed 
their hopes by turning Quaker. Before 
he was eighteen he began teaching on his 
own account 'under the hospitable roof of 
an afi'ectionate ' father. In a very short 
time the young schoolmaster ' had occasion 
to rent lai'ger premises,' which in turn 
became too small. Aided by benevolent 
Quakers, he half maintained many of his 
pupils, and thus drew around him larger 
crowds of children than his skill as a 
teacher would alone have attracted. His 
school grew too large for him to manage 
unaided, and yet he could not afibrd to 
employ assistance, so he hit upon the plan 
of setting the most advanced scholars to 
teach the rest. One change led to another, 
till in the course of four or five years the 
innovations embraced a complete scheme 
of primary instruction. This scheme was 
at once religious and unsectarian. Lan- 
caster held that from a school meant for 
the children of all denominations the pe- 
culiar tenets of all denominations should 
be excluded. In 1803 he published an 
account of his Improvements in Education^ 
and began to appeal for public subscrip- 
tions. The Duke of Bedford, Lord Somer- 
ville, and other powerful patrons responded 
to his appeal, and he erected a large house 
and schoolroom in Belvedere Place, Borough 
Road, on a site now fitly occupied by a 
Board School. The new building was 
opened in 1804. Next year Lancaster 
had an opportunity of explaining his plans 
to George III. At the end of the inter- 
view, the king said: 'I highly approve of 
your system, and it is my wish that every 
poor child in my dominions should be 
taught to read the Bible.' To aid in the 
realisation of so pious a wish, he promised 
to subscribe a hundred pounds a year, and 
several members of the royal family also 
became subscribers. Thus encouraged, 
Lancaster began lecturing all over the 
country, and his missionary journeys re- 
sulted in the establishment of many schools 
on his method. These schools could "only 
be conducted by teachers familiar with his 
plan, and as early as 1805 he began to 
train the most promising of his boys as 



176 



LANCELOT- 



LATIN 



masters. Being formally apprenticed to 
him, they were lodged in the new house in 
Belvedere Place, boaixled and clothed with- 
out charge, and, after a certain period of 
instruction, sent out to schools. Lancas- 
ter's vanity had never been weak, nor his 
discretion ever strong. Sunned by the 
patronage of the wealthy and the noble, 
his vanity grew apace, and his discretion 
died. There seemed to be no end to the 
number of his projects, although he had 
not sufficient business tact to manage any 
one of them successfully. The result was 
that by the end of 1807 he owed nearly 
6,500Z., and he was arrested for debt. 
His arrest marks an epoch in the history 
of English popular education, for, more or 
less directly, we owe to it the establish- 
ment of the British and Foreign School 
Society {q.v.). William Corston and Jo- 
seph Fox, believing profoundly in the 
potentialities of Lancaster's system, came 
to his rescue. On January 22, 1808, these 
.two, 'with a humble reliance upon the 
blessing of Lord God Almighty, and with 
a single eye to His glory, and with a view 
to benefit the British Empire, . . . unani- 
mously resolved' to form themselves into 
a society for the purpose of advancing the 
education of the poor. They assumed the 
responsibility of Lancaster's debts and 
took the management of his pecuniary 
affairs into their own hands. During the 
next five years Lancaster was engaged in 
superintending the central institution, in 
improving his systera, and in lecturing 
and writing about it, and in maintaining 
against the supporters of Dr. Bell his 
claim to the merit of discovering it. Mean- 
while the society started by Corston and 
Fox was growing rapidly, but not so rapidly 
as the pretensions of the man whose im- 
providence and enthusiasm had been the 
cause of its establishment. He wished to 
control every department of the Society's 
work, and to spend on a boarding-school, 
which he had opened for his own benefit ' 
at Tooting, funds subscribed for promoting 
the education of the poor, and as he could 
not have his own way he severed his 
connection with his old friends. They 
had released him from all liabilities in- 
curred by him in his public work, but by 
October, 1813, his private and personal 
debts, greatly augmented by the failure of 
the Tooting venture, amounted to 7,500^., 
and he was made bankrupt. Of his move- 
ments during the next five years little is 



known. In 1818 he determined to begirt 
life afresh, and sailed to Philadelphia. He 
was well received in the Quaker city, but 
rumours of creditors unsatisfied and friends 
estranged followed him across the Atlantic, 
and sent him again upon his travels. He 
wandei'ed through North and South Ame- 
rica, and we find him in Caraccas, in 
St. Thomas, in Santa Cruz, and in Canada, 
sometimes lecturing and sometimes teach- 
ing. On October 23, 1838, he was run 
over and killed in one of the streets of 
New York. The character of Lancaster 
requires no subtle analysis. His love of 
children, his enthusiasm, his indiscretion, 
his greed of praise but not of gold, lie on 
the surface. He was not a great nor 
altogether a good man, and the permanent 
value of the system which he made popular 
was very small ; but he deserves to be 
remembered because he gave a strong 
impetus to the education of the people, 
and showed how all sects and parties- 
could unite in advancing it. 

Lancelot. See Jansenists. 

Languages. See Classical Culture^ 
Latin, Greek, and Modern Languages. 

Latin.- — The position which the Latin 
language occupies in education depends 
partly on its history, and partly on its in- 
trinsic educative power. In the schools 
of the middle ages {q.v.) Latin was the 
only language taught, because it was then 
the only language used for literary pur- 
poses, and it contained all the information 
on every subject which an educated man 
desired to possess. This state of matters 
continued practically till the Reformation. 
But with the rise of modern nationalities 
and modern languages and literatures, 
Latin became gradually less and less the 
vehicle of thought. It ceased almost en- 
tirely to be employed for purely literary 
purposes, and was restricted to treatises, 
which expounded philosophy, philology, 
and science. Within this century even 
this restricted use of Latin has reached 
almost the vanishing point, and it has be- 
come the custom for philosophers, scholars, 
and scientific men to convey their dis- 
coveries in their native language. There 
is therefore now no need to learn Latin in 
order to communicate thoughts or facts to 
others. But survivals of old practices are 
still to be found in the educational arrange- 
ments of various countries. Thus in many 
schools of Germany pupils are trained to 
speak Latin, and an original essay in Latin 



LATIN 



177 



'was obligatory at the final or leaving ex- 
amination of the scholars, and though the 
obligation has been recently removed, the 
discussions which have followed on its re- 
moval render it not improbable that it 
may be replaced at some future time. In 
England, on the other hand, great attention 
has been paid to composition in Latin 
verse, and in the public schools an enor- 
mous amount of time has been spent on 
this exercise, though within the last quarter 
of a century strong protests have been 
uttered against the practice, and much less 
time is now given to it. 

Latin, then, is no longer learned that 
it may be spoken or written. This change 
in the object of teaching the language has 
altered the question of its expediency. 
The present state of the question may be 
exhibited thus. A boy has to be trained 
in some intellectual pursuits from the age 
of ten or eleven to that of seventeen or 
eighteen. What are the pursuits that are 
best calculated to produce a man of vigor- 
ous intellect, of sound heart, and of prac- 
tical power ? Has Latin a place among 
these subjects, and if it has, what is this 
place ? An adequate discussion of this 
matter would involve a treatise on educa- 
tion ; but in dealing separately with Latin 
as a subject of instruction, it has always 
to be remembered that no just view can 
be taken of it unless it be viewed in con- 
nection with the other subjects that ought 
to be employed in education. The reasons 
which determine the place of Latin among 
educational subjects may be stated thus. 
One essential part of the education of 
human beings must be training in the 
thoughts, interests, actions, and all that 
concerns the welfare of men. This train- 
ing can be given only through language 
which is the vehicle of human thought, 
and literature which is the expression of the 
best and noblest human thought. What 
language, then, and what literature are 
likely to be most successful as instruments 
in the training of a boy from ten or eleven 
to seventeen or eighteen, not apart from, 
but alongside of, the other subjects which 
he must learn ? The answer of educational 
experience up to the present day is unques- 
tionably that the Latin language and the 
Latin literature are the best for the pur- 
poses of education. Arguments have been 
adduced to show that other languages are 
better adapted for the purpose. Some 
have suggested English, some have sug- 



gested French or German ; but as yet no 
experiment has been tried in schools with 
any of these languages which has proved 
a success. These languages ought to be 
learned, but in teaching them the teacher 
has not the same materials and opportunity 
for developing the powers as he has with 
Latin. Both the Latin language and the 
Latin literature are specially suited to a 
boy of from eleven to seventeen. The lan- 
guage is such that the connection of one 
word with another in a sentence is indi- 
cated by the terminations. There is thus 
a clear, visible sign of the connection of 
the words. The words themselves connote 
things and ideas not too familiar to the 
boy, and he thereby rises from a state of 
routine and almost unconscious knowledge 
to a clear consciousness of his thoughts 
and their bearing on reality. The boy 
from eleven to eighteen is at the stage 
when it is his work to advance from the 
concrete to the power of dealing with the 
abstract, from the individual to generali- 
sations more or less wide. The Latin lan- 
guage and the Latin literature afford him 
the most varied opportunities of this pro- 
cess, as the Romans were at that stage of 
mind when the tendency to the concrete 
was powerful, and abstraction and genera- 
lisation were only partially employed. The 
literature of the Romans is thus to a large 
extent within the comprehension of the 
boy of sixteen or eighteen. Roman history 
also presents simple characters and simple 
problems, and exhibits few of the com- 
plexities which cause action of the highest 
kind in modern times to demand great 
powers of abstraction and generalisation. 
These and various other considerations 
render Latin peculiarly appropriate as the 
dominant language for teaching purposes 
in the case of a capable boy who has time 
to spend on the complete education of his 
mind in all directions. Both language and 
literature are well adapted to his years ; 
the lessons can be so arranged that he shall 
always have difficulties, but such difficulties 
as he can overcome. The teacher can 
always employ the lesson to make the boy 
think, and a teacher is always needed to 
help the boy out of the difficulties or un- 
certainties which lie across his path. And 
in the end Latin literature confers on him 
a knowledge of a civilisation on which our 
own is based. 

Various methods of teaching Latin 
have been advocated. At the earliest stage, 

N 



178 



LATIN 



when Latin was the language of all culture, 
the boy learned it in his father's house 
from conversation, and his training in it 
was carried on by means of conversations 
in Latin. To make him acquainted with 
all the forms of the language, grammars 
had been prepared long before the fall of 
the Roman Empire. These grammars were 
based on philosophical ideas derived from 
Aristotle and the Stoics, and were intended 
to co-ordinate all the grammatical facts of 
the language. When the practice of train- 
ing in Latin by conversation ceased, these 
grammars still remained in use, and the 
Latin grammars of the present day are 
loaded with terms derived from the meta- 
physical ideas of the ancients. Pupils 
were expected to begin their course with 
learning these grammars, which were 
usually written in Latin down to a recent 
time, and there are still schools in which 
boys are drilled solely in grammatical forms 
and rules for a considerable period before 
they read an author. A reaction against 
this method took place, and it was urged 
that pupils should learn Latin as they learn 
their mother tongue. School books were 
prepared in harmony with this idea, and 
in order to carry it out easily the names 
of all objects familiar to the pupil were set 
down for committal to memory, and con- 
versations including them were to be dili- 
gently studied. But objections to this 
method were soon strongly presented. 
There were few teachers that could them- 
selves talk Latin fluently and accurately. 
The boy's intellectual powers were not ad- 
vanced by learning the equivalents in Latin 
for the common material objects which he 
met with daily, and they were of little or 
no use in helping him to read the Latin 
authors,' the comprehension of whose ideas 
was to form one main instrument in his 
culture. A kind of medium way was sug- 
gested, especially by Locke and Hamilton 
Xq.v.) The language ought to be learned 
by induction. A Latin sentence must be 
placed before the pupil. The teacher must 
tell him the meaning of the sentence. And 
then the pupil is to discover what forms 
indicate this connection in a sentence, and 
what forms indicate that, and thus he 
learns to form a grammar for himself, and 
by a similar process in regard to words he 
forms a dictionary for himself, tracing the 
various meanings of the words to some ori- 
ginal notion. Jacotot added to this that 
the pupil must be confined at first to one 



book which he is to commit to memory. 
He must know every word and sentence 
of it at his fingers' ends, and having mas- 
tered this he will be able to find within 
some part of it the solution of all the difii- 
culties which he may encounter in his 
further reading of books in the language. 
In more recent times a further change 
has taken place in the teaching of Latin. 
It is now generally recognised, as a result 
of comparative philology, that inflections 
are the remnants of words. There is thus in 
an inflected language like Latin no simple 
word in a sentence, but every word con- 
tains at least two portions. The first is 
the root, the other indicates the relation 
of the idea of the root to the other ideas 
expressed in the other words of the sen- 
tence. The pupil, it is argued, should be 
taught to distinguish from the very first 
between these two portions of the word, 
and he should learn as soon as possible the 
radical idea of the root and the original 
meaning of the inflection. A knowledge 
of the radical idea of the root is the basis 
of all lexical knowledge. A knowledge of 
the original meaning of the inflection is a 
knowledge of syntax, and therefore a know- 
ledge of the inflection should not be sepa- 
rated from a knowledge of its meanings. 
Many of the more recent Latin grammars 
have carried out more or less successfully 
this mode of teaching Latin, based on com- 
parative philology. 

The great point of discussion in con- 
nection with the teaching of Latin is how 
we should begin to teach Latin. The sub- 
sequent stages of the process admit also of 
discussion, but there is no serious difier- 
ence among educators, except in regard to 
two points mentioned already, the writing 
of Latin prose and the writing of Latin 
verse. Speaking generally, the conclusion 
to wliich most educationists have come is 
that Latin prose should be employed solely 
as a means of impressing the grammatical 
forms accurately and firmly on the memory, 
and that Latin verse should be left to those 
who have a taste for it. 

The literature on this subject is im- 
mense, very many discussions of the sub- 
ject appearing in pamphlet form. In 
regard to the value of Latin as a means of 
education, mention may be made of Her- 
bart, Beneke, Schmidt, Newman, Schrader, 
a very good pamphlet by Jones, and Essays 
on a Liberal Education, edited by Farrar, 
and on the other side Paulsen, Hodgson, 



LATIN LATIN (PRONUNCIATION OF) 



ir 



and Bain. On the teaching of Latin a 
lucid historical account is to be found in 
Raumer's Geschichte der Pddagogik^ Dritter 
Theil, p. 59. Most of the books on the 
value of Latin also discuss methods of 
teaching. More modern efforts can be seen 
in the works of Wilhelm, Lattmann, Per- 
thes, and Eckstein. Books on Gymnasial 
Pddagogih, such as Nagelsbach's, Roth's, 
Schmidt's, and Thi^ing's, discuss the ques- 
tion. Dr. Donaldson, senior principal of 
the University of St, Andrews, has pro- 
posed a new method of teaching Latin 
as an embodiment of the ideas of this 
age in his Elementary Latin Grammar 
(Nelson, 1880). See also Classical Cul- 
ture. 

Latin (Pronunciation of). — The ques- 
tion of the pronunciation of Latin has 
come into great prominence since the 
syllabus of Latin pronunciation prepared 
at the request of the head masters of 
public schools of England appeared in 
1872. The need of a change in the Eng- 
lish pronunciation of Latin had come to 
be strongly felt. Each nation is inclined 
to follow in the pronunciation of Latin 
the same method which it follows in the 
pronunciation of its own language. Thus 
the Italians pronounce ci as chi, the Ger- 
mans eu as o^, and the French articulate 
everj syllable with a slight accentuation. 
The result of this practice in England 
was a wider divergence from what was 
acknowledged on all hands to be the pro- 
nunciation of the Romans themselves in 
the time of Cicero than was to be found 
in any other country. All other nations 
retained the sounds of the vowels a, e, i, 
u which were given to them by the 
Romans ; the English alone pronounced 
<(, e, i, u, as a in /ate, e in meet, i in pine, 
and tt in hicm. They also uniformly 
sounded c and g before e and i soft, as in 
city, gin. These pronunciations create 
•obstacles to a ready apprehension of many 
of the facts and principles of comparative 
philology, and some scholars resolved to 
make an effort to restore in English schools 
the exact pronunciation of vowels, conso- 
nants, and diphthongs practised in the 
time of Cicero. For the settlement of 
this question ample materials were sup- 
plied by the mastei'ly work of Corssen, 
Ueber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Beto- 
nung der lateinisclien Sprache, 2nd edi- 
tion, 1863. The task was assigned to 
Professors Palmer and H. A. J. Munro. 



The principal points in their scheme are 
that the vowels should be pronounced as 
by all Continental nations, that c and g 
should always be pronounced hard, and 
that u or v should always be pronounced 
as w. Thus viva voce and vicissirn, are to 
be pronounced toiioa woke and loikissim, 
and Cicero as Kikero. This mode of pro- 
nunciation, though recommended by the 
greatest authorities, has not succeeded in 
gaining a permanent footing, and has been 
adopted only sporadically. The innova- 
tion is deemed too great. It is easy to 
determine broadly what was the pronun- 
ciation of Latin in Cicero's time, but there 
are many points that still remain un- 
settled, and all that can be done is an 
approximation. A new attempt, how- 
ever, is to be made to bring the pronun- 
ciation of the Augustan age into vogue. 
The Cambridge Philological Society has 
issued a pamphlet entitled The Pronun- 
ciation of Latin in the Augustan Period, 
which has received the general approba 
tion of nearly all the classical professors 
and lecturers in Cambridge University. 
It is expected, therefore, that this pro- 
nunciation will be widely adopted in the 
lectures of that University. The pam- 
phlet was submitted to the Oxford Philo- 
logical Society and obtained its approval, 
and accordingly it is likely that its pro- 
posals will be carried into practice in the 
University of Oxford. And if the pro- 
fessors and lecturers of both Universities 
employ the suggested pronunciation, it is 
probable that schoolmasters will follow 
{see an article by Mr. Postgate, in Classi- 
cal Review, April 1887). But there are 
difficulties in the way, and the success of 
the effort cannot be predicted with cer- 
tainty. 

Besides the pronunciation of the let- 
ters, teachers have raised the question of 
pronouncing according to the quantities. 
These quantities are ordinarily neglected, 
except when the Roman accentuation 
compels attention to them. The general 
law of Roman accentuation requires that 
if the penult is long the accent must be 
on it ; if the penult is short the accent is 
on the antepenult. Thus Romanes has 
the accent on the penult, nobiles has the 
accent on the antepenult. But ordinarily 
both these words are grossly mispro- 
nounced. Bomanos is pronounced Bo- 
mdnos, whereas it should be Bomanos, 
and nohiles is pronounced nohiles, whereas 

n2 



180 LATIN (PEONUNCIATION OF) LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



it should be noMIes. Our pronunciation 
is thus generally very far wrong in quan- 
tity, and it is likely that a Roman would 
not have understood us, even if we had 
spoken their language quite accurately as 
respects grammar and choice of words. 
A further proposal was made by Ritschl 
that not only should all syllables that are 
long be pronounced long, but an efi'ort 
should be made to distinguish in the case 
of words long by position, those that are 
naturally long and those that owe their 
length to position. Thus as the a of 
mater is long and the a of pater is short, 
a in matris should be pronounced longer 
than the a in patris. For the same reason 
esse, to eat, should be pronounced longer 
than esse, to be {Opuscula, vol. iv. p. 766). 
The age of Cicero is adopted as the norm 
for the pronunciation. There can be no 
doubt that alike in earlier and later times 
the pronunciation, both in regard to the 
accentuation and individual letters, differed 
from that which prevailed at the end of 
the Republic. Corssen's work is the 
great work on the subject of the pronun- 
ciation and accentuation of Latin. The 
subject has also been discussed byMunro, 
Ellis, Roby (in his Grammar), and on 
accentuation Henri Weil and Louis Ben- 
loew have written a treatise. 

Latin Verse. See Yeese Writing 
and Public Schools. 

Law (Educational). — In this article a 
summary is given of the Education Law 
at present in force in England and 
Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Austria, Bel- 
gium, France, Holland, Russia, India, 
Italy, the State of Massachusetts (typical 
of the United States, where each State 
has its own education law), the Province 
of Ontario (typical of the Dominion of 
Canada), Saxony (typical of North Ger- 
many), the Province of South Australia 
(typical of the Australian Provinces), and 
the Canton of Zurich (typical of the Can- 
tons of Switzerland). 

■ England and Wales. — The develop- 
ment of popular education, side by side 
with the extension of the franchise, oc- 
cupies a most 23rominent place in the his- 
tory of England for the last fifty years. 
Previous to 1839 Parliament exercised no 
direct control over any of the educational 
institutions of the country. And even 
now, though several Acts of Parliament 
have been passed amending and remodelling 
the constitution of the various corporate 



bodies which provide superior and secon- 
dary education — the universities, colleges,, 
endowed public and grammar schools — 
yet the Legislature has stopped short of 
actual interference in the educational 
work done under the control of these 
bodies. With regard to elementary edu- 
cation, however, it has gone a step further. 
In 1839 it found this branch of educa- 
tion entirely in the hands of private 
individuals or voluntary associations. 
Prominent among these latter were the 
' British and Foreign School Society,' 
founded in 1808 as the result of the edu- 
cational revival initiated by Joseph Lan- 
caster, and the ' National Society for Pro- 
moting the Education of the Poor in the 
Principles of the Church of England,' 
established three years later (1811) to 
give aid in money and books to those 
elementary schools in which the Church 
Catechism was taught. In that year Par- 
liament voted 30,000?. for the purpose of 
elementary education, and formed a Com- 
mittee of the Privy Council to administer 
and distribute the sum voted. This Com- 
mittee at first restricted its grants in aid 
to the erection of schools which were in 
connection either with the National Society 
or the British and Foreign School Society. 
Some years later it extended its grants to 
Roman Catholic and other denominational 
schools. The principle upon which these 
grants were administered was that of sup- 
plementing local effort in the building of 
schools. They offered 10s. per head for 
every child to be accommodated, and re- 
quired that the rest of the cost should be 
provided by local subscriptions. In re- 
turn the Committee insisted that the Scrip- 
tures should be read daily in the schools, 
and that the schools should submit to in- 
spection by its officers. In 1843 grants 
were made towards the erection of school- 
masters' houses and training colleges. In 
1846 minutes were issued by the Com- 
mittee providing for annual payments in 
augmentation of salaries of teachers in 
charge of schools which obtained certifi- 
cates of merit by examination. The next 
step taken (in 1846) by the Committee of 
Council was to recognise pupil-teachers of 
thirteen years of age and upwards, and to 
make payments to them on condition of 
their parents consenting to an apprentice- 
ship of four or five years. Substantial aid 
was also granted to the training colleges 
which received these pupil-teachers at the 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



181 



•end of their apprenticeship. In spite of 
these encouragements it was found that 
very many districts were unable to take 
advantage of the benefits offered by the 
Committee of Council. By the principle 
adopted the Committee only helped those 
who were able to help themselves, and in 
many poor districts the schools were un- 
able to maintain themselves in efficiency 
for want of adequate funds. Accordingly 
in 1853 Parliament increased its annual 
grant so as to enable a capitation grant to 
be earned by rural schools on each scholar 
in daily average attendance who should 
make a minimum of 192 attendances in 
the school-year. This grant was extended 
to toion schools in 1856. In 1860 the 
minutes of the Committee of Council were 
digested into a code ; and in 1862, after 
considerable discussion in the country and 
in Parliament, the ' E,evised Code' became 
law. Under the Revised Code direct pay- 
ments to teachers were abolished : the 
grant earned was to be paid directly to the 
managers, who were left to appoint what 
teachers they pleased, provided that the 
requirements of the Code were complied 
with. Grants were to be paid as hereto- 
fore upon the average attendance, and, 
for the first time, ujion the individual ex- 
amination of the scholars. In 1870 the 
sum voted by Parliament had reached 
840,000/J. The schools under inspection 
had accommodation for 1,878,584 scholars, 
and 1,693,059 scholars on the books. There 
were nearly 15,000 certified teachers, and 
2,500 students resident in the training 
colleges. This takes us down to the year 
1870, the close of the purely voluntary 
era of elementary education. In February 
of that year a bill was brought into the 
Parliament elected on the extended fran- 
chise by Mr. W. E. Forster, and, after a 
long and animated discussion throughout 
that session, became law (on August 9, 
1870) under the title of ' an Act to provide 
Elementaiy Education in England and 
Wales.' The provisions of this Act have 
been further amended, supplemented, and 
strengthened by subsequent Acts passed 
in 1873, 1876, 1879, and 1880. This Act, 
while recognising the existing schools 
under Denominational Bodies, and giving 
facilities for their further development, 
placed side by side with them ' Board ' 
Schools, managed by publicly - elected 
School Boards, and supported by local 
rates, school fees, and Government grants. 



This piece of legislation has resulted in 
very largely increasing the supply of 
schools under inspection, so that they 
had in 1885 accommodation for 4,998,718 
scholars, and 4,412,148 scholars on the 
books. For the leading provisions of the 
Elementary Education Law as at present 
(1887) in force see articles School Boards 
and School-attendance Committees and 
Code. 

Scotland. — For three centuries prior 
to the passing of the Elementary Edu- 
cation Act for Scotland, the system of 
parochial schools, which were born of the 
impulse given by John Knox {q.v.) to 
popular education, and were established 
in every parish by an ordinance of King 
James in 1696, sufficed for the educational 
wants of the Scotch people. The Act of 
the Scotch Parliament of that year re- 
quired a parochial school to be opened in 
every parish under a schoolmaster, who 
was to be chosen on the advice of the 
parochial minister ; and the proprietors 
were bound to meet and vote the sum 
necessary for the maintenance of the school 
and for the salary of the teacher, and 
to furnish the teacher with a suitable 
dwelling. But the split which took place 
in the Church of Scotland in 1843, and 
the founding of the Free Church by the 
side of the national Presbyterian Church, 
brought two rival ministers into each 
parish, and thus created insuperable diffi- 
culties to the harmonious working of a sys- 
tem which depended largely for initiative 
and efficient working upon the minister of 
the parish. Rival schools were established 
in many cases, and education in Scotland 
languished from lack of means and divided 
interests. This state of things continued 
down to 1872, when the feeling became 
general that the time had come to put an 
end to a system which had had its day, 
and that an Act on similar lines to the 
Act which had been passed in England in 
1870 was necessary to place public educa- 
tion in Scotland on a proper footing. 
Accordingly the English Parliament 
passed the Education (Scotland) Act, and 
placed its administration under a Com- 
mittee of the Privy Council for Scotland 
(commonly called the Scotch Education 
Department). This Act established a 
School Board in every parish, with mode 
of election and general powers similar to 
those laid down in the English Act. The 
School Board was to have the control o 



is: 



LAAV (EDUCATIONAL) 



all parochial schools existing at the pass- 
ing of the Act, whether they were ele- 
mentary or town schools, academies, high 
schools, or grammar schools ; and in addi- 
tion had the power of erecting and main- 
taining new schools where the need of 
such was proved to the satisfaction of the 
Scotch Department to exist. Provisions 
as to liberty of conscience, compulsory 
school attendance, payment of fees of in- 
digent children by the ' parochial board,' 
are made ; regulations for the inspection 
of schools, payment of Government grants, 
the qualifications of teachers, &c., on the 
same principles as those laid down in the 
English code, which is also annually laid 
on the table of both Houses of Parlia- 
ment by the Scotch Education Depart- 
ment, and becomes part of the education 
law for Scotland. Grants are paid on 
behalf of all schools under School Boards, 
except the ' higher class public schools ' as 
defined by the Act. It will be noted then 
that, in contradistinction to England and 
Wales, School Boards are universal in 
Scotland, and further, that they have the 
management of schools covering a wider 
range than mere ' elementary education,' 
as the term is understood in England. In 
other respects the Scotch and English 
education laws are practically identical, 

Ireland. — The system of national edu- 
cation is based on the principle of com- 
bined literary and moral, and separate 
religious instruction to children of all per- 
suasions. The system is administered by 
a board of twenty commissioners, called 
the Commissio7iers of National Education 
in Ireland, incorporated by Royal charter. 
Ten of these must be Protestant, and ten 
Roman Catholic. Appointments to vacan- 
cies are made by the Lord-Lieutenant. 
This Board administers the Parliamentary 
grant, and reports annually to the Lord- 
Lieutenant. The schools eligible for the 
grant are first, vested schools, i.e. schools 
vested either in the Commissioners or in 
trustees for the purpose of being main- 
tained as National schools ; and secondly, 
non-vested schools, the property of private 
individuals. Both these classes of schools 
are under the control of patrons or local 
managers, who must be either clergymen 
or persons of good position. There are 
also model schools, of which the Commis- 
sioners are themselves the patrons. The 
Commissioners award aid towards the 
payment of teachers, and supply of books 



and school requisites, and (in the case of 
vested schools) towards building and fur- 
nishing school-houses, and (in some cases) 
towards providing teachers' residences. 
The aid granted to non- vested schools 
consists of salary, results fees, gratuities, 
books, and school requisites, and the 
benefits of inspection and training. Be- 
sides the ordinary schools, vested and non- 
vested, there are (1) three kinds of model 
schools for the promotion of united educa- 
tion, to exhibit to the suiTounding schools 
the most approved methods of literary 
and scientific instruction, and to educate 
young persons for the office of teachers. 
In these schools the Commissioners ap- 
point and dismiss all teachers and officers,, 
regulate the course of instruction, and 
exercise all the rights of patrons. There 
are also (2) Agricultural National schools, . 
to which farms or gardens are attached, 
and (3) a few schools in which special in- 
dustrial instruction — principally in em- 
broidery and other advanced kinds of nee- 
dlework — is given. Special regulations 
are in force for providing that any child 
may be withdrawn from any religious in- 
struction of which his parents or guar- 
dians disapprove. Only laymen can be 
recognised as teachers. Teachers must be 
persons of Christian sentiment, imbued 
with a spirit of obedience to the law and 
loyalty to their sovereign ; of good health, 
and must have been examined and pro- 
nounced competent by the inspectors. 
The Commissioners have under their ex- 
clusive control a boarding training college, 
entirely supported by the Government 
grant. The salaries of National teachers 
are regulated by a fixed scale, according 
to the class of certificate held by the 
teacher. In addition to their salaries 
teachers receive ' results fees,' according to^ 
a fixed scale for each class and each sub- 
ject taught. In one particular the Com- 
missioners exercise a power unknown to 
the law in England and Scotland, and that 
is in exercising control over the books 
used in the schools receiving aid. The 
Board has itself published some of the 
books and sanctions others. The use of 
the books specified in the Board's list, 
whether published or sanctioned by the 
Commissioners, is not compulsory, but the 
titles of all other books which patrons or 
managers of schools intend to use must 
be notified to the Commissioners before 
introduction, and must not be used if they 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



183 



object. Grants of books are made by the 
Board. A programme of instruction and 
examination is issued, according to which 
results fees are paid. The standard of at- 
tainments reached and required in each 
year of school life is considerably lower 
than for the corresponding year in Eng- 
land and Scotland, as might naturally be 
expected from the condition of the popu- 
lation, the absence of any law of com- 
pulsory school attendance, and the com- 
paratively lower ' average attendance ' 
secured. 

Aitstria. — Public elementary schools 
are of two kinds, primary schools and 
burgher schools. The public law of Austria 
requires that there shall be a primary school 
wherever there are forty children of school 
age within a radius of an hour's walk, and 
a burgher school, or superior primary school, 
in each school district. The sexes are, as 
a rule, mixed throughout the primary and 
the lower classes burgher schools, but are 
sepai^ated in the higher classes of the latter 
schools. Primary education is free through- 
out both elementary and superior grades in 
most of the provinces of the Austrian em- 
pire, but in a few provinces only the ele- 
mentary gi'ade is free. Schools are classified 
according to the number of classes into 
which they are divided. A complete ele- 
mentary school, comprising both a primary 
and burgher school, should have eight classes 
of about eighty scholars each, but many 
schools have fewer — seven, six, or even 
five — classes. Attendance is compulsory 
from seven years of age. It is the custom in 
many parts of Austria for a master to take 
charge of a class of scholars on their en- 
trance into the school, and to carry them 
through all the classes of the school from 
the lowest to the highest. The elementary 
schools are supported by a local authority, 
which has also control over the subjects of 
instruction and the methods employed, but 
generally accepts the guidance of the State 
authorities. Most burgher schools have 
connected with them continuation schools 
for those who do not attend the higher 
grade schools, at which attendance is com- 
pulsory till the age of fifteen. Small fees 
are charged, but, in cases of poverty, they 
are remitted. The continuation schools 
are supported partly by the State and 
partly by the local authorities. Below the 
elementary schools the Kindergarten, or 
infant school, is found in very many places, 
andis ofi&cially recognised, though not aided 



by State grant. In these schools the 
maxims of Froebel are carried out with a 
thoroughness and success which has made 
the Austrian infant schools the models for 
all recent improvements in the methods of 
instruction of children under seven years 
of age. Above the elementary schools 
stand the secondary schools, classified, as in 
Saxony (q.v.), into Real schools. Real gym- 
nasia, and gymnasia. Above these again 
are the polytechnic schools and the univer- 
sities. There are also normal schools for 
teachers, supported by the State, of which 
the Psedagogium at Vienna has a very high 
reputation for the excellence of its train- 
ing of teachers for the public elementary 
schools. 

Belgium. — The elementary schools re- 
cognised in Belgium are either public (i.e. 
Govei"nment) schools or private (clerical) 
schools. This dual system of schools is 
the outcome of the long and successful 
struggle of the clerical authorities against 
any control of primaiy education by the 
State. As a consequence of this the law 
permits any person to establish, or teach 
in, a school without control or inspection 
of any kind. The result is that illiteracy 
abounds to an extent unknown in any other 
State of Western Europe. Attendance 
at school is not compulsory. On the other 
hand, the law requires that there must be 
at least one public school in each com- 
mune. These schools are under Govern- 
ment inspection. About 60 per cent, of 
the child population is being educated in 
public schools. The cost of the public 
education is defrayed to the extent of 
about 50 per cent, by the State, 17 per 
cent, by the province, and 33 per cent, 
by the commune. Many of the communal 
(public) schools and clerical (private) 
schools are free, partially or entirely. 
Secondary school education is largely sup- 
plied by the Government in schools of two 
classes : (a) higher elementary or middle- 
class schools, with a fee of about 50s. a 
year ; and (b) secondary schools or Athenees, 
with a fee of about 80s. a year. The build- 
ings are usually erected at the cost of the 
town, and the expenses of maintenance 
over and above the school fees are de- 
frayed by the State. The Athenee at 
Brussels contains about 900 pupils. There 
are four universities in Belgium, but no 
polytechnic schools. The normal school 
for the training of teachers at Brussels is 
justly celebrated. There are also Govern- 



184 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



ment normal schools at Liege and Ghent, 
the former for teachers of classics, the 
latter for teachers of science, in secondary 
schools. All the schools aided by Govern- 
ment are subject to Govei-nment inspec- 
tion. 

France. — The education of France is 
in the hands of the State, represented by 
the Minister of Public Instruction and 
the Pref ets of departments. The Minister 
is assisted by a ' suj)erior council,' which 
consists of members elected by various 
university bodies, and representatives of 
various other interests — the faculties, the 
lycees, primary education, &c. — ninety- 
eight in all. The members are elected 
for four years. They sit in general sessions 
twice a year, but an executive committee 
' of fifteen sits constantly. Subject to this 
superior council the affairs of the schools 
are managed by academic councils for 
secondary and superior education, and for 
primary education departmental councils. 
All the schools are under the inspection 
of a staff of inspectors, who are directly 
under the control of the Minister of Pub- 
lic Instruction. The duties of these in- 
spectors is limited to seeing that the law 
is being duly obeyed. Subject to the 
general laws and regulations issued by 
the Minister, secondary and superior 
schools may be conducted by persons not 
in the pay of the State. But the whole 
power as to appointment of teachers, pro- 
gramme of studies, inspection, Ac, of 
primary schools, is in the hands of the 
State. 

For the purposes of primary educa- 
tion there is a School Board (law of 
March 1881) in every commune, com- 
posed of the maire and others, and the 
inspector of primary schools. Attendance 
at school is now (since 1882) compulsory. 
Exemption is obtained by examination at 
the age of eleA^en. Primary instruction 
is gratuitous (since 1881) ; higher ele- 
mentary, which includes technical instruc- 
tion, is also gratuitous in Paris and many 
of the large towns. A sum equal to 4 
per cent, of the four so-called ' quatres 
contributions directes,' viz. : (1) real pro- 
perty tax, (2) window tax, (3) movable 
property tax, (4) license fees, must be pro- 
vided (by the law of January 1, 1881) by 
every commune for the service of primary 
instruction. Besides this sum, every com- 
mune (except the poorest) must devote to 
the service of its primary schools, before 



it is entitled to departmental or State 
aid, one-fifth of the income derived from 
the following local sources of revenue : 
(1) income from its real property, (2) its 
share of horse and carriage duty, (-3) the 
dog tax, (4) the net income from the octroi, 
(5) income from highways, markets, and 
fairs. If the total amounts thus raised are 
insufficient for the service of the schools, 
the State provides the deficiency. The 
ordinary elementary school age in France 
is from the beginning of the seventh to 
the end of the twelfth year, and is divided 
into three courses. The ordinary com- 
pulsory school course comprises moral and 
' civic ' instruction, reading, writing, arith- 
metic, grammar, geography, the history of 
France, dra.wing and music, gymnastics, 
military exercises (boys), needlework 
(girls), and it is strictly carried out in 
the large towns. The elements of science 
are also taught as object lessons. Instruc- 
tion in manual work has lately been intro- 
duced into a considerable number of the 
primary schools of Paris. The higher 
elementary schools, complementary, and 
apprenticeship schools are entitled (since 
1880) to share in the subventions made 
for public instruction. Corporal punish- 
ment in all French schools of every grade 
is forbidden, and is absolutely unknown. 
The salaries and allowances of the teachers 
are determined each year by the Minister 
on the proposal of the prefet, and by the 
advice of the departmental council. From 
the fact that the funds for primary educa- 
tion are raised by the commune, it will be 
seen that the power of the purse rests 
with it and not with the prefet and the 
departmental council, and consequently in 
the larger and more public-spirited com- 
munes the real controlling authority over 
primary education is the communal coun- 
cil. Secondaiy and superior education 
is usually subsidised by Imperial taxa- 
tion. In this case the local control is 
very slight. 

Holland. — Here, as in Belgium, the 
law pei'mits any competent person to esta- 
blish or teach in a school without control 
or inspection ; the sole provision for en- 
suring primary instruction being that there 
must be at least one elementary school 
in every commune. Attendance is not 
compulsory ; school-fees may be demanded, 
but it is calculated that about 50 per cent, 
of the scholars are excused fees. The State 
contribution to the cost of primary instruc- 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



185 



tion may reach 30 per cent, of the total 
cost. Holland, alone of Continental nations, 
employs the Pupil-Teacher System in staff- 
ing its schools. Facilities for secondary 
education exist, but the education afforded 
by the majority of the secondary schools 
is not of the highest grade, most of the 
schools contenting themselves with the 
curriculum of the German Real Schools. 
There are about thirty gymnasia for a 
population of four millions. 

India. — Education forms the subject of 
a special department in every province of 
British India, but there is no coi'respond- 
ing department in the Government of 
India. The head of each provincial de- 
partment is styled Director of Public In- 
struction ; subordinate to him are a staff" 
of inspectors of various grades, and a staff" 
of teachers, ranging from principals and 
professors of colleges to assistant masters 
in primary schools. Both the inspecting 
and teaching staff" are divided into a su- 
perior and inferior list. The Education 
Department, as at present constituted, 
owes its origin to the famous Despatch 
of the Court of Directors of the East India 
Company in 1854, which has been called 
the charter of education in India. It re- 
commended : (1) the constitution of a 
separate department of the administra- 
tion for education, (2) the institution of 
universities at the presidency towns, 

(3) the establishment of institutions for 
training teachers of all classes of schools, 

(4) the maintenance of the existing Go- 
vernment colleges and high schools, and 
the increase of their number when neces- 
sary, (5) the establishment of new middle 
schools, (6) increased attention to ver- 
nacular schools, indigenous or other, for 
elementary education, (7) the introduction 
of a system of grants-in-aid. The atten- 
tion of Government was specially di- 
rected to the importance of placing the 
means of acquiring useful and practical 
knowledge within reach of the great mass 
of the people. These recommendations were 
confirmed by a despatch of the Secretary 
of State in 1859. The English language 
is the medium of instruction in the higher 
branches, and the vernacular in the lower. 
English is taught wherever there is a de- 
mand for it, but is not substituted for 
the vernacular languages of the country. 
The system of grants-in-aid is based on 
the principle of perfect religious neutrality. 
Aid is given (so far as the requirements 



of each particular district as compared 
with other districts and the funds at the 
disposal of Government render it possible) 
to all schools imparting a good secular 
education, provided they are under ade- 
quate local management, and are subject 
to Government inspection, and provided 
that fees, however small, are charged in 
them. Grants are for specific objects, and 
their amount and continuance depend on 
the periodical reports of the Government 
inspectors. A comprehensive system of 
scholarships connects lower schools with 
higher, and higher schools with colleges. 
At no time known to history were the 
inhabitants of India an uneducated people. 
Their indigenous institutions date from 
an early antiquity, and may be divided 
into two classes : (1) the Hindu tols or 
seats of Sanskrit learning, and the Mu- 
hammadan madrasas and maktabSySbt each 
of which the instruction given was mainly 
religious ; and (2) the patsalas or hedge 
schools, to be found in almost every, vil- 
lage, where reading, writing, and arith- 
metic were taught to the children of every 
class but the very lowest. The religious in- 
stitutions were supported by endowments 
in land, and it was a point of honour that 
all teaching should be free. The village 
schoolmaster received fees, generally in 
kind, from the pupils. The first European 
impulse towards secular education came 
from the missionary bodies, who had esta- 
blished themselves in Southern India to- 
wards the end of the eighteenth century. 
In 1781 Warren Hastings founded and 
endowed the Calcutta Madrasa, with the 
special object of encouraging the study 
of Persian, then the language of courts 
of justice as well as of diplomacy ; and 
ten years later the Government founded 
the Sanskrit College at Benares. The next 
stimulus came from the Act of Parliament 
which renewed the charter of the East 
Ixadia Company in 1813. In this statute 
it was specially provided that ' a sum 
of not less than one lac of rupees (10,000^.) 
in each year shall be set apart and applied 
to the revival and improvement of litera- 
ture, and the encouragement of the learned 
natives of India, and for the introduction 
and promotion of a knowledge of the 
sciences among the inhabitants of the 
British territories of India.' At about 
the same time English began to take the 
place of Persian as the ofl&cial language 
(though Persian was not formally super- 



186 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



seded until 1837), and a demand arose at 
the presidency towns for instruction in 
English instead of in the vernacular or 
the classical languages of the East. For 
many years a hot controversy was waged 
between the partisans of either view, 
known as the Anglicists and the Orien- 
talists ; and the two were fairly balanced 
until Macaulay (then legal member of 
council) lent all his influence to the cause 
of English education in 1835. The ques- 
tion was finally settled in 1839 by a 
minute of the Governor-General to the 
following purport : although English was 
to be retained as the medium of the higher 
instruction in European literature, philo- 
sophy, and science, the existing Oriental 
institutions were to be kept up in full 
efficiency, and were to receive the same 
encouragement as might be given to the 
students at English institutions. Verna- 
cular instruction was to be combined with 
English, full choice being allowed to the 
pupils to attend whichever they might in- 
dividually prefer. The usual division of 
educational institutions in India is five- 
fold : (1) universities, (2) colleges, (3) se- 
condary schools, (4) primary schools, (5) 
normal schools and places for technical 
instruction. The universities are pui'ely 
examining bodies. Excluding the newly- 
founded Punjab University they are three 
in number, at Calcutta, Madras, and Bom- 
bay — all incorporated in 1857 — their con- 
stitution being modelled upon the Univer- 
sity of London. 

Though in their origin independent 
of the universities, the arts colleges of 
India may be regarded as their teaching- 
branches. They were founded, whether 
by the Government, by missionaries, or 
by private enterprise, to promote higher 
education generally ; but since the esta- 
blishment of the universities in 1857 the 
colleges have been affiliated to them, and 
have been obliged to adapt their cur- 
riculum to the university examinations. 

Besides the arts colleges, thei-e are 
Oriental colleges, of which the principal 
are the Calcutta Madrasa, the Canning 
College at Lucknow, the Oriental College 
at Lahore, and the Muhammadan Anglo- 
Oriental College at Aligai'h in the North- 
West Provinces. At some of these in- 
struction is given in English ; but the 
main object of their existence is to pro- 
mote the study of the Oriental classics 
according to Oriental methods. Classes 



in law are usually departments of the arts- 
colleges, but Calcutta, Madras, and Bom- 
bay each possess a medical college (besides 
medical schools) and an engineering col- 
lege. In this connection also may be 
mentioned the School of Arts and Design 
at Calcutta, the Madras School of Indus- 
trial Arts, and the Sir Jamsetji Jijibha 
School of Art at Bombay. Secondary 
schools are those intermediate between 
colleges and primary schools. The higher 
limit is fixed by the matriculation stan- 
dard of the universities ; the lower limit 
depends upon the definition of primary in- 
struction, which is not uniform through- 
out India. Secondary schools are classi- 
fied into (1) High Schools, whose curri- 
culum is framed upon the examination 
required for matriculation at the univer- 
sities ; and (2) Middle Schools, which are 
sub-divided into Middle English and 
Middle Vernacular. The middle schools 
may be regarded either as a development 
of the primary schools, or as an introduc- 
tion of the high schools ; but their actual 
position between the two varies greatly in. 
the several provinces. It is impossible 
to institute any trustworthy comparison 
between the secondary schools in the 
several provinces, owing to difi'erences of 
classification. In Bengal and Assam the 
pupils in primary departments of the 
secondary schools have been included^ 
while in the other provinces they have 
been excluded. Primary schools are na 
less difficult to define than secondary. The 
lower limit, of course, is elementary in-, 
struction in reading, writing, and arith- 
metic ; but the higher limit passes imper- 
ceptibly into secondary education, the line 
being drawn differently in different pro- 
vinces. In 1879 an attempt was made 
by the Government of India to enforce 
greater uniformity by prescribing a stan- 
dard, known as the upper primary exami- 
nation, which should mark the boundary 
between primary and secondary instruc- 
tion. This standard, however, was ob- 
jected to, partly as introducing an arbi- 
trary and not a real uniformity, and partly 
as identifying primary instruction with 
the lower stage of a course ending in, and 
determined by, matriculation at the uni- 
versities. As a matter of fact, the pro- 
vinces still retain wide divergencies in 
their system of primary instruction. The' 
methods of supporting primary schools in, 
the provinces differ yet more widely than, 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



isr 



the standai'ds of instruction. The most 
important distinction depends upon the 
amount of encouragement given to indige 
nous schools. In Bengal, since the reforms 
of Sir George Campbell in 1872, the domi- 
nant policy of the Government has been 
to incorporate the numerous patsalas or 
village schools into the educational system 
by means of moderate grants to the giirus 
or sclioolmasters. In Bombay the Govern- 
ment has always favoured the opposite 
policy of founding departmental schools 
put of the local rate, and trusting that the 
indigenous schools will benefit by their 
example. The North- West Provinces 
and the Punjab have, on the whole, fol- 
lowed the same system. So also have the 
Central Pi'ovinces, though with increasing 
efforts to encourage the few indigenous 
schools that exist. Assam, on the other 
hand, has imitated the neighbouring ex- 
ample of Bengal, with this difference, that 
the Government in Assam has had to 
stimulate private schools into existence 
by much more liberal grants. Madras 
enjoys a system of its own, which it owes 
largely to the successful growth of mis- 
sionary enterprise from an early date. 
Hei'e the most prospei'ous schools are 
probably those maintained by missionary 
bodies, and aided by the Government. 
The number of departmental schools is 
small, btit these, as well as the missionary 
schools, have indirectly done much to raise 
the standard of the indigenous schools, 
which are both numerous and flourishing. 
There remains to mention the professional 
and technical schools which are attached 
to primary or secondary schools. The 
great majority of these are normal schools 
for training masters or mistresses ; but 
there are also a few industrial schools and 
special classes for engineering. The sys- 
tem of training teachers for primary 
schools varies greatly in the several pro- 
vinces. A certificate does not everywhere 
mean the same thing. In Bombay and 
the Central Provinces it is awarded only 
to those who have passed a course of two 
or three years in a normal school. Else- 
where it is given to any one who has been 
pupil-teacher in a primary school for a 
comparatively short time. In Bengal, 
since 1875, the policy of the department 
has been to discontinue normal schools, 
and to recognise as a qualified teacher 
any young man who had been trained in 
the middle or lower vernacular schools. 



Female education has made considerable- 
progress in recent years, mainly through 
missionary effort ; but it still remains in 
a very backward condition, as compared 
even with the education of boys. The 
Government of India, properly so called, 
has no concern with education, which is 
entirely under provincial administration. 
It rests with each provincial government 
to allot to education as much as it pleases 
out of the sum assigned to it for all pro- 
vincial expenditure. Local rates or cesses 
for education, as well as for other local 
purposes, have been levied in most pro- 
vinces for many years ; but the system 
of appropriating local rates to education 
is not uniform throughout India. In the 
North- West Provinces, the Punjab, and 
the Central Provinces, the entire proceeds 
of the local rate are credited to provincial 
revenues, and then a portion is allotted 
to education. In Madras, the local rate 
is administered by bodies that are to some 
extent independent of the provincial gov- 
eniment. In Bombay alone is a propor- 
tion of the local rate appropriated from 
the first to education. The extension of 
district and other local boards has aug- 
mented everywhere the importance . of 
local rates in education finance. The con- 
tributions of municipalities towards edu- 
cation are entirely voluntary ; but it may 
be exj)ected that they will increase with 
the recent measures of municipal reform. 
Italy. — The present system of public 
elementary education in Italy dates from 
the passing of a law for free and com- 
pulsory primary education in 1877. This 
law requires all those who are not under 
efficient instruction at home or in private 
schools to be sent to a communal elementary 
school from six years of age till they have 
completed the obligatory (lower) elementary 
course. This is generally passed through 
at nine or ten years of age. After com- 
pleting the lower course scholars are ex- 
pected, though not compelled, to attend 
continuation evening schools where such 
exist. The sexes are taught in separate 
schools. Good Kindergarten schools on 
the Froebel plan are to be found at Milan 
and elsewhere. The State authority con- 
sists of a Minister of Public Instruction,, 
assisted by a Superior Council of twenty- 
one members nominated by the King. A 
subsidy from the State, or from the pro- 
vince, or both, is accorded to those com- 
munes which conform to the law and show^ 



188 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



grounds for such relief from tlie heavy 
incidence of local burdens. Secondary 
education is either classical, provided in 
gymnasia and lycees, or technical, provided 
in technical schools and institutes. Day 
(secondary) schools for girls have been 
provided in some towns, notably at Milan, 
but most of the girls' schools are boarding 
schools. There are seventeen universities 
in Italy, eight of which are of the first 
rank. 

MassaclniseUs (State of). — The State 
educational authority is a Board of Edu- 
cation consisting of the governor and lieu- 
tenant-governor, and eight persons ap- 
pointed by the govei'nor, with the advice 
and consent of the State council, each hold- 
ing office for eight years, one retiring each 
year. All vacancies are tilled the same 
way. The board holds all grants of lands 
or bequests in trust for educational pur- 
poses. The board prescribes fox-ms of re- 
gisters for all schools, and can require 
statistics of officers of schools and others 
respecting the condition of the schools. 
It also has the general management of the 
State normal schools. It also arranges the 
holding of ' teachers' institutes,' and de- 
frays to a certain extent the necessary 
expenses for procuring teachers and lec- 
tures for such institutes. The school fund 
of the commonwealth — arising from sales 
of State lands — is administered by the 
board; one half of the annual income 
arising from the fund is distributed among 
the towns complying with the State law 
for the support of public schools. Each 
town is required to keep its schools open 
for at least six months in each year under 
teachers of competent ability and good 
morals ; a sufficient number of schools for 
the instruction of all children who may 
legally attend school (five to fifteen years 
of age) in orthography, reading, writing, 
English grammar, geography, arithmetic, 
drawing, the history of the United States, 
and good behaviour. Algebra, vocal music, 
agriculture, farming, physiology, and hy- 
giene are required to be taught where 
expedient. Every town of five hundred 
families must also maintain a high school 
which must be open for ten months, and in 
every town of four thousand inliabitants the 
high school curriculum must be widened by 
the introduction of the Greek and French 
languages, astronomy, logic, moral science, 
and political economy. Any town of one 
thousand inhabitants must provide free 



instruction in industrial and mechanical 
drawing to persons over fifteen years of 
age in either day or evening schools. The 
several towns must tax themselves in sup- 
port of their schools, on pain of forfeiture 
of twice the sum ever voted by the State 
from the State fund. Every town must 
annually elect a school committee, to have 
the general charge and superintendence of 
all the public schools of the town, one third 
to be elected annually, to hold office forthree 
years. The appointment and dismissal of 
teachers, of the superintendents of schools, 
choice of books, course of studies, cfec, 
rest with this committee. The Bible must 
be read daily in the public schools without 
note or comment. All public schools are 
open free, and when parents are unable to 
pay for books the books are supplied at 
the cost of the towns. Attendance at school 
is compulsory between eight and fourteen 
years of age. Every person ha^dng control 
of such children is required to cause them 
to attend a public school for at least twenty 
weeks annually, on penalty for every neg- 
lect of such duty of a fine not exceeding 
twenty dollars ; but attendance at certain 
private schools is accepted under condi- 
tions. Truant officers and the school com- 
mittee are responsible for inquiring into 
all cases of violation of this law, prosecu- 
tion, ifcc. The school committee also de- 
termines the number and qualification of 
the scholars to be admitted into the high 
school. No child under ten years of age 
can be employed in any manufacturing or 
other establishment in the State, under a 
penalty, exacted from parent or guardian 
permitting such employment, of from 
twenty to fifty dollars. No child under 
fourteen years of age can be so employed, 
unless during the preceding year he has 
attended for at least twenty weeks, under 
a penalty, exacted from the owner of such 
establishment and from the parent, of from 
twenty to fifty dollars. Towns may make 
provision for habitual truants by truant 
schools, and for the special education of neg- 
lected, destitute, and abandoned children. 
Ontario (Province of). — Each province 
of the Dominion of Canada has exclusive 
jurisdiction over its own school system. 
The administration of the educational 
system of Ontario is in the hands, of a De- 
partment of Education, consisting of the 
Executive Council, or a committee thereof 
appointed by the lieutenant-governor, and 
one of the executive council, nominated by 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



ISO*' 



the lieutenant-governor, holds the office of 
Minister of Education. The educational 
institutions in Ontario subject to the Edu- 
cation Department embrace both primary 
and secondary education, and are (a) ele- 
mentary schools ; (b) model and normal 
schools and teachers' institutes ; (c) clas- 
sical or country high schools ; (d) technical 
schools ; (e) schools for deaf and dumb and 
blind ; (/) the University of Toronto. 
There are a few institutions, principally 
art schools, partly aided by Government ; 
and some universities, colleges, and schools 
(chiefly medical) not under Government 
control. The pi'ovince of Ontario pos- 
sesses a system of municipal self-govern- 
ment which is uniform throughout the 
province. In each municipality or unit of 
local government, rural or urban, school 
trustees or school boards are elected by 
the ratepayers, who are liable to support 
the public schools in their respective lo- 
calities, and are practically the owners of 
them. The trustees appoint the teachers, 
who must possess the qualifications re- 
quired by the department. They arrange 
and pay the salaries, purchase the school 
site, build the school-house, and estimate 
the rates for collection by the township 
council for all funds which are required 
for school purposes. They are bound to 
provide adequate school accommodation, 
to employ the required number of qualified 
teachers, to permit the children of all resi- 
dents between the ages of five and twenty- 
one to attend school free of charge. They 
are required to visit their schools, to see 
that the law is carried out, and may appoint 
inspectors. A sum of money is annually 
granted by the Legislature, and each muni- 
cipality is required to raise by rate at least 
an equal sum. These two sums constitute 
the sch ool fund of the municipality. School 
grants are apportioned to each school by 
the inspectors according to the average at- 
tendance of the scholars, and may be with- 
held in certain cases. A central committee 
of examiners is appointed by the depart- 
ment to examine teachers for their certifi- 
cates. First- and second-class certificates 
are valid throughout the province, and are 
held during good behaviour, whilst third- 
class certificates are limited to a period of 
three years, but are renewable by exami- 
nation. Every public and high school must 
be opened with the Lord's Prayer, and 
closed with the reading of the Scriptures, 
subject to a conscience clause. The clergy 



of any denomination or their authorised 
representatives have the right to give reli- 
gious instruction to the pupils of their own 
church in each school-house at least once 
a week after afternoon school. Schools 
called 'separate schools' constitute an ex- 
ception to the general public school system.. 
The right to maintain a ' separate school ' 
is chiefly conceded to the Roman Catholics^ 
but Protestant families may combine to 
support a separate school if they reside in 
a district where the teacher of the public 
school of the district is a Roman Catholic. 
Families of coloured people may also com- 
bine to have a separate school. The prin- 
ciple of these schools is that the Roman. 
Catholic, Protestant, or coloured ratepayer 
may elect to support a separate school, and,, 
upon giving the prescribed notice, he is 
exempted from the public school rates ; 
but as long as he subscribes to a separate 
school he is not allowed to vote at the 
election of any trustee for a public school 
m his district. The separate schools are 
subject to the visitation of the Minister 
of Education, the judges, members of the 
Legislature, the heads of the municipal 
bodies in their respective localities, and 
the inspectors of public schools, and to 
such inspection as the Minister of Educa- 
tion may direct. They are entitled to a 
share in the annual grant from the Legis- 
lature of the province, but not to a share 
in the local assessment. General courses 
of instruction are prescribed for all schools 
in the province, elementary and higher, to 
be followed by the teachers ' as far as the 
circumstances of their schools wall permit.' 
Hygiene, drill, and calisthenics, moral in- 
struction, and, in rural schools, agriculture, 
are provided for in the general directions 
for courses of study. The salaries of the 
teachers are determined by the school 
trustees, and are 'fixed.' Attendance at 
school is not compulsory. 

Russia. — Elementary education has- 
only quite recently been organised in 
Russia. The social conditions of that 
country made common action for the edu- 
cation of the people difficult of accom- 
plishment, either as regards secondary or 
elementary education. The aristocracy, 
the clergy, the military and naval profes- 
sion, the trading community, live entirely 
apart, and each class has provided its own 
educational establishments, not only for 
what special training is required after 
general education is completed, but also^ 



190 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



for the general education itself of the 
children of that class. Even members of 
the theatrical profession have their own 
schools for both the general and special 
instruction of their children. The schools 
of theology are entirely managed by the 
ecclesiastical authorities of the Greek 
Church, but the army, navy, and theatri- 
cal schools are controlled by the several 
Government departments. The organisa- 
tion of all public instruction is in the 
hands of a Minister of Public Listruc- 
tion, who has under him an advising council, 
with a staff of inspectors. The public 
elementary schools were organised in 1874, 
to make elementary education accessible 
to both sexes of the working classes 
throughout Russia. They are supported 
by the combined subsidies of the State, the 
zemstvos (or territorial popular councils), 
and either the communes or private bodies. 
Attendance is practically compulsory. In- 
struction is given free of charge, and in 
many cases even books and appliances are 
provided gratis. Success at an examina- 
tion on leaving these schools entitles the 
boys to a partial reduction of the compul- 
sory term (six years) of military service. 
Infant schools are also found in the more 
important towns, taught on Froebel's me- 
thods. The machinery for secondary edu- 
cation comprises gymnasia for both sexes, 
and Real Schools. No important town 
in Russia is without a school of the latter 
kind, where the three obligatory languages 
are taught, viz. Russian, German, and 
French, besides mathematics, commercial 
geography, and drawing. Russia has nine 
universities, of which that of Moscow is 
the most ancient (founded 1755) and the 
most renowned. The education of the 
girls of the upper classes is provided for, 
and is carried on, to a much greater ex- 
tent than in almost any other European 
country. Courses of instruction for women 
similar to the University courses for men 
have been laid down since 1872, and are 
taught by the professors of the University, 
a, movement which has its parallel in 
England in the recent facilities for the 
higher education of women by means of 
Girton and Newnham Colleges at Cam- 
bridge, and Somerville Hall at Oxford. 

Saxony. — The remarkable impulse 
which has made Germany, as has been 
said, 'a land of schools,' arose from the 
influence of the Protestant reformer Lu- 
ther, as that of Scotland did from that of 



his fellow-evangelist, John Knox (q.v.). 
It was Luther who said : ' If I were not a 
minister of the Gospel, I should wish to be 
a schoolmaster,' Luther died in 1546, and 
the first outlines of the Saxon system of 
national education appeared in a law of 
January, 1580. From these outlines the 
whole present system has been developed, 
following through the centuries the de- 
velopment of the social life of the people, 
and receiving fresh extensions as the sense 
of the vital importance of intellectual force, 
as a set-off against the physical force of 
the nations arrayed against them, was 
quickened by the defeats of the early 
years of the century. It was in 1805 that 
attendance at school was made compulsory 
in Saxony. Successive reorganisations of 
the school system have taken place in 
1835, 1848, 1851, and finally in 1873. 
The fundamental idea of the new law of 
1873 was that the whole system of educa- 
tion of the country should be placed under 
the sole control of the State, and that the 
management of the schools should be taken 
out of the hands of the clergy, as clergy. 
But this action of the State did not imply 
that it was henceforth to be in antagonism 
with the Church on the subject of education. 
On the contrary, it is distinctly stated that 
the 'Volksschule (Elementary School) has 
for its object the religious training as one 
part of universal human education.' The 
religion taught by a particular school is 
the religion of the majority of the parish, 
but the rights of the minority are preserved. 
It is in the power of the minority (as in 
Canada) to establish a school for itself, 
provided it can find the means to maintain 
it. When the minority cannot afford to 
do so, the children receive their secular 
education in the public school, and their 
religious education from their own deno- 
mination. Every child is required to 
attend the elementary school for at least 
eight consecutive years, from six to four- 
teen. This is the case all throughout 
Germany, but in Saxony, as in some other 
states, children who have not made satis- 
factory progress in the elementary school 
at the age of fourteen are obliged to at- 
tend a Fortbildungsschule, or continuation 
school, held in the evenings and on Sundays, 
for two years longer. Parents and guar- 
dians are required to see that their children 
attend regularly. In general, only ill- 
ness or infectious complaints are accepted 
as a reasonable excuse for absence. Pa- 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



191 



rents render themselves liable to a fine for 
the non-attendance of their children at 
any elementary school, and both parents 
and employers of labour incur a similar 
punishment in the case of non-attendance 
of a scholar at a Fortbildungsschule. The 
school parish (Schulgemeinde) is required 
to furnish the requisite funds for the erec- 
tion and maintenance of the schools of the 
parish. Those parishes which are not in a 
position to meet the whole expense receive 
a grant from the State. The payment of 
a school fee is demanded of all children 
attending school. It is levied by the ma- 
nagers, who are bound to adapt it to the 
means of the parents. It therefore varies 
considerably in amount, from 3s. or 4s. a 
year, in town schools, to 3^. or 4:1. Children 
whose parents are very poor have their 
fees paid out of the local poor-chest. There 
are a few free schools in Saxony, but they 
are foundation schools, or schools main- 
tained by charitable societies. Throughout 
Germany the secondary schools consist of 
higher elementary schools, and secondary 
schools proper. There are three kinds of se- 
condary schools : the Gymnasium or classi- 
cal school ; the Ileal Gymnasium, answering 
somewhat to the 'modern side' of an En- 
glish public school, in which Latin is taught 
but not Greek, additional time being given 
to science and mathematics ; and the Ober 
Ileal school, in which neither Latin nor 
Greek is taught, but greater attention is 
devoted to modern languages, science, and 
drawing. The complete course in any one 
of these schools occupies ten years. Pupils 
from the gymnasium who have obtained 
the leaving certificate are entitled to enter 
any of the faculties of the university, or 
the polytechnic school. The leaving certi- 
ficates of the Heal Gymnasium and the 
Ober E-eal schools carry with them similar 
though not such extensive privileges. There 
are also Lower Ileal schools receiving boys 
from the elementary schools at twelve, and 
carrying through a four-years course, in 
some parts of the country. The secondary 
as well as the elementary schools are under 
State supervision, and the course of instruc- 
tion is practically the same in all schools 
of the same grade in the same State. The 
elementary schools are supported entirely 
by the parish or municipality in which 
they are situated. With regard to the 
cost of secondary schools the practice varies, 
but most of them are supported by the 
locality. In some cases the local authority 



erects the buildiiags and the State defrays, 
in whole or in part, the current expenses ; 
in others, a portion of the cost is borne by 
the province. Some few, however, are 
wholly or partially supported by ancient 
endowments. The school fees in the se- 
condary schools are extremely moderate, 
and thus secondary instruction is placed 
within reach of parents of limited means 
to an extent altogether unknown in Eng- 
land. 

South Australia (Province of). — • 
Previous to 1875 the control of elemen- 
tary education, subject to the supreme 
authority of the Legislature of the pro- 
vince (i.e. the Governor, the Legislative 
Council, and the House of Assembly) was 
in the hands of a council of education. 
But by an Act of the Legislature passed 
in that year the functions of the council 
were placed in the hands of a member of 
the executive council of the province, 
who, under the title of the ' Minister 
controlling Education,' was constituted a 
body corporate for the exercise of all the 
powers in educational matters placed in 
his hands by legislative enactment. Un- 
der this Act of 1875 (as since amended) 
this minister has the power (1) to decide 
as to the efficiency of any school not being 
a public school ; (2) to take a census of the 
school population; (3) to appoint an in- 
spector-general and inspectors of schools, 
whose duties are to make themselves ac- 
quainted with the general condition of all 
schools in their districts, by two visits at 
least in each year, to advise the teachers 
as to the best way of making improve- 
ments, to examine the scholars, and to 
report the results of their ^inspections to 
the minister; (4) to establish and main- 
tain public schools; (5) toappoint teachers; 
(6) to define the course of instruction and 
character of the school books ; (7) to esta- 
blish scholarships open for competition 
among scholars at public and other schools; 
(8) to make regulations for the training, 
examination, appointment, and classifica- 
tion of teachers, and for fixing the salaries 
and fees to be paid to teachers, &c. The 
minister is also entrusted with the ex- 
penditure of all the sums of money appro- 
priated by the Legislature for elementary 
education. No money can be appropriated 
in aid of building school premises unless 
the site has been vested in the minister. 
At the commencement of each year a sum 
of money is placed to the credit of each 



192 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) 



school vested in the minister in proportion 
to the average attendance. This money is 
placed in the hands of the board of advice, 
and is available for the purpose of repair- 
ing and improving the school buildings. 
The province is divided into districts, and 
boards of advice are appointed in each 
district by the governor of the province, 
to exercise general supervision over edu- 
cational matters, and to report to the 
minister on any matters affecting the 
general welfare of the schools. A board 
of advice consists of not less than three 
persons, who hold office for three years. 
Children of not less than five years or of 
more than thirteen may attend school, but 
attendance is compulsory for not less than 
thirty-five days in each quarter upon all 
children between seven and thirteen years 
of age ; and a parent who neglects to send 
such child to school is liable to be sum- 
moned, at the instance of the board of ad- 
vice, before a justice, and on conviction 
to pay a sum not exceeding 5 s. for a first 
offence, and 20s. for every succeeding of- 
fence. School fees are fixed at %d. per 
week for children above eight years of 
age, and 4o?. per week for those under 
that age. They are paid to the treasury. 
In the case of parents unable to pay these 
fees the board of advice has power to re- 
duce the fee to ?>d. per week, provided the 
reasons for the reduction are clearly stated 
to the minister, who shall have the right 
of veto. Children of the following classes 
are entitled to free education : (1) chil- 
dren whose parents are dead, children of 
widows without sufficient means, (2) chil- 
dren whose fathers are incapacitated, (3) 
children boarded out by the authorities 
having control of destitute or orphan 
children. But applications for free edu- 
cation must be signed by the chairman of 
the board of advice and forwarded to the 
inspector-general, and be subject to the 
veto of the minister. The mode of staff- 
ing the schools is similar to that adopted 
in England, and monitors and pupil- 
teachers are recognised. The head teacher 
of a public school must be certificated. 
The course of instruction, which is laid 
down by the minister, follows the lines of 
the English code, but is drawn up with a 
greater regard to the training of the in- 
telligence of the children ; the learning of 
definitions by heart is depi'ecated until the 
children have formed clear ideas of the 
meaning of the thing defined. The Holy 



Scriptures in the Authoi'ised or Douay 
version may be read, but the attendance 
at such reading is not compulsory ; and 
no sectarian or denominational religious 
teaching is allowed ; the teachers must 
strictly confine themselves to Bible read- 
ing. Moral lessons — the outcome of the cir- 
cumstances of the school and the teachers' 
own thoughts — to enforce the necessity of 
cleanliness, punctuality, industry, obedi- 
ence, truthfulness, honesty, and considera- 
tion for others, must be given ; but no 
text-book is specified. The scale of sala- 
ries of teachers is determined by the mini- 
ster, and fixed salaries are paid to them 
by the treasury. 

Zurich {Canton of). — The school system 
of Switzerland, of which that in force in 
the canton and city of Zurich is taken as- 
an example, bears a close resemblance in 
many respects to that of Germany. The 
elementary and higher elementary (called 
in Switzerland secondary) education is 
free, and attendance is compulsory upon 
all children between six and fourteen years 
of age. They must remain in the elemen- 
tary school until the age of twelve, and 
then they must either attend the secondary 
school, or, if they enter into practical life, 
they must attend a supplementary school 
(Erganzungsschule) for four years. This 
latter school is held on two half-days 
a week, and its chief aim is bo act as a 
continuation school. Elementary instruc- 
tion in private schools is permitted, but a. 
very small proportion of the population 
(barely 3 per cent.) make use of such 
schools. This plan of supplementary 
schooling is, however, found to work un- 
satisfactorily, and a law is about to be- 
passed making attendance at the ordinary 
elementary school compulsory up to four- 
teen years of age. Even now no child can 
be employed in a factory until the com- 
pletion of the fourteenth year. The so- 
called secondary — really higher elemen- 
tary — school has a course extending over 
four years, and those entering such schools 
and remaining in them for two years (un- 
til fourteen years of age) are exempt from 
further school attendance. The higher 
schools consist of the gymnasium and 
classical school, and the industrie-schule 
or trade school, which prepares for the 
polytechnic or for direct entrance into 
trade. The gymnasium is entered at twelve 
years of age, after an examination, and 
consists of six classes, corresponding to 



LAW (EDUCATIONAL) LIBERAL EDUCATION 



193 



one year each, so that the pupils would 
obtain the leaving-certificate at eighteen 
or nineteen, which qualifies them to enter 
the university or polytechnic. The in- 
dustrie-schule is entered at fourteen, and 
consists of four classes, extending over 
three and a half years. The first class is 
pi'eparatory. From the second class on- 
wards the school bifurcates into a techni- 
cal and a commercial section, the former 
again dividing in the third and fourth 
years into a mathematical and a natural 
science section. The commercial section 
ends with the third year. The educa- 
tional vote of the canton of Zurich ab- 
sorbs nearly one-third of the total ex- 
penses of the canton. 

Law relating to Schools and School- 
masters. — As between parent or guardian 
and the school proprietor the law has long 
been settled that the pupil cannot be re- 
moved without giving a full quarter's 
notice or paying a quarter's fees, unless, 
of course, there has been a special agree- 
ment to the contrary. If the pupil remains 
even only four days of the new term, and 
then is obliged to return home on account 
of illness, the parent is bound not only to 
pay for the incompleted quarter, but also 
for the subsequent one (^Collins v. Price, 
5 Bing. 132). Indeed, without notice, 
and in the absence of special agreement, 
the pupil can only be removed when there 
is a clear case of negligence on the part 
of the master {^Clement v. May, 7 C. & 
P. 678). Even in the case of a parent's 
bankruptcy, the bankruptcy does not bar 
the master's claim for the accruing quar- 
ter's charges (Thomas v. Hopkins, 6 Jur. 
IST.S. 301). The prospectus constitutes the 
agreement between the parent and the 
master, in the absence of special agree- 
ment. The schoolmaster, however, can- 
not sue the parent or guardian for cloth- 
ing supplied or extras taught the pupil in 
the absence of agreement (Clement v. May, 
supra). Again, the master will be liable 
in damages if he knowingly permits a 
pupil to indulge in dangerous games, 
whereby the pupil receives an accident, 
and a fortiori, he cannot sue for the medi- 
cal expenses connected with the child's 
recovery which he may have discharged 
{King V. Fork, 1 Stark. 423). As to the 
services of tutors and governesses in the 
absence of special agreement, tutors and 
governesses are entitled to a year's notice, 
the hiring being a yearly one (Todd v. 



Kenrick, 8 Ex. 151 ; Todd v. Kellage, 17 
Jur. 119). As to engagements in schools, 
on the other hand, a quarter's notice is 
necessary to be given prior to one of the 
four usual quarter-days. Thus notice will 
not take place as from the time at which 
it is given, if given any time during the 
quarter, but three months after the ex- 
piration oi the current quarter (Meuzies 
V. Ja7neson). But immediate dismissal 
may take place where the teacher uses 
pi'ofane or seditious language before the 
pupils, speaks disrespectfully of his em- 
ployer to his iDupils, is guilty of drunken- 
ness, or acts in disobedience to the rea- 
sonable orders of his employer. Engage- 
ments for a longer period than a year 
should be in writing, in accordance with 
the Statute of Frauds. Board schools are 
governed by the Elementary Education 
Act 1870. The law carefully protects 
pupils from being cruelly treated, but 
teachers may chastise them in a reason- 
able manner for disobedience to reason- 
able orders. Each case of alleged cruelty 
must be considered on its own merits, and 
teachers must ever use their own discre- 
tion. This, however, may be said, that 
the pupil must not be hit about the head 
or face, there must be no wounding or 
discolourisation of any part of the body, 
and no such treatment as might tend to 
injuriously afiect the health of the child. 
For any such maltreatment the teacher 
may be liable in fine, imprisonment, or 
damages. In the case Hoberts v. Fal- 
mouth Urban Sanitary Authority, tried in 
the Queen's Bench Division February 6, 
1888, it was decided that a head-master 
of a public elementary school cannot secure 
compensation for loss of school fees when 
the school is closed by order of the autho- 
rities during an epidemic. 

Learning^. See Acquisition of 
Knowledge. 

Lesson. See Notes of Lessons, Ob- 
ject Lessons, and Method. 

Liberal Education. — This term is fre- 
quently used synonymously with collegiate 
or university education, but there is no 
good reason for thus restricting its mean- 
ing. It signifies generally an education 
which embraces a fair knowledge of litera- 
ture, science, and art, acquired for its own 
sake rather than for an objective purpose. 
It is difficult, however, to define the term 
accurately. According to Lord Brougham, 
the liberally educated man is he who has 

o 



194 



LIBRARIES LICENCE (TEACHER'S) 



learnt ' something of everything and every- 
thing o£ something/ and according to Pro- 
fessor Huxley, he ' who has learnt to 
love all beauty and his neighbour as him- 
self.' _ 

Libraries. — In giving a brief account of 
some of the largest educational and refer- 
ence libraries in England of the present 
day, it may be interesting to trace the ear- 
liest known approaches to such institutions 
in ancient days ; and to indicate correspond- 
ing collections of valuable manuscripts and 
books in the neighbouring cities of Europe. 
To Osymandyas of Memphis is ascribed 
the honour of being the earliest librarian 
on record^ while Pisistratus first founded 
a library among the Greeks at Athens. 
Alexandria boasted of one of the most 
famous libraries of antiquity. Both Julius 
and Augustus Csesar founded libraries at 
Rome ; and no less than twenty-eight 
public libraries existed in that city prior 
to the inroads of the barbaric hordes, 
Charlemagne was the patron and founder 
of the public libraries in France ; and Pope 
Nicholas V. of the priceless treasures of 
the Vatican library. The capitals of nearly 
all European countries boast of splendid 
public and private libraries, containing 
precious manuscripts and historical re- 
cords : those of Gottingen, Munich, Paris, 
Vienna, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Bologna, 
and Prague, having an average of 400,000 
volumes. Our own country is not far 
behind, having the valuable collections of 
ancient manuscripts and books deposited 
both at the British Museum and Bodleian 
Library at Oxford, in addition to which 
are the splendid possessions of the Oxford 
and Cambridge universities, bestowed on 
the various college libraries of either city. 
There are also immense educational refer- 
ence libraries attached to the universities 
of Edinburgh, Dublin, Glasgow, London, 
St. Andrews. There are the libraries of 
Lambeth, the House of Commons, Foreign 
Office, Guildhall, Inner Temple (founded 
1540), Lincoln's Inn (1497), Patent Office, 
London Library, Sion College, Thames 
Embankment, South Kensington (which 
includes education, science, Dyce L., and 
Forster L.), the University Library, and 
over forty others, containing over ten 
thousand volumes each. The libraries 
attached to the various hospitals, scientific 
institutions of London, and other large 
cities, constitute an important factor in 
the educational statistics of the day, while 



many places are rapidly adopting the Free 
Library Act, by means of which Birming- 
ham has already (1887) accumulated some 
100,000 volumes, Birkenhead 60,000, Bris- 
tol 50,000, Dundee 35,000, Leicester 20,000, 
Manchester Free Public Library 150,000. 
The university libraries for the most part 
are accessible only to men students, though 
the books they contain are to some extent 
obtainable by resident women students. 
South Kensington libraries are open by 
students' tickets to eligible persons of either 
sex, as also the British Museum and Free 
Libraries. The College of Preceptors and 
the Teachers' Guild Library, both very 
small modern institutions, are especially 
adapted to the wants of school teachers, 
though they should perhaps find mention 
here as supplying a want long felt in the 
world of education. The immense re- 
sources open to English, Scotch, and Irish 
students may be better appreciated when 
we consider the fact that a list of no less 
than 160 libraries, each containing over 
10,000 volumes, is given in the Encyclop. 
Brit., eleventh edition, and most of which 
contain nearer 20,000, some as many as 
50,000 and 90,000 volumes. A further list 
is given of 170 other libraries, containing 
under 10,000 volumes in each case. 

In Great Britain any attempt that has 
been made at the formation of elementary 
and secondary school libraries has been due 
chiefly to purely voluntary efibrt, no assist- 
ance being given by the State. In many 
of the States of North America, as well 
as in some other countries, legislative pro- 
vision has been made for supplying schools 
and school districts with libraries. The 
first grant that was made for that pur- 
pose in America was. in 1827. The value 
of such libraries depends wholly upon ad- 
ventitious circumstances ; but to be of 
real use they should be composed of in- 
structive books and those interesting to 
children. They should be informative, 
and should be such as would incite in the 
pupil a taste for reading. They will thus 
train the pupil's mind from a love of the 
'penny dreadful,' and assist the mental 
and moral training. Teachers can greatly 
help in popularising school libraries by 
illustrating the subject of instruction with 
reference to some work in the library. 

Licence (Teacher's). — Such a licence 
is a legal qualification to give instruction. 
It is conferred after examination, and at- 
tested by a diploma or certificate. The 



LICENCE (TEACHER'S) LING, PETER HENRIK 



195 



holder becomes a certificated teacher. 
The object of the licence is to ' protect 
the interests of the community against 
the evils arising from the employment of 
incompetent persons by those who might 
not be able to test the qualifications of ap- 
plicants, or who might, from favouritism 
or corrupt motives, be willing to employ 
as teachers persons not possessing the 
requisite qualifications.' The Elementary 
Education Act, 1870, provides for Eng- 
land that ' before any grant is made to a 
school the Education Department must 
be satisfied that the principal teacher is 
certificated ' ; and that teachers, in order 
to obtain certificates, must ' be examined 
and must undergo probation by actual 
service in school.' The Act further pro- 
vides that ' after successfully passing their 
examinations they must as teachers con- 
tinuously engage in the same schools, ob- 
tain two favourable reports from an in- 
spector within an interval of one year 
between them, and if the first of these 
reports be not preceded by service of three 
months (at the least) since the examina- 
tion, a third report must be made at an 
interval of one year after the second re- 
port, and, if favourable, a certificate is 
issued.' ' Teachers under probation satisfy 
the conditions which require that schools 
be kept by certificated teachers.' The 
Scottish Education Act, 1872, provides 
that ' no person shall be appointed to the 
office of principal teacher who is not the 
holder of a certificate of competency,' 
which is obtained after examination. 
Two years' attendance at any one of the 
normal schools is a condition precedent 
to such examination. The Scottish uni- 
versities confer the degree of Literate 
in Arts (L. A.), a teacher's degree, on those 
who have been students in the faculty of 
arts for two sessions, and have attended 
five classes in that faculty, so as to include 
four at least of the seven subjects for 
graduation in arts. The University of 
Edinburgh grants a schoolmaster's diploma 
to graduates in arts on passing examina- 
tion in education and kindred subjects, 
and the University of London grants cer- 
tificates to those who, being graduates of 
that university, have passed the examina- 
tion in the art, theory, and history of 
education. The College of Preceptors 
also grants diplomas, for which principals 
and teachers of private schools are eligible, 
and the joint examination board of the 



Eroebel Society, and the Kindergarten 
Association of Manchester, grant certifi- 
cates after examination to students and 
teachers of the Kindergarten system. 

Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph (h. 
1742, d. 1799), a German man of letters, 
was the eighteenth child by the same 
marriage of the pastor of Ober-Ramstadt, 
near Darmstadt. From an early age 
Lichtenberg had been interested in the 
system of education prevailing in German 
schools and colleges. He had witnessed 
some changes introduced on account of 
the writings of Rousseau and his French 
followers, and of Basedow of Hamburg. 
Of some of these he approved, but to the 
greater part he applied the unsparing 
ridicule with which he always assailed 
the pedantic affectations of originality 
and the senseless love of change. Al- 
though fully aware of the advantages of 
a regular education, he never forgot that 
the substantial improvement of the cha- 
racter depends upon artificial instruction 
to a very small extent. The most careful 
education, he perceived, cannot create a 
single new faculty ; and in a civilised 
age no neglect can prevent the develop- 
ment of the faculties that exist ; their 
growth may be retarded by unfavourable 
circumstances, but their vigour may be 
more radically injured by excessive cultiva 
tion. Education should not be mechanical 
or coercive, and discipline should not be 
bookish. His dictum was that ' the object 
of all education is to form virtuous, intel- 
ligent, and strong-minded men ' ; and he 
maintained that true education consisted 
in developing the body by exercise, the 
mind by fitful and varied ease, and the 
morals by a grand simplicity. In 1777 
Lichtenberg discovered the electric dust- 
figures ; in 1778 he published a work 
against the physiognomists ; and in 1794 
he began the Explanations of Hogarth's 
Works (1794-1808). 

Lighting of Schoolrooms. See Archi- 
tecture OP Schools. 

Ling, Peter Henrik (&. 1766, d. 1839), 
the Swedish gymnast, a native of Sma- 
land, and graduate of Upsala University, 
was, on account of his weakened consti- 
tution, led to direct his attention to fenc- 
ing and gymnastics as a means of cure 
for rheumatism and partial paralysis, with 
which he was attacked in his right arm ; 
and his success was the first incentive 
to the exertions he afterwards made ta 

o 2 



196 LITERS HUMANIORES LITERATURE EOR CHILDREN 



establish a treatment of diseases by these 
means. He was at the University of 
Lund in 1805, where he lectured on 
Norse mythology, taught modern lan- 
guages and fencing, while he at the same 
time wrote poetry of no common merit. 
As he saw that the body and soul of men 
reacted upon each other, he aimed at ' the 
perfection of the organism by means of 
the combined and harmonious action of 
these two principles restoring by his 
system the equilibrium which indolence, 
disease, or a too exclusive cultivation of 
the intellectual faculties may have dis- 
turbed.' Thus his system led him to in- 
quire into the laws of therapeutics, and 
by studying the motory action of the 
body he was led to devise a system of 
movements, varied both in their character 
and in the degree of strength. He con- 
tended that the mechanical agency of the 
body, equally with the chemical and men- 
tal actions of certain organs, should be 
considered in the treatment of disease, 
and he believed that to the neglect of this 
side of the question many of the ailments 
of the body were to be attributed. He 
was an ardent advocate of his system, and 
his Theory and Principles of Gymnastics 
(Stockholm, 1840) is considered a work of 
power. 

Literse Humaniores. See Schools. 

Literature. See English. 

Literature for Children. — It is neces- 
sary to distinguish between books about 
children and- books /or children. The for- 
mer are numerous, the latter comparatively 
few. Not many writers of children's books 
have the art of looking at the world 
with a child's eyes, feeling with a child's 
heart, speaking with a child's ideas and a 
child's words. More often than not, situ- 
ations, experiences, ideas, feelings, are in- 
troduced quite out of keeping wnth the 
little actors in the story, and quite beyond 
the mental reach and sympathy of young 
readers. False and unreal views of life are 
given, and what is in its essence wrong is 
unwittingly rendered amusing and attrac- 
tive. A thorough scapegrace is made a 
charming hero ; and the tales are strongly 
sensational, or full of morbid sentimentality 
or mere goodiness. The reverse of all this 
is what is wanted. Literature for children 
may be divided into fairy tales, fables, 
and tales with a moral fxirpose, domestic 
tales, tales of adventure, tales of science and 
useful information, historical tales, travels. 



and b iograpliies. Fairy tales are the poetry 
of the early world, and of childhood. They 
are admirable in their imaginativeness, 
simplicity, and manner of talking. But 
they require caution, for they are apt to 
be full of old prejudices, and to introduce 
matters not proper for children. All elder 
brothers and sisters, and all stepmothers 
are not selfish and wicked ; Jack takes too ' 
keen a delight in slaughtering, and Puss in 
Boots lies, and makes others lie, with too 
charming an ease. But many are wholly 
unobjectionable, and all are delightful ; 
while the exercise they aflford to the 
imagination is of great value. Fables are 
frequently amusing if told with real humour 
as are some of ^sop's ; and if the moral 
be not too prominent, and the characters 
fairly in keeping with those of the animals, 
kc, which are introduced. Tales loith a 
moral pttrpose are usually dull and heavy. 
Hans Andersen's, however, are delightful 
exceptions ; and some of Miss Edgeworth's 
can still be read with pleasure by children. 
Domestic tales for the young are apt to 
be morbid and sentimental ; nevertheless, 
many good examples exist in English. Of 
these the best of the more recent examples 
are by Mrs. Ewing and Mrs. Molesworth. 
Both of these writers, however, have a 
strong tendency to write about, rather than 
for, children. Tales of adventure are pro- 
verbially delightful to children, who love 
action above all things ; but indulgence 
in them is dangerous. Many are of the 
' nightmare ' class ; nearly all abound with 
unjustifiable and even wicked doings hidden 
in a glare of romance ; and all are liable 
to be too exciting, and to render the simple 
doings and duties of every-day life stale 
and distasteful. Taken in moderation, 
however, the best of them compensate for 
the harm they do by the widening of in- 
terests, the manliness (not to be confused 
with mere fierceness and recklessness) and 
the fidelity which they tend to produce. 
Tales of science and useful information may 
often serve to create and to feed a very valu- 
able curiosity. Historical tales, when not 
wholly of blood and murder, will do this 
for the special department of history. The 
best are too well known to need mention. 
Travels and biographies, when the subjects 
are well chosen and worthy of attention, and 
when they are well told, have long charmed 
and will never cease to charm both young 
and old; and it is difiicult to imagine a 
better way of gaining a general knowledge 



LITERATURE OF PEDAGOGY LOCKE, JOHN 



197 



of the earth and of man's doings on it than 
by reading the numberless fine examples 
of both which we possess in English. 

Literature of Pedagogy. See Peda- 
gogy (Bibliography of). 

'Little Go.' See Previous. Examina- 
tion. 

Local Examinations are examinations 
of boys and girls conducted by the several 
universities and kindred institutions on 
the various subjects which tend to test 
the general knowledge and culture of the 
candidate. The examinations are con- 
ducted by the universities of Aberdeen, 
Cambridge, Dublin, Durham, Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Oxford, and St. Andrews, the 
London Society of Arts, the College of 
Preceptors, and Trinity College, London. 
The university of St. Andrews confers the 
degree of LL.A. in connection with these 
examinations. The examinations are held 
at local centres, and certificates of having 
passed these examinations do for a pass to 
the preliminary examinations of some of 
the universities and other examining bodies. 
Each university has its own rules for con- 
ducting the examination, but the subjects 
of examination are nearly the same at all 
the universities. There are some valuable 
bursaries and scholarships awarded at 
these examinations. The examinations in 
connection with the universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge consist of two divisions, 
junior and senior. {See Oxford and Cam- 
bridge Schools Examination Board). 

Locke, John (1632-1704), the author 
of the Essay on the Human Understanding, 
and the founder of the English school of 
psychology, claims attention also as the 
writer of a short treatise on education. 
This work, entitled Some Thouglits con- 
cerning Education (pub. 1693), grew out 
of notes of letters which Locke, during his 
first stay in Holland, had written to his 
friend Edward Clarke, on the best way of 
bringing up his children. Locke had the 
rare advantage of speaking on education 
from the double platform of psychological 
theory and personal experience. As the 
first great English psychologist who syste- 
matically attempted to analyse mind into 
its elements, and who, rejecting the hypo- 
thesis of innate ideas as unnecessary, traced 
all intellectual products to experience (sen- 
sation and reflection), Locke naturally 
attached a new importance to education. 
To him the infant mind is a blank sheet 
(tabula rasa) on which experience has to 



write, and he is consequently disposed to 
ascribe the manifold difierences of intelli- 
gence and character that we see among 
men much more to diversities of circum- 
stances and education than to any original 
differences of aptitude and disposition. 
He may, as Hallam maintains, greatly 
exaggerate the effect of external influences ; 
and read in the light of the new evolution 
psychology, which accentuates the fact of 
individual variation and the part played 
by heredity, Locke's account of the pro- 
cess of mental growth seems almost naive 
in its simplicity. At the same time his 
psychological standpoint compelled him 
to trace out in a much more careful and 
thorough way than is usually done the 
many less obvious efiects of circumstances, 
example, and habits of life on the growing 
mind. While Locke was thus particularly 
well qualified to deal with education from 
the theoretic side, his own experience, both 
as pupil and teacher, supplied him with 
ample material for attacking its practical 
problems. Like other independent youths, 
he was wearied and disgusted by the barren 
pedantries of the scholastic system under 
which he was brought up (at Westminster 
and Oxford), and was first stimulated by 
these experiences to reflect on the right 
methods of education. To this there suc- 
ceeded a fair amount of experience as 
tutor, of which that in the Shaftesbury 
house was the most important. This per- 
sonal contact with the work of teaching, 
combined with the decidedly practical bent 
of mind which makes Locke so typical an 
English thinker, accounts for the thoroughly 
practical character of the Thoughts. The 
influence of previous writers on education 
seems to have been very slight, that of 
Montaigne being the only one which is 
distinctly traceable in the Thoughts. The 
little treatise is faulty enough in point of 
arrangement and style, a fact to be ac- 
counted for by the manner of its production. 
As its title suggests, it consists rather of 
stray reflections than of a carefully reasoned 
theory. At the same time, it deserves the 
place it now firmly holds among educational 
classics. It must be remembered that 
Locke is avowedly dealing with the cir- 
cumscribed, if highly complex, educational 
problem of fashioning a gentleman. Hence 
it is home-training by a tutor, such as 
Locke had himself carried out in Lord 
Shaftesbury's family, that is exclusively 
discussed. Physical education, including 



198 



LOG-BOOK LOGIC 



the furtherance of health and bodily vigour 
as well as the acquisition of physical ac- 
complishments, naturally receives a large 
share of attention, the more so as Locke 
had not only studied medicine, but held 
the double post of physician and tutor in 
the Shaftesbury home. Next to bodily 
health, come as essential requirements of 
the gentleman, virtue, wisdom, breeding, 
and learning. With respect to intellectual 
education Locke has been accused of carry- 
ing his utilitarianism too far, by insisting on 
estimating knowledge only by its bearing 
on the work of life. But this is to do 
scant justice to his teaching. ISTo writer 
is more profoundly impressed with the 
value of intellectual training itself. This 
may be seen by the emphasis he lays on 
the general or varied culture of the facul- 
ties, both in the Thoughts and in the short 
essay Conduct of the Understanding, which 
should be read with the first. In truth, 
as a recent editor of Locke puts it, he 
understood by education 'rather the train- 
ing and disciplining of the mind into good 
habits, than the mere tradition of know- 
ledge.' With respect to moral education, 
Locke aimed at the production of a dis- 
passionate being in whom reason is supreme. 
Locke's ideal of physical and of moral 
training may alike be criticised as erring 
by excess of severity. His recommenda- 
tions for hardening the bodies of children, 
as well as his counsels against indulging 
children's wishes, were actually objected to 
by his friend Molyneux ; yet it is curious to 
note that the greatest of German thinkers, 
Immanuel Kant, follows Locke pretty 
closely in both these particulars. The 
central principle of the Thoughts is that 
the end of the educator is to settle in the 
pupil, by steady unremitting practice, in- 
tellectual and moral habits; and, though 
the reader may now and again be disposed 
to resent the repetition of the dictum, he 
can hardly complain that its importance 
has been exaggerated. Although adopting 
private tuition as preferable to school, 
because of its more complete supervision, 
Locke fully recognised the influence of 
companions on the mind and character of 
the young ; and he seeks to evade the 
difficulty of solitary education by exacting 
the maximum in the way of attention from 
the father and the tutor. The value of 
Locke's Thoughts resides partly in the 
force with which he illustrates the funda- 
mental principle of his theory already 



indicated, and partly in the good sense and 
impartiality with which he handles all 
questions of detail. His remarks on the 
way to deal with children's weaknesses, on 
their timidity, on praise and blame, on pun- 
ishment, on satisfying curiosity, and many 
other pressizig problems of every-day educa- 
tion, will always be worth a careful perusal 
by all who have to guide and control chil- 
dren, whether in the home or in the school. 
(See Some Thoughts concerniyig Education, 
with introduction and notes by the Bev. 
R. H. Quick, M.A.; also. Conduct of the 
Understanding, edited by Prof. T. Fowler. 
The German reader may consult Dr. 
Schuster's introduction to the translation 
of the Thou,ghts in Karl Richter's Pdda- 
gogische Bihliothek.) 

Log-Book. — The log-book is a diary 
or journal, the keeping of which is com- 
pulsory in all public elementary schools. 
It must be stoutly bound, and contain 
not less than 300 ruled pages. It is kept 
by the head teacher, who is required to 
record in it such events as the introduc- 
tion of new books, apparatus, or courses 
of instruction, the visits of the inspector 
or of managers, absence or failure of duty 
on the part of any member of the staff", or 
any incident or circumstance to which it 
may be useful or interesting to refer at 
some future time. Entries must be con- 
fined to matters of fact ; ' reflections or 
opinions of a general character ' are ex- 
pressly forbidden. All reports made by 
the inspector, whether after a ' surprise 
visit ' or after the annual inspection, must 
be copied ' verbatim,' and signed by the 
correspondent of the managers. When 
the annual report has been received the 
school staff" must also be entered, and all 
changes afterwards occurring in it must 
be recorded. 

Logic. — Logic is commonly defined 
as the science of reasoning, or of the 
' laws of thought ' which underlie reason- 
ing. As employed about the reasoning 
process it is connected with, and indeed 
based on. Psychology (which see). It diff'ers 
from psychology in that it seeks to deter- 
mine the necessary conditions of sound or 
correct reasoning. Logic, in short, is not 
only the science but the art of reason- 
ing. It is now commonly divided into 
two parts, (1) deductive or formal, and 
(2) inductive or material logic. Pormal 
logic is concerned with the formal cor- 
rectness of our thinking processes, and its 



LONDON UNIVERSITY LUTHER, MARTIN 



199 



rules guide us in seeing clearly all that is 
necessarily implied in our propositions. 
It deals successively with terms, proposi- 
tions, and syllogisms, that is to say, the 
verbal forms in which the three growingly 
complex products of thought, concepts, 
judgments, and reasonings embody them- 
selves. The formulation of the true prin- 
ciples of inductive research is an exceed- 
ingly difficult matter ; and, in spite of 
the recent contributions of J. S. Mill, 
Stanley Jevons, and others, it is far from 
being finally settled. Hence the study 
of inductive logic ought to follow that of 
deductive. Very dijfferent opinions have 
been held as to the practical value of 
logic, but it is agreed by most writers 
that the study of the science, by supplying 
us with a simple method of analysing and 
testing our reasoning processes, enables us 
to carry these out with greater certainty 
and ease. To the teacher the study of de- 
ductive logic, connecting itself so closely 
as it does with the science of Grammar 
(q.v.), may be said to be of the highest 
value. Familiarity with the logical dis- 
tinctions among terms, propositions, and 
arguments will serve not only to clear up 
his own thoughts, but to guide him in 
presenting facts and truths in the clearest 
way to the learner's mind. This applies 
with particular force to certain portions, 
such as the doctrine of logical division 
and definition, and of the obversion and 
conversion of propositions (immediate in- 
ferences). The doctrine of method, or the 
scientific arrangement of thoughts, which 
has been proposed by some writers as an 
additional division of the subject, has 
a very close bearing on the teacher's 
work (see Method). The study of the 
principles of inductive logic, by rendering 
the mind familiar with the methods of 
scientific investigation and the grounds 
of scientific certainty, will be found very 
useful to all who have to teach science. 
It is worth considering whether certain 
portions of logic might not with advant- 
age be introduced at the end of the school 
curriculum. (For an account of the nature 
and scope of logic see Jevons, Ul. Lessons, 
i. ; Bain, Deduct., Logic, Introd., p. 30, 
and following ; EncyclofCKdia Britann. 
(9th ed.), article ' Logic.') 

London University. See Univer- 
sities and Provincial Colleges. 

Long Sight. See Eyesight. 

Long Vacation. — At both Oxford and 



Cambridge the majority of the men are 
down before the end of June, and do not 
come up again until the second week in 
October. The interval is the ' long vaca- 
tion.' At Oxford the men who keep 
Trinity term remain up until the Satur- 
day after the first Tuesday in July. At 
Cambridge, men reading for a tripos may 
obtain permission to be in residence dur- 
ing July and August. It is not counted 
as a term, but it is a most valuable op- 
portunity for coaching free from the dis- 
tractions of term time. 

Look -and -Say Method. — This is a 
method of teaching reading without spell- 
ing ; children being taught to recognise at 
sight, and to pronounce, words as wholes. 
A child is given a general impression of 
the look of a word, and then this ' visual 
impress ' is made vivid by analysis and 
lasting by repetition. An easy sentence 
is written on the black board or exhibited 
on a tablet. The teacher points to the 
words and pronounces them one after the 
other, the children several times repeat- 
ing the sounds simultaneously after the 
teacher. Then the teacher points to the 
words and requires the children to pro- 
nounce them without help — forwards, 
backwards, and taken anyhow. Then 
single children are called on to pronounce 
the words pointed to in any order. Then 
comes the analysis. The teacher asks the 
children the number of letters in each 
word ; tells them the names and sounds of 
each letter; calls on them to pick out the 
same letters on an alphabet card ; and sets 
them to print the words on their slates. 
The eye, like the ear, more readily takes 
in things as wholes, remembers a word as 
a whole, and associates its meaning with 
its foi-m — just as the ear associates its 
meaning with its sound. The method has, 
therefore, much to be said in its favour. 
No one can really be said to read until he 
takes in words at a glance. This method 
teaches him to do so from the very first. 
It likewise helps him considerably to learn 
how to spell English words — for in this 
the memory of the eye, the ' look ' of the 
word, is generally our chief practical aid. 
Unless care be taken, however, the pro- 
nunciation — which depends on the dis- 
tinct articulation of every separate sound 
— is very likely to suffer. 

Luther, Martin (6. Eisleben 1483 ; d. 
1546), was the son of a miner and metal 
worker. His parents gave him a good 



?00 



LYCEUM MAINTENON, MARQUISE DE 



education. At the age of fourteen they 
sent him to study Latin at Magdeburg 
and at Eisenach. His father designed him 
for law, but his piety led him to join the 
order of St. Augustine. We have not here 
to deal with his long search after truth in 
the Bible, his fearless quarrel with the 
popish authorities, and his work as a reli- 
gious reformer, but merely with his views 
as a practical educationist. ' If I were 
not a minister of the Gospel,' he said, ' I 
should like to be a schoolmaster.' He 
boldly proclaimed the necessity of educa- 
tion for all, and exposed the absurd methods 
of ' darkening knowledge ' in vogue in 
schools previous to the Reformation. In 
1520 he came out boldly on the question 
in his Letter to the German Aristocracy, 
and in 1524, in his Letter to the Governing 
Bodies of all the Toions of Geronany. In 
the former he demanded the reorganisa- 
tion of the universities and schools, whilst 
in the latter he urged that it was the duty 
of the authorities to ameliorate the con- 
dition, intellectual and moral, of the people. 
In 1525 he even organised a school at his 
native Eisleben. Amazed at the ignorance 
of the people, he drew up in 1529 his Great 
and Small Catechisms, and introduced them 
into the schools for religious instruction. 
In 1530 he published a sermon On the 
Necessity of sending Children to School. 
These were followed by various other sepa- 
rate works, besides the numerous passages 
which abound in his writings in favour of 
sound education. Whilst he maintained 



that parents ought to educate their chil- 
dren, he openly avowed that, where they 
failed to do so, it was the duty of the ma- 
gistrates to interfere, and take the matter 
into their own hands. He advocated that 
boys and girls should not be taught more 
than two hours a day, as the former ought 
to have time to learn a trade, and the latter 
to learn domestic duties. In his instruc- 
tions to inspectors he gave a detailed ac- 
count of the work to be done, and the 
authors to be read, &c. The list is full of 
sound sense and sound religion. See also 
Law (Educational), section Saxony. 

Lyceum (Gr. Xwetos = the wolf-slayer). 
This term has assumed various meanings 
in different ages and countries. Among 
the Greeks it signified the gymnasium 
with covered walks in the eastern suburb 
of Athens, where Aristotle taught, so 
named from the neighbouring temple of 
Apollo Lyceus. Among the Romans it 
signified an educational establishment, 
such, for instance, as that in the Tuscula- 
num of Cicero, or in the villa of Adrian 
at Tibur. Nowadays it generally denotes 
a second-class training school, a school or 
literary seminary between a common school 
and a college. In France it is the highest 
class of secondary school, containing eight 
classes, while in Italy it fills the place of 
the higher classes of the German gymna- 
sium. In English-speaking communities 
the term is applied to an association for 
literary improvement by means of lectures 
on science and literature. 



M 



Madras System. See Monitorial 
System. 

Maintenon, Marquise de (6. 1635 ; 
d. 1719). — The family name of this re- 
markable woman was Frangoise d'Aubigne. 
She was the granddaughter of a distin- 
guished French Protestant writer, Theo- 
dore A. d'Aubign^, and was born in a 
prison, where her father was incarcerated 
for his heretical opinions. After her 
father's death Frangoise was converted to 
the Catholic faith, and at sixteen mar- 
ried the poet Scarron. On his death in 
1669 she was reduced to poverty, and ulti- 
mately became governess to the two sons 
of Louis XIV. by Madame de Montespan. 



The devotion with which she discharged 
the duties of this position made the king 
her friend for life. He gave her a hundred 
thousand livres, with which she purchased 
the Maintenon estate, and created her a 
Marchioness. Her influence over the king 
gradually increased, and in 1685 she was 
privately married to the Grand Monarque. 
Her ascendency, which remained undimi- 
nished down to the king's death in 1715, 
she employed, among other purposes, to 
found at St. Cyr an important school for 
poor girls, which she supported and super- 
intended with the greatest devotion from 
1686 down to her death there in 1719. 
Her letters, edited by Lavallee, are among 



MANAGEMENT MANN, HORACE 



201 



the most cliarmiiig in the French language, 
and show the deep interest she took in her 
educational work. See (1) her Lettres sur 
Veducation des filles ; (2) Entretiens sur 
Veducation desjilles ; (3) Conseils aux de- 
inoiselles ; (4) Memoires des Dames de St. 
Cyr, &LG. 

Management. See School Manage- 
ment. 

Managers. — Every voluntary school is 
under the direction of a body of managers, 
whose duty it is to make all necessary 
arrangements for its efficient working. 
School Boards are the managers of all 
schools provided by them, but they may 
delegate the charge of any particular school 
to managers appointed by them. Every 
body of managers must consist of at least 
three persons, and if the school be not pro- 
vided by a Board, a form signed by three 
managers miist be sent to the Education 
Department, authorising one of the three 
to sign the receipts for grants. Managers 
are also required to appoint a correspon- 
dent with the Department. Managers are 
held responsible for the conduct of their 
schools, for their maintenance in efficiency, 
for the care of the health of individual 
scholars who may need to be withheld from 
examination or relieved from some part 
of the school work throughout the year, 
and for the provision of all needful fur- 
niture, books, and apparatus. 

Mann, Horace (1796-1859), a native 
■of Massachusetts, was the most eminent 
and successful promoter of popular educa- 
tion in the United States during the nine- 
teenth century. After acting as classical 
teacher at Providence, he, in 1821, took 
up the study of law, and for a few years 
pursued the profession of advocate. In 
1827 he was elected a member of the Le- 
gislative Assembly, and six years later of 
the senate of Massachusetts, becoming pre- 
sident of the latter body in 1836. His 
earliest public labours were in the cause 
of religious liberty, the suppression of lot- 
teries, the promotion of temperance, and 
in favour of the introduction of railways. 
As a lawyer, statesman, and philanthro- 
pist, he had achieved a great reputation 
among his fellow countrymen, and was 
already selected for the important work 
of codifying the statutes of his native 
State, when, in 1837, he abandoned all his 
other public and professional pursuits in 
order to accept the ill-remunerated post of 
. secretary of the newly established Bureau 



of Education, and to devote himself thence- 
forward exclusively to the promotion of 
popular education. In this office, which 
he filled for twelve years with untiring 
energy, working as a rule sixteen hours a 
day, he rendered to the cause of education 
services for which Americans will never 
cease to be grateful. In the performance 
of his task of spreading elementary educa- 
tion and improving the methods of teach- 
ing, Mann had recourse to three agencies : 
(1) he instituted a series of periodical 
conferences of teachers ; (2) he published 
a monthly periodical, The Common School 
Journal, and (3) he wrote Annual Reports 
to his committee of the progress made from 
year to year in the work of education. Of 
the nature of the subjects discussed in the 
periodical conferences, a volume which he 
published in 1840 presents a sample. The 
subjects of the sev(>n conferences therein 
reported are: 1. 'Means and Object of 
Popular Schools.' 2. ' The Professional 
Preparation of Teachers.' 3. ' The Neces- 
sity of Education in a Republic' 4. ' What 
God does, and what He leaves us to do in 
Education.' 5. ' Historical Survey of Edu- 
cation ; its Dignity and its Degradation.' 
6. 'District School Libraries.' 7. ' School 
Punishments.' On the third of the pre- 
ceding subjects Mann delivered a stirring 
speech, in which he contended, with con- 
vincing eloquence, that the safety of society 
under a republic (and therefore under any 
form of government where the suffrage is 
practically universal) depends on the moral 
and mental education of the masses. In 
his Common School Journal, which he 
edited for ten years, he dealt with the 
school topics of the day, and urged his ideas 
in detail on teachers. His twelve Annual 
Reports to the Board of Education are a 
collection of real historical value. In 1843 
Mann paid a visit to Europe for the pur- 
pose of making himself personally familiar 
with the condition of elementary educa- 
tion in the most advanced countries in this 
quarter of the globe. The results of this 
journey he embodied in his seventh Annual 
Report, which attracted unusual attention, 
not only in America, but also in England 
and other parts of the world. The subjects 
dealt with by Mann in his Annual Reports 
embraced school architecture, school li- 
braries, the synthetic method of teaching 
reading, school hygiene, school singing, the 
uniformity of school text-books, the or- 
dinary faults of scholars, and school pun- 



20: 



MANUAL INSTRUCTION 



ishments, &c. The professional training 
of teachers and the question of the ad- 
mission of women as teachers in boys' 
schools also largely engaged Mann's at- 
tention. He was, in fact, the real founder 
of the first Normal School in America — 
that which was opened at Lexington in 
1839, and to which females were admitted. 
In the maintenance of discipline in schools, 
and in the formation of the personal cha- 
racters of the scholars, Mann attached 
very great value to the influence of reli- 
gion, in the sense of the spirit of unsec- 
tarian Christianity, and to this end he ad- 
vocates the reading of the Bible in schools. 
On the death of John Quincy Adams in 
1848, Horace Mann was elected by a large 
majority to represent Massachusetts in the 
senate of the United States, whereupon he 
resigned his position as secretary of the 
Massachusetts Educational Bureau. At 
Washington he advocated the creation of 
a National Educational Office for the whole 
of the United States, similar to the insti- 
tution which he had conducted with such 
salutary results in his native State ; but 
he was not destined to see the realisation 
of this idea, which was not carried out 
until the year 1867. Towards the end of 
his life he accepted the rectorship of the 
unfortunate Antioch College in Ohio, where 
he died in 1859. His widow wrote a life 
of Mann, and edited his correspondence. 
In 1865 a statue was erected to his memory, 
the expense being defrayed by a general 
subscription of all the teachers and pupils 
in the schools of Massachusetts. 

Manual Instruction is a vague phrase 
for the different schemes wherein pupils 
are to be taught : (1) to use their hands 
as well as their heads, and (2) not to be 
ashamed of manual labour. In this sense 
writing, the mechanism of arithmetic, and 
drawing, form parts of all ordinary Eng- 
lish education, whilst Gymnastics, Model- 
ling, Turning, Slojd (q.v.), &c., are gradu- 
ally being introduced. Colonel Parker 
(School Journal, New York, December 
10, 1887) defined manual training as 
' one of several modes of thought-expres- 
sion.' The mode of expression by means 
of language and symbol is most largely 
taught in schools. A second mode of ex- 
pression by forms which exhibit the idea 
or ideal to some extent is seen in drawing. 
The third mode would use actual models, 
specimens, and things as free as possible 
from conventions. It would use these for 



its own purposes only, lest we should 
have the reverse-action fault which caused 
a youth to define ' an atom ' as ' round balls, 
of wood invented by Dr. Dal ton.' Such 
plans assume (1) that the present systems- 
of primary education are too ' bookish ' 
and unstimulating ; (2) that the education 
begun in the primary schools should be 
continued in some form, more or less op- 
tional, and supplied, either from local or 
national funds, after the youth has passed 
the standards or has gone to work, usually 
without any knowledge of the most ele- 
mentary facts and principles which under- 
lie his work. A useful article in The 
Spectator, January 21, 1888, states that 
manual instruction has been recommended 
from three standpoints : (1) The increase 
of skill on the part of the workman. 
(2) The necessity of '■'practical teaching,' 
not ' book learning,' for the labouring 
classes. This is somewhat akin to the 
common answer of the Lancashire work- 
man to his apprentice, ' Tha wants to 
know ta mich. Tha do exactly what a 
tell tha and tha'll do reet.' (3) The ne- 
cessity of teaching by means of things as 
well as by notions. This standpoint is of 
coiirse part of the general platform for 
the teaching of science, with experiments 
when possible, and with the object of 
training the faculties of observation and 
manipulative skill at the same time as the 
mental faculties. In this respect good 
work has long been done at a few Englisli 
public schools, and notably Clifton Col- 
lege. In practical chemistry and physics 
the little manuals by Messrs. Shenstone 
and Worthington (Bivingtons) are in- 
stances of good pioneer work in our first- 
grade schools. The university colleges 
are making wonderful strides, and even 
at Oxford and Cambridge manual instruc- 
tion, not only in physics but in engineer- 
ing, may be obtained by the undergra- 
duates. Thring led the way by institut- 
ing a carpenter's 'shop' at Uppingham. 
But the general lack of provision for prac- 
tical work with mental discipline is patent 
in the majority of our schools. To head- 
masters it means trouble (especially until 
more teachers are trained), and to gover- 
nors expense. Hence misapprehension ex- 
ists. In the United States the cause of 
manual training is warmly taken up. The 
centre of activity is the Industrial Edu- 
cation Association, 9 University Place, 
New York ; resident and first head of 



MANUAL INSTRUCTION- 



-MAPS 



203 



the Training College (1887), Dr. Nicholas 
M. Butler. The importance of the move- 
ment is seen by the fact that in its third, 
year of existence it could take the old 
Union Theological Seminary at a rent of 
1,200?. a year. Its fundamental article 
of faith is, ' That the complete develop- 
ment of all the faculties can be reached 
only through a system of education which 
combines the training found in the usual 
course of study with the elements of 
manual ti"aining.' The Association claims 
as a fact generally recognised, that the 
Kindergarten System {q.v.) produces the 
best results with young children, and it 
would combine a modified development of 
this system with ordinary book-learning. 
Industrial education comprises (1) techni- 
cal education, (2) manual training. The 
Association desires to remove the wrong 
impression that manual instruction means 
teaching trades. ' The argument is psycho- 
logical and educational. It is not econo- 
mic or utilitarian.' It takes no account 
of the social and economic benefits known 
to result from manual training. The 
schools are not established for the pur- 
pose of teaching pupils how to make a 
living, but to teach them how to live. 
A wide-spread disinclination for manual 
labour is confessed ; hence this supple- 
mentary, or rather complementary, move- 
ment is expected, in the words of the Re- 
port from Springfield, Mass., ' to foster a 
higher appreciation of the value and dignity 
of intellectual labour, and the worth and 
respectability of labouring men.' 

Chicago has not only a Manual Train- 
ing School, but a ' Women's Institute of 
Technical Design.' Generally speaking, 
where the manual feature has been intro- 
duced ' the kitchen and the sewing- room 
for the girls have held an equal place 
with the bench and the forge for the boys ' 
{Albany N.Y. Report, October 3, 1887). 
The Americans seem to have been par- 
ticularly impressed by the Imperial Tech- 
nical School at Moscow, the pioneer in 
1868, and Government commissioners have 
reported in the wake of the English Tech- 
nical Commission. These reports, the 
scholastic journals, and the above Associa- 
tion, whose object is the creation of public 
interest and belief in the value of indus- 
trial education, should be referred to. The 
position of many thoughtful public men 
was thus given by the Governor of the 
State of New York in his last message to 



the Legislature (1877) : ' The present sys- 
tem is insufiicient for the future needs of 
our American youth. I would therefore 
recommend making manual training, with- 
in certain limits, a part of the public school 
system, certainly in the cities and larger 
towns of this State.' (*S'ee Bain, Science 
of Educatio7i, pp. 169, 235-36, 272-80 ; 
George Combe, Education : its Principles 
and Practice, p. 313 (Macmillan & Co., 
1869) — a posthumous edition by Mr. Jolly ^ 
and R. Galloway's Education, Scientific 
and Technical (Triibner & Co., 1881). 
Mr. Galloway gives many practical hints.) 
Maps, — -The rapidly increasing popula- 
rity of maps in newspapers, school text- 
books, (fee, is intimately connected with 
the development of geographical teaching. 
It is a general fault that text-books are 
used too much, and maps too rarely. Even 
in distinguished schools it is too commonly 
supposed that the use of an atlas is quite 
analogous to the use of a dictionary. Yet 
all teachers are aware that to teach pupils 
to read a map intelligently involves con- 
siderable training, great pains, and the 
use of appliances. A map (from mapj^a, 
Latin, napkin, c.f. the old titles mappa 
mundi, &c.) is not so much a pictorial 
representation of a portion of the earth's 
surface viewed from above, as a record of 
the larger and more permanent features of 
parts of the earth's surface which is the 
standpoint of geography. These features 
are primarily recorded on physical maps, 
and they should be first used. The conven- 
tional distinctions between charts, maps, 
and plans should be noticed. It is not 
possible to classify the difierent sorts of 
maps here ; the teacher must make the 
selection for his own purposes, basing 
subsequent meteorological, political, and 
historical investigations upon the physical 
and geological maps accessible. It is 
always unfortunate for pupils to have 
ordinary politically-coloured maps ('full- 
coloured' as publishers call them) placed 
before them in the first instance. This is 
a fault encouraged by limiting pupils to 
the use of one atlas ; it serves to keep up 
the artificial barriers between 'political' 
and 'physical' geography, and produces 
bad effects in the study of history. Sepa- 
rate maps should be bought as they are 
needed. Teachers and pupils should also 
prepare maps for their own purposes. It 
is often most advisable to make a graduated 
series of maps in the same scale of any 



204 



MAPS- 



-MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM 



important country. The statigram maps, 
i.e. those marking statistics of a complex 
or political nature upon the ordinary phy- 
sical features, would then naturally follow 
the latter. The logical order is well illus- 
trated by Huxley's treatment of the Thames 
basin in his Physiography (Macmillan, 6s.). 
Detailed suggestions on the physical side 
of maps, &c., will be found in Geikie's book 
on The Teaching of Geography (Macmillan, 
1887, 2s. U). 

Maps are the characteristic instruments 
of the geographer, just as much as intra- 
molecular structure is the special field of 
the chemist. Maps are also measures of 
the progress of geographical science. They 
should not, therefore, be hastily thrust 
upon the beginner, any more than they 
should be overlooked at later stages. 
Erom the topography of the neighbourhood 
is to proceed in the most natural way 
from the known to the unknown. Simple 
plans based on (i.) familiar bearings, (ii.) 
the cardinal points, should lead to further 
knowledge 'out of bounds.' 

Scale should be attended to at a very 
early stage. The maps of the Government 
Ordnance Survey (agents : Stanford s, 
Charing Cross, London, S.W., or local 
map publishers) should be used by the 
teacher, and introduced to the elder stu- 
dents. The usual English method of 
a scale of one inch to the mile is a re- 
duction of ~^. These representative 
fractions are conveniently given on Conti- 
nental maps in exact round numbers, e.g. 
1 : 20,000,000 for a small map of Europe. 
The metric system should not be neglected, 
and a table of comparison scales kept for 
use. It is well worth remembering that 
thirteen square, or eight linear kilometres 
equal about five English statute miles. 
The distinction between statute miles and 
geographical miles or knots should be 
carefully taught, and the latter preferred. 

Localisation by means of meridians and 
parallels should come later, and the amount 
of geometry and astronomy to be taught 
is a matter of circumstances. The reading 
of maps as a selection of geographical 
matter is the first thing to be aimed at, 
and the constant reference of the geogra- 
pher's material to places and to maps 
involves a supply, variety, and selection 
of the latter in schools which is not yet 
(1888) recognised by the majority of them. 
The public have also to learn to discrimi- 
nate between good and bad maps. The 



publishers of good maps in Britain are 
few in number. Teachers should therefore 
encourage those who make cartography a 
speciality, and it will soon be found that 
British publishers are prepared to compete 
with the leading Continental ones. The 
education of teachers in this matter will 
soon react on the publishers' stocks. Mean- 
while the teacher should always make free 
use of the blackboard, globes, pictures, and 
occasionally, at least, of the magic-lantern. 

Map-drawing is too much treated as a 
drawing, not a geographical exercise. Time 
and common sense are both against elabo- 
rate home lesson maps drawn on blank 
paper. The insertion of meridians after 
the outline defeats one of the objects of 
the lesson. Outline maps for 'filling in,' 
either in or out of school, can be purchased. 
The 'blank projections ' sold are very useful 
in testing knowledge, or for use in school 
lessons on contours. Much greater variety 
with more intelligent system is needed. 
The chief object here should be to get 
pupils to know the main outline of the 
world as they know the multiplication 
table. Advanced students with some 
knowledge of mathematics may usefully 
acquire some of the elements of surveying, 
checking their results by the ordnance 
maps. Provided that jorinciples and me- 
thods are studied, the work has much 
educational value, and is much practised 
in military schools. The Proceedings of 
the Royal Geographical Society contain 
papers by eminent travellers describing 
how their observations were made. Young 
men likely to visit comparatively unknown 
regions should learn the use of the chief.. 
instruments before they go abroad. Faci- 
lities are provided by the Society (Address : 
The Secretary, 1 SavileRow, London, E.C.). 
Intending travellers can now, by arrange- 
ment, be instructed in (1) surveying and 
mapping, (2) geology, (3) botany, (4) pho- 
tography ] fee, 2s. 6o?. an hour. The mag- 
nificent collection of maps is open free to 
teachers from 10 to 5, on Saturdays from 
10 to 2 p.m. The Teachers' Guild (17 
Buckingham St., Strand, W.C.) has a use- 
ful circulating library of books, &c., for its 
members. [See also Mathematical Geo- 
graphy.) 

Map Projections. See Mathematical 
Geography 

Marking-. See School Management. 

Mason College, Birmingham. See 
Provincial Colleges. 



MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 



205 



Mathematical Geography is an elas- 
tic term. It does not mean ' a description 
of the earth on mathematical principles,' 
nor even such portion of the field of geo- 
graphy as involves mathematics. In the 
latter case it would tread upon much phy- 
sical geography and geo-physics, and upon 
the advanced treatment of political geo- 
graphy by the discussion of comparative 
statistics. The almost uniform subdivision 
of geography, like Ancient Gaul, ' in tres 
partes,' is familiar' to every teacher. The 
opening chapter of text-books is usually 
devoted to mathematical geography. On 
the pi"inciple of proceeding from the known 
to the unknown this method is unscienti- 
fic. It begins by asking a young student 
to disbelieve his senses, and then to accept 
a crude summaiy of what are strictly as- 
tronomical facts. This educational extreme 
was exhibited in the older generation by 
' the use of the globes ' as an advertise- 
ment for a ladies' school. We have the 
other extreme now in the infrequent use 
of globes. The true work of geography is 
to give answers to the question. Where ? 
These soon lead to (1) the reading and (2) 
the making of Maps (q.v.). Teaching about 
meridians and parallels leads to inquiries 
about (1) shape and (2) 'motions of the 
earth. This may, of course, be indefinitely 
expanded into the domain of Astronomy. 
But the problems involved in the investi- 
gation of the earth's shape have conve- 
niently been focussed around the subject 
of Geodesy. The standard book is Col. 
A. R. Clarke's Geodesy (Clarendon Press, 
1882). This subject involves advanced 
mathematics, astronomy, and practical sur- 
veying. In connection with the motions 
of the earth, the main facts first and then 
the explanation of the facts of (i.) day and 
night, (ii.) the seasons, (iii.) air and water 
currents should be taught, (i.) and (ii.) 
are usually given in ' mathematical geo- 
graphy,' and (iii.) in 'physical geography.' 
Tides are, however, very mathematical, 
and even the bare explanations usually 
given involve a knowledge of the solar 
system and dynamical laws. See Prof. 
Haughton's Manual on Tides (Cassell & 
Co.). Hence the importance of teaching 
some simple elementary physics and me- 
chanics before these matters are discussed. 
The use of orreries and other mechanical 
contrivances to teach planetary motions 
is a vexed question. If not dangerous in 
the hands of a skilful teacher, they are cer- 



tainly very expensive and liable to easy 
derangement. It is better to spend money 
first on globes and maps. The mathema- 
tical principles of (iv.), climate, are closely 
connected with (i.) and (ii.). The advanced 
discussion has usually been claimed by 
geological text-books. The teacher who 
is also a student will enjoy Croll's Climate 
and Time, where the controversies between 
the astronomers and geologists are sum- 
marised. But they proceed outside the 
sphere of the scientific geographer, except 
so far as the latter can deal with the pro- 
blems of terrestrial physics. 

Practically it will be found that carto- 
graphy and m^ap projections are more 
closely allied to geography, for they in- 
volve the most scientific answers to the 
question, Where ? A very brief account 
of the principal projections is given in 
many text-books. Grove's Primer of Geo- 
graphy (Macmillan & Co., Is.) shows what 
is possible for young pupils when the 
teacher begins to deal with a large portion 
of the globe at one view. There are some 
ingenious thi'ead and wire models on sale, 
but ample scope exists for the ingenuity 
of teachers. The notions of projections 
do not come easily to most minds. The 
various schemes for ' projecting' the whole 
or less of the earth's surface on a flat paper 
surface have for centuries — with long in- 
tervals of neglect — taxed the ingenuity of 
astronomers. They form, however, the 
delights of the advanced mathematician or, 
in a small way, the business occupation of 
professional cartographers. Various mi- 
litary engineers and marine surveyors have 
also contributed to the study. There is a 
text-book in English by the lateW. Hughes, 
who was both a geographer and a carto- 
grapher. Treatise on the Construction of 
Maps (Longmans, 1864), but the best 
treatises are in French, German, Italian, 
and Russian. 

Mercator's projection is the only one here 
needing notice. It is most dangerous to use 
it exclusively. Its special purpose and the 
great exaggerations of area (about thirty- 
two times in lat. 80°) should be pointed out 
by the side of the globe and the hemisphere 
projections. In some of the late Keith John- 
ston's maps, in a map of the world pub- 
lished by J. Hey wood, Manchester, and in 
others the projection is not, as at first 
sight, Mercator's, but Gall's, devised about 
1840. Mr. Gall corrected the longitude 
at the forty-fifth parallel, and the exagge- 



206 



MATHEMATICS 



r.ation in important parts is only half that 
of Mercator's. It has other advantages. 
The difficulties of projection are humour- 
ously illustrated in Mr. Ravenstein's paper 
' On the Reading of Geography ' {E. G. S. 
Report, 1886 — Educational Supplement). 
Mercator,i.e. Gerald Kaufmann, of Rupel- 
monde, near Antwerp, deserves honour 
from evei'y true teacher. He was an ar- 
dent geographer, who lived a bright un- 
selfish life, and did much for the progress 
of Europe. He spent his long life in pro- 
ducing the first Atlas, and allowed his 
friend, Ortelius, to first publish his volume 
of maps, Theatvuin Mundi. Mercator had 
been working forty years at cartography 
before he put foi'th, in 1569, the projection 
which has immortalised his name. Before 
liim the maps had been, dui'ing many cen- 
turies, without parallels, and even in the 
present century there have been gross ab- 
surdities in many maps. In schools where 
surveying is a subject the science of car- 
tography is taught in some detail with the 
help of the British Ordnance maps and 
others. The use of such maps is also ne- 
cessary to tlie practical geologist. Young 
travellers do well to consult the officials at 
the Royal Geographical Society, or other- 
wise to acquire practical knowledge of the 
use of observing instruments, itc, and of 
map-making under travelling conditions, 
and to take Hints to Travellers (Stanford, 
London, 5s.) with them. Teachers on the 
Continent sometimes have ai'rangements 
made for them to take pupils on observing 
tours. This is, of course, in cases where 
geography is made the subject of separate 
professorships ; but in English-speaking 
countries this is not yet usual. The most 
practical side of ' mathematical geography ' 
is seen in the training of commercial tra- 
vellers, tfcc, to bring home adequate re- 
ports, or in training officers, such as the 
learned pundits of the Indian Survey De- 
partment, to make the best use of their 
chances of observation. See Col. Holdich 
on The Art of acquiring Geograjihical In- 
formation (Asiatic Quarterly Review, 1888, 
p. 154). The general literature on mathe- 
matical geography is scattered and not 
easily accessible. It is bound up with 
p<apers on mathematics, astronomy, and 
general physics. *S'ee Maps ; Geography. 
Mathematics. — Although from its 
derivation the term might be descriptive 
of any species of knowledge which tends 
to improve the mental faculties, it is now 



well understood in a restricted sense, 
and denotes the science whose object is 
the discovery of the relations of number 
and magnitude, and their application to 
the explanation of natural phenomena by 
means of observed laws. 

1. The functions of Mathematics in 
Education. — The educational utility of 
the study of mathematics is so generally 
acknowledged as to make its vindication 
here vinnecessary. One of the primary 
effects of the study is the strengthening 
and training of the reasoning faculties. 
Acute reasoners in eveiy branch of learn- 
ing have acknowledged the use, we might 
almost say the necessity, of a mathemati- 
cal education. It is desirable that the 
reasoning faculties should — at first, and 
before it is safe to trust implicitly to 
them — be exerted upon objects of such a 
nature that we can tell by other means 
whether the results which we obtain are 
true or false. Now the mathematics are 
well adapted for this purpose on the fol- 
lowing grounds : (1) Every term is dis- 
tinctly explained, and has but one mean- 
ing, and it is rarely that two words are 
employed to mean the same thing ; (2) 
the first principles are self-evident, and, 
though they may be derived from obser- 
vation, they do not require more of it 
than has been made by children in gene- 
ral ; (3) the demonstration is strictly 
logical, taking nothing for granted except 
the self-evident fii'st principles, resting 
nothing upon probability, and entirely in- 
dependent of authority and opinion : (4) 
when the conclusion is attained by rea- 
soning, its truth or falsehood can be 
ascertained by observation, or, as in geo- 
metry, by common arithmetical calcula- 
tion. This means of testing and checking 
the processes gives confidence, and is ab- 
solutely necessary, while the reason is not 
to be the instructor, but the pupil ; (5) 
there are no words whose meanings are 
so much alike that the ideas which they 
stand for may be confounded. Between 
the meanings of terms there is no distinc- 
tion, except a total distinction, and ad- 
jectives and adverbs expressing difference 
of degree are almost entirely avoided. 
Thus it may be necessary to say ' A is 
greater than B ' ; but it is entirely un- 
important whether A is very little or very 
much greater than B. Any proposition 
which includes the foregoing assertion will 
prove its conclusion generally ; that is. 



MATHEMATICS 



207 



■for all cases in which A is greater than 
B, whether the difference be great or little. 
Locke refers as follows to the distinctness 
of mathematical terms : ' The idea of two 
is as distinct from the idea of three as the 
magnitude of the whole earth is from that 
of a mile. This is not so in other simple 
modes, in which it is not so easy, nor per- 
haps possible, for us to distinguish be- 
tween two approaching ideas, which yet 
are really different, for who will under- 
take to find a difference between the 
white of this paper and that of the next 
degree to it ? ' These are the pi-incipal 
grounds on which the utility of mathe- 
matical studies may be shown to rest, as 
a discipline for the reasoning powers. 
But the habits of mind which these 
studies have a tendency to form are 
valuable in the highest degree. The 
most important of all is the power of con- 
centrating the ideas which a successful 
study of them increases where it did 
exist, and creates where it did not. A 
difficult proposition, or a new method of 
passing from one proposition to another, 
arrests the attention and forces the united 
faculties to use their utmost exertions. 
The habit of mind thus formed soon ex- 
tends itself to other pursuits, and is bene- 
ficially felt in all the business of life. 

Finally, another reason for the sys- 
tematic study of mathematics is furnished 
by their connection with other sciences. 
As soon as any subject becomes a matter 
of strict measurement, or of numerical 
statement, it enters upon a mathematical 
phase. This phase may, or it may not, 
be a prelude to another in which the laws 
of the subject are expressed in algebraical 
formulae or represented by geometrical 
figures. The process of reducing to for- 
mulae is really one of abstraction ; but 
long before such abstraction is completely 
attained, and even in cases where it is 
never attained at all, a subject may to all 
intents and purposes become mathema- 
tical. It is not so much elaborate calcu- 
lations or abstruse processes which cha- 
racterise this phase, as the principles of 
precision, of exactness, and of proportion. 
But these are principles with which no 
true knowledge can entirely dispense. 
' If it be the general scientific spirit which 
at the outset moves upon the face of the 
waters, and out of the unknown depth 
brings forth light and living forms, it is 
no less the mathematical spirit which 



breathes the breath of life into what 
would otherwise have ever remained mere 
dry bones of fact, which reunites the scat- 
tered limbs, and recreates from them a 
new and organic whole.' ^ 

Because of the wide application of the 
methods to other sciences and other fields 
of knowledge, mathematics must neces- 
sarily have great claims on the time avail- 
able for education. It is necessary, how- 
ever, to recognise the point of connection 
between these and other pursuits, for 
there is fallacy not unfrequently used 
which consists in giving a mathematical 
dress to reasoning which is not really 
mathematical in its nature, and so causing 
the argument to appear to possess the 
certainty of mathematics when such is 
not really the case. The limits to the 
range and influence of mathematics are de- 
scribed in the following eloquent words of 
the late President of the Boyal Society, 
Mr. W. Spottiswoode : ' Conterminous with 
space and coeval with time is the kingdom 
of Mathematics ; within this range her do- 
minion is supreme ; otherwise than accord- 
ing to her order nothing can exist ; in con- 
tradiction to her laws nothing takes place. 
On her mysterious scroll is to be found 
written for those who can read it that 
which has been, that which is, and that 
which is to come. Everything material 
which is the subject of knowledge has 
number, oixler, or position; and these are 
her first outlines for a sketch of the uni- 
verse. If our more feeble hands cannot 
follow out the details, still her part has 
been drawn with an unerring pen, and her 
work cannot be gainsaid. So wide is the 
range of mathematical science, so indefi- 
nitely may it extend beyond our actual 
powers of manipulation, that at some 
moments we are inclined to fall down with 
even more than reverence before her ma- 
jestic presence. But so' strictly limited 
' are her promises and powers, about so 
much that we might wish to know does 
she offer no information whatever, that at 
other moments we are fain to call her 
; results but a vain thing, and to reject 
them as a stone when we had asked for 
1 bread. If one aspect of the subject en- 
I courages our hopes, so does the other tend 
I to chasten our desires, and he is perhaps 
j the wisest, and in the long run the hap- 
piest among his fellows, who has learnt 
not only this science, but also the larger 
I ^ Spottiswoode. 



lOS 



MATHEMATICS 



lesson which it dii'ectly teaches, namely, 
to temper our aspirations to that which is 
possible, to modei'ate our desires to that 
wlvich is attainable, to restrict our hopes 
to that of which accomplishment, if not 
immediately practicable, is at least dis- 
tinctly within the range of conception. 
That which is at present beyoiid our ken 
may, at some peiiod and in some manner, 
as yet unknown to us, fall within our 
grasp; but our science teaches us, while 
ever yearning with Groethe for " Light, 
more light," to concentrate our attention 
upon that of which our powers are capable, 
and contentedly to leave for future expe- 
rience the solution of problems to which 
we can at present say neither yea nor nay.' 
2. The Classification of Mathematics 
for Educational Purposes. — It has been 
usual to divide mathematics into two 
branches, j;?<re and mixed (or applied). 
Where this distinction is adopted the dif- 
ferent branches of mathematical science 
are classitiied as follows: — 

I. Pure mathematics, consisting of the 
following branches : 1. Arithmetic, ov the 
science of numbers, and arithmetical al- 
gebra, or the methods of calculation by 
means of general symbols having nume- 
rical signitication only. 2. Geometry, 
treating of the properties of iigures in the 
manner of Euclid's Elements. 3. Algebra, 
the calculus of operations. 4. Analytical 
(kometry, or the application of algebra to 
geometry. 5. The Differential and In- 
tegral Calcnlus. 

II. Mixed mathematics, including the 
application of pure mathematics to (1) Me- 
chanics, (2) Astronomy, (3) Light, Heat, 
Sotmd, Electricity, dec. According to this 
classitication the pure mathematics include 
notions of time and space only, while mixed 
mathematics add to these, notions of mat- 
ter. This distinction still lingers in the 
schedules of subjects for examination pur- 
poses, and on this account we cannot dis- 
miss it without considering its meaning 
and the grounds on which it was made. 
Although the presence or absence of 
notions of matter was the essential differ- 
ence between pure and mixed mathematics, 
yet in addition to this distinction there 
was supposed to be a difference in the 
nature of the evidence on which the truth 
of the first principles depended. In every 
department of mathematics the results are 
obtained by strictly logical deduction from 
a few first principles explicitly assumed, 



but in so-called pure mathematics the first 
principles were supposed to require no 
special inductive process to convince us of 
their truth. Whether, as some assert, they 
are notions inherent in the mind, or, as 
others maintain, they are deductions from 
our constant experience, they are univer- 
sally allowed to be self-evident in the sense 
that we cannot conceive them to have been 
otherwise than they are. 

The so-called mixed mathematics apply 
the coi^clusions and processes of pure ma- 
thematics to natural objects, and conse- 
quently presuppose some knowledge of the 
properties of these objects deidved from 
the senses. But a little observation will 
show that the logical or strictly mathema- 
tical processes of deduction in the pure 
and mixed mathematics are identical, the 
difference between the two sciences being, 
not in the rigidity of the reasoning, but 
in the independence of the principles, or 
their connection with other laws and facts. 
In mixed mathematics we are often pre- 
sented with conclusions deiived from hypo- 
theses I'egarding the constitution of natui-e.. 
If we ask whether these are correct con- 
clusions from the assumed hypotheses, our' 
investigations must be conducted on prin- 
ciples purely mathematical ; bvit if we in- 
quire whether the conclusions have a real 
existence in nature, we must appeal to 
observation. It is from this mixture of 
mathematical deduction with experimental 
processes that the mixed sciences derive 
their name, and not from any difiei-ence 
between their mathematics and those of 
the pure science. While therefore it may 
not be inappropriate to speak of mixed 
sciences, that is to say sciences partly ma- 
thematical and partly experimental, there 
is an inappropriateness in classifying these 
sciences as mixed mathematics. 

Again, the term p^ire is used in con- 
nection with geometry as opposed to ana- 
lytical ; p^lre geometry being that which 
proceeds on the Euclidean plan of reason- 
ing directly from the figure, without the 
use of any system of co-ordinates or lines 
of reference. Now, both pure and ana- 
lytical geometry are included under the 
old division of pure mathematics, so that 
there is here confusion of terms, and we 
must conclude that they are both vague 
and unnecessary. 

More appropriate or more accurate 
plans of classification have been suggested ; 
for instance, Mr. R. W. Hay ward, of Har- 



MATHEMATICS 



209 



row, proposes to classify according to pro- 
cesses, and not according to subject matter, 
and considers that the correlation of the 
different branches of elementary mathe- 
matics is best exhibited by grouping the 
ideas about the Hamiltonian concepts scalar 
and vector. But it must be remembered 
that a large amount of mathematical know- 
ledge was needed before these generalisa- 
tions could be made, and much is required 
before they can be properly understood. 
There is, however, something to be learnt 
for our purpose from the suggestion, as will 
appear from a brief explanation. 

The operation of passing from any 
point O in space to any other point A is 
termed a vector, and denoted either by 
two letters, as A, or a single symbol a, 
which must be regarded as involving the 
conceptions of length and direction, but 
not of position in space ; so that two vectors 
O A and O' A' will be equal if by simply 
moving the line A parallel to itself, until 
coincides with O', its other extremity A 
falls upon A'. The addition of vectors is de- 
fined by the ordinary equations A -+- A C 
= O C, which may be interpreted as indi- 
cating that the successive performance of 
the operations O A, C is equivalent to 
the single operation O C. Thus the dia- 
gonal is the geometrical sum of the ad- 
jacent sides of a parallelogram or of a 
parallelopiped. The reverse operation to 
AB is denoted by — AB, and is equiva- 
lent to B A, since by the above relation 
AB -f BA = AA=0. 

Hence a vector is a directed line of 
definite length in space. A quaternion is 
a ratio of vectors. A scalar in the lan- 
guage of quaternions is a positive or nega- 
tive number. Now the proposal we have 
referred to is that we should classify the 
mathematics, and develop them by refer- 
ence to this Hamiltonian distinction. It is 
supported by the following considerations : 

That which is strictly mathematical 
in the treatment of any science is not its 
subject matter, but the form in which 
that subject matter must from its nature 
be expressed. Mathematics, as such, is 
in fact a formal science, concerning itself 
with the particular matter only so far as 
that matter necessitates a particular form 
for its expression. Hence the recurrence 
of the same formulae and mathematically 
the same propositions in different branches 
of science, so that, to take elementary in- 
stances, a proposition in geometry may be 



read off as a proposition in statics by sub- 
stituting forces for lines, or the formulae 
which determines the speed of the centre 
of mass of two masses having different 
speeds is also that which determines the 
temperature resulting from the mixture 
of two masses of different temperatures. 
Now by the plan suggested each proposi- 
tion will be proved in a form which will 
admit of direct application to all the 
branches of science into which it enters. 
It is rarely an advantage to present the 
result of an extensive generalisation be- 
fore the materials for making it have 
been acquired. No power accompanies 
the possession of a generalised truth 
which is thus prematurely put forth. It 
is much better, for example, to teach 
mechanics in its earliest stages by such 
apparently special processes as the Paral- 
lelogram of Forces, and such special terms 
as com^position and resolution, component 
and resultant, and then to use the results 
with others of like kind to establish the 
theory of quaternions — it is much better 
to adopt this course than to introduce the 
generalised notion of vectors in the begin- 
ning, and to overwhelm the young student 
by extending too rapidly the meaning of 
such operations as addition and multipli- 
cation. 

Yet the suggestion is to a certain ex- 
tent practical, and to this extent will be 
followed in the section on the Methods of 
Teaching. We shall there take up two 
lines corresponding to a great extent to 
the two suggested, but without requiring 
a too rapid generalisation. 

3. TJte practical utility of Mathematical 
Education. — Before proceeding further 
with the question of methods of teaching, 
it will be convenient to consider some 
apparent differences in the views of ad- 
vanced thinkers in regard to the idea of 
utility as a motive for mathematical study. 

Mathematics connect themselves on the 
one side with common life and the phy- 
sical sciences, on the other side with philo- 
sophy. The reason for the difference to 
which we have referred is that some dwell 
more on the one aspect than the other 
Where advanced professors are divided, 
the teacher of the elements has to accept 
and reconcile as far as possible the views 
of both sides. For instance, in two ad- 
dresses at the same meeting of the British 
Association (at Southport) we find a 
Cambridge professor in one appearing to 



210 



MATHEMATICS 



imply that mathematios ai*e degraded by 
association with the arts and sciences. 
He says, ' if I Avere making a defence of 
mathematics I should desire to do so in 
such a mantier as in tlie " Republic " 
Socrates was required to defend justice — 
quite irrespectively of the worldly advan- 
tages which may accompany a life of 
vii'tue and justice, and to show that, in- 
depei\deutly of all these, justice was a 
thing desirable in itself and for its own 
sake — )iof by speaking to you of the utility 
of mathematics in any of the questions of 
common life or of physical science. I would 
rather consider the obligations of mathema- 
tics to these different subjects as the sources 
of mathematical theories now as remote 
from tliem and in so different a region of 
thought as a river at its mouth is from its 
mountain source.' At the same meeting 
another pi-ofessoi", not of Cambridge, says: 
* By the neglect of pure geometry and 
its applications to geometrical drawing, 
Cambridge has lost, or rather has never 
had, contact with the practical needs of 
the nation. All the marvels of modem 
engineei'ing have sprung into existence 
without her help. The great engineers 
have had to depend to a degree now un- 
heard of upon costly experiments until 
they then\selves gradually discovered ma- 
thematical Tiiethods adapted to their pur- 
poses.' Now the teacher of elementary 
matliematics has to recognise the needs 
of the engineer as well as those of the 
purely nuitheniatical philosopher. The 
latter is apt to look on the vast extent 
of modern mathematics as ' an extent 
crowded with beautiful detail, not an 
extent of mere uniformity, such as an 
objectless plain, but of a tract of beauti - 
ful country seen at first in the distance, 
but which will bear to be rambled through 
and studied in every detail of hillside and 
valley, stream, rock, wood, and flower.' ' 
The former looks upon the same tract 
with the view of developing its resources 
for the benefit, sustenance, and comfort 
of the human race. But these views are 
not necessarily antagonistic. Mathemati- 
cal tlieory is in the first instance suggested 
by questions of common life or of physi- 
cal science ; while it is being established in 
the mind of the young student, and is giv- 
ing strength and confidence to his reason- 
ing powers, it cannot be separated for 
long together from the region of experi- 
1 Professor Cayley. 



ment and observation, for, as we have 
said, in the ease by which its conclusions 
may be tested rests its chief utility as a 
mental discipline. When, however, the 
instruments by whicli it operates have 
been fully pi'oved, it may be pursued and 
studied quite independently of its appli- 
cations to connnon things. The history 
of mathematics, however, shows us in- 
numerable cases in which, after the inde- 
pendent course has been pursued, perhaps 
for a long interval of time, it closes con- 
tact again with the practical, and in re- 
turn for leiiding its aid is itself strength- 
ened by the contact. Hence history 
forbids any one to predict that even the 
most abstract and imaginary of the 
branches of advanced mathematics has 
diverged so far from the practically use- 
ful that the two cannot be expected to 
meet again. Consequently, although the 
needs of engineers and others who prac- 
tically apply the truths and theoi'ies of 
the science must not be lost sight of, 
yet they must not by any means engross 
the whole aim and attention of the ma- 
thematical teacher. Even such notions 
as imaginary quantities, manifold space, 
and non-Euclidean geometry, do more than 
furnish mental exercise and recreation, and 
it is always within the range of possibili- 
ties that they may lead to new points of 
contact between mathematics on the one 
hand and the arts on the other. 

4. Methods of Teaching. — When the 
educational pui'poses, and the present con- 
dition of mathematical thought, which we 
ha\'e so far considei-ed, are taken into ac- 
count, we are led to the following conclu- 
sions as regards methods of teaching the 
subjects. It is best to arrange the mathe- 
matics" in two parallel lines, one containing 
subjects allied to pure geometry and its 
applications, and the other to those allied 
to pure algebra and its applications. A 
very few considerations will be sufiicient to 
show that these two lines should pi'oceed 
together. Many minds prefei- to build upon 
the ' intuition by inspection ' rather than 
upon the arithmetical connection of sym- 
bols of quantity. They prefer that the 
truths of mathematics shall be cast in a 
mould which connects them with concrete 
things rather than with abstract notions. 
Others may, on tlie other hand, find that 
for them algebra has the greater power. 
One algebraical theorem, by being read in 
different ways, by giving ever different 



MATHEMATICS 



211 



meanings to the symbols, reveals a variety 
of geometrical and other theorems. It is 
the crystallised form, and very essence of 
the matliematical truth, but in the most 
abstract form conceivable, the most per- 
fect foi'in whicli mathematical truth as 
such can assume. But even the men 
whose days are spent in research in this 
subject, and who are the discoverers of 
the highest theorems of modern algebra, 
constantly make use of geometry to assist 
them in their investigations. 

It is not easy to decide which course 
should commence first. Mathematics na- 
turally begins by treating magnitudes with 
reference to the single element of quantity. 
The answers to the simple questions, How 
many ? How much ? How much greater ? 
How many times greater ? lead up to the 
arithmetic of abstract and concrete number, 
and the doctrines of ratio and proportion, 
and the development of these with the use 
of the signs +, —, &c., as signs of the ele- 
mentary operations, and letters to denote 
numbers or ratios, naturally leads to gene- 
ralised arithmetic, or arithmetical algebra. 

But geometry cannot be far behind, 
if, indeed, it does not have the start : 
simple geometrical teaching may begin in 
the nursery, and is, indeed, already a most 
important element in kindergarten in- 
struction. Its growth should, however, 
be continuous from this point. Algebra, 
however, can begin only after arithmetic 
has been carried to fractions and propor- 
tion. From the beginning of algebra the 
two courses should be allowed to assist 
each other. As they extend, each will 
grow into the other until there will exist 
really no essential difference between the 
two. Geometry will then be only one 
manifestation of algebra, and algebra, at 
least as regards its dimensions, will be 
contained in geometry. Moreover, there 
will be great advantage in the frequent 
importation of the methods of one course 
into the other. The teaching of algebra 
too often lacks the features which are too 
rigidly maintained in geometry. Indeed, 
it is often charged against the method of 
teaching the latter that too much is sacri- 
ficed to logic, and too much time is spent 
in axioms and definitions which are not 
at first required, though to the beginner 
a more rapid dive into the subject would 
be much more suitable. In algebra, on 
the other hand, the boy is at once plunged 
into the midst of it. No axiom is men- 



' tioned. A number of rules are stated, 
and the schoolboy is too often made to 
practise them mechanically until he can 
' perform a numljer of complicated cal- 
culations which are often of very little 
i use for actual application ; until the 
' poor student really thinks that solving a 
simple equation is but the going mechani- 
cally through a certain regular process 
which at the end yields some number. 
The connection of that number with the 
original equation remains to his mind 
somewhat doubtful. There can be no 
doubt that a rapid progress, with per- 
petual return to pick up, re-examine, and 
use difficult and at first partially under- 
stood operations, is the best method of 
teaching this subject. The motto, ' the 
slower the surer,' does not apply here. 
j On this point Professor Sylvester gives 
i his opinion thus : ' I should rejoice to see 
mathematics taught with that life and 
■ animation which the presence and exam- 
' pie of her young and buoyant sister (viz., 
' natural and experimental science) could 
1 not fail to impart ; short roads preferred 
! to long ones, morphology introduced into 
I the elements of algebra ; projection, cor- 
I relation, motion accepted as aids to geo- 
metry ; the mind of the student quickened 
I and elevated, and his faith awakened by 
' early initiation into the ruling ideas of 
' polarity, continuity, infinity, and fami- 
' liarisation with the doctrine of the ima- 
' ginary and inconceivable. It is this living 
I interest in the subject which is so want- 
ing in our traditional and mediaeval modes 
' of teaching.' 

The order in which the various parts 
should begin, will in ordinary circum- 
stances be as follows, it being understood 
that the parts which have Vjeen first com- 
menced are not suspended in the" opening 
of another branch. 



Allied to Algebra 
Arithmetic 
Arithmetical Algebra 
Algebra 



Allied to Geometry 
Kindergarten Geometry 
Relations and Measure- 
ment of Simple Figures 
Euclidean Geometry 
Trigonometry 
Algebraical Geometry Geometrical Conies 

Kinematics Graf)hic Statics 

Dynamics (including Kinetics, and General Statics). 

Mathematical Physics 
The Theory of Equations Solid Geometry 
The Infinitesimal Calcu- Projective Geometry 
lus 

Mathematics have steadily advanced 
from the days of the Greek mathemati- 
cians. They are cumulative in character, 
^ p2 



212 



MATEICULATE- 



-MELANCHTHON, PHILIPP 



and nothing is lost or wasted. The ad- 
vances made in the past half- century have 
been enormous, and the field still seems 
boundless. Now the more we can intro- 
duce the modern ideas and methods into 
the elements without disturbing the natu- 
ral order as regards inental development 
the greater will be the practical result of 
the diligent study and research which has 
recently enr-iched the science. But teachers 
have a claim on original investigators to 
consider the needs of education, and not 
to cast their conclusions in such a form 
as tends to mystify the uninitiated. The 
rapidity with which new terms are in- 
vented and used, it may be only for a 
time, in such a way as to make the ad- 
vanced parts of the science as a sealed 
book to the mass of students, is not in the 
interests of education and needs to be 
checked. 

Matriculate (matricida, a public roll 
or register), to be enrolled as a member of 
a college or university. The regulations 
for matriculation vary in diflferent univer- 
sities. In some of the teaching univer- 
sities matriculation is a mere form, though 
in others, and especially in those univer- 
sities which are only examining bodies, 
a qualifying exaraination has to be passed 
before candidates for matriculation can be 
accepted. 

Maurice, John Frederick Deimison 
(b. 1805 ; d. 1872), an English theologian 
and educationist, was the son of a Uni- 
tarian minister. Himself a Unitarian, he 
joined the ranks of the Church of England 
in 1829, mainly through the influence of 
Coleridge, repaired to Cambridge to take 
his degree, from which he had hitherto 
been debarred on account of his being a 
nonconformist, and subsequently entered 
orders. Ordained in 1834, he was ap- 
pointed chaplain to Guy's Hospital, Lon- 
don, and became thenceforward a sensible 
factor in the intellectual and social life of 
London. Li 1840 he was nominated to 
the chair of history and literature in 
King's College, London (1840-53), and in 
1846 to that of divinity (1846-53), and 
elected chaplain of Lincoln's Inn ( 1846-60). 
In 1 8 5 3 he publish ed his Theologiccd Essays, 
which were considered to expound certain 
unsound dogmas as to eternal punishment, 
and he was in consequence deprived of his 
chairs in King's College. His residence 
in London was identified with the two 
great movements for the higher educa- 



tion of working people, viz. the Working" 
Men's College, Great Ormond Street, and 
Queen's College for the education of women. 
These colleges are still full of his spirit, 
for Maurice intended to give, not what is 
called a popular education, but a higher 
education, to working men and women, 
and he aimed at combining teachers and 
taught by a bond of common interest. 
He threw himself into all that affected 
the social life of the people, and the im- 
mediate outcome of his teaching was cer- 
tain efforts at a true co-operation among 
working men and the movement known 
as Christian socialism. In 1866 he was 
elected Professor of Moral Philosophy at 
Cambridge. 

Mayo, Dr. See Home and Colonial 
School Society. 

Measles. See Epidemic Diseases. 

Melanchthon, Philipp {h. 1497 ; d. 
1560), the friend of Luther, and the 'Pre- 
ceptor of Germany,' as he was called, is 
remarkable mainly as the many-sided 
polished scholar, and the guide of adult 
minds eager for the new learning of the 
Renaissance. He was educated at Hei- 
delberg and Tiibingen, and from the age of 
twenty- one till his death held the post 
of Professor of Greek at Wittenberg. 
He wrote grammars on Latin, Greek, and 
Hebrew (the Latin grammar ran through 
fifty editions), and many manuals (logic, 
physic, ethics), which are for the most part 
introductions to a better understanding of 
Aristotle, whose exclusive hold on liberal 
education was renewed in Germany for 
another century by his influence. In his 
School Plan the most noticeable feature 
is his strong insistance on the importance 
of grammar and the necessity for learning 
it carefully by heart — a view which has 
widely and disastrously influenced all lan- 
guage-teaching ever since. Startling as 
it may appear, children who could not read 
their mother-tongue are to be taught at 
first nothing but Latin (in Donatus and 
Cato), and music. Greek aiid Hebrew are 
to be added at the university. Eor the 
older boys at school verse composition is 
introduced ; and the masters are to be 
strictly required to converse with their 
pupils in Latin only. There is to be much 
learning by heart of Terence, Plautus, and 
Virgil ; and Cicero's Offices and Letters, 
and Ovid's Metamorphoses are also to be 
read. Religious instruction is, of course, 
not neglected, and one day in the week is 



MEMORY METHOD 



213 



:set apart for Christian instruction and the 
grammatical exposition of 8t. Matthew's 
Gospel. Older boys may read tlie Epistles. 
Through his pupils Trotzendorf and Sturm, 
Melanchthon may be said to have founded 
the classical school-plan, which has lasted 
to our day on his lines, with the addition 
of Greek in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries. The one thing to do at school 
was to learn Latin. His school period, 
however, corresponds to our years at a 
' preparatory ' school ; while in his plan 
for later education he is much more open- 
minded. He lays under contribution all 
the departments of the knowledge of his 
day, and sets forth the conception of a 
truly liberal and many-sided education to 
the utmost limits then possible. 

Memory. — This term indicates the 
mind's power of retaining impressions so 
as to be able to recall them for after use. 
The fundamental property of memory, 
called by psychologists retentiveness, 
underlies all acquisition, whether of know- 
ledge or of moral habit. It is connected 
with a common physiological property of 
animal organisms, by reason of which they 
are modified by, that is, conserve traces of, 
previous activity. In its highest develop- 
ment as the faculty of memory this power 
of retention lies at the base of all learn- 
ing. It is governed by its own laws, chief 
among which are the laws of interest and 
attention, and those of association (see 
Attention and Association). It is one 
of the first powers to be developed, and as 
such claims the teacher's attention at the 
outset. Although in general strong in chil- 
dren, it presents itself with well-marked 
individual differences in respect both of the 
general or average power of retaining, and 
of the retention of special varieties of im- 
pressions and knowledge. The importance 
of the faculty, a,s par excellence the organ of 
learning, has led to an excessive attention 
to it by educators. The memory has been 
cultivated for its own sake, and not, as 
Kant and other recent writers have rightly 
urged, as a necessary support of the higher 
faculty of judgment. Moreover, these 
pains have, as a rule, only been taken 
with one sort of memory, viz. the reten- 
tion of words or the verbal memory. The 
modern movement in educational theory 
has been to a large extent a protest against 
mere rote learning, and a setting a know- 
ledge of things before that of words. The 
cultivation of memory on all sides must 



ever remain a chief part of the teacher's 
work. And it is the recognition of this 
fact that still gives to the problems of ex- 
ercising and improving the memory their 
educational .significance. It is now com- 
monly admitted that though retentiveness 
is a limited force in the case of every in- 
dividual, much may be done to aid and 
improve the memory by appropriate exer- 
cises, by inculcating habits of concentra- 
tion, orderly arrangement of materials, &g. 
(>See Mnemonics). On the nature and 
cultivation of the memory see Dugald 
! Stewart, Ms. of the Phil, of the Htiman 
' Mind, pt. i. chap. vi. ; Bain, Education as 
I a Science, p. 20 and following ; Sully, 
I Teacher's Handbook, chap. ix. and x. with 
references at the end. 
I Mercator. See Mathematical Geo- 

i GRAPHY. 

Merit Grant. See Payment by Re- 
sults. 

Method. — By method (/aeOoSos, /xera and 
oSos) is meant the way in which we pro- 
ceed to attain any object so far as this 
can be formulated in definite rules. Me- 
thod has thus to be distinguished from 
a mere orderly sequence, which may be 
simply a traditional rule-of-tlmmb manner 
of proceeding. Every true art possesses its 
method. In its logical signification method 
may be defined as the art of arranging 
our thoughts, whether for the purpose of 
discovering truth or for that of making 
it known to others. In this sense method 
or methodology is sometimes marked off 
as a special department of logic. This 
double object gives rise to one main dis- 
tinction of method, viz. that of discovery 
and that of instruction. Another distinc- 
tion of method related to this is that 
between the inductive and the deductive 
method, the first of which proceeds by ex- 
amining particular instances and deriving 
the general principle or rule from these, 
whereas the second follows the converse 
order of deducing particular results from 
general principles. {See Deduction and 
Induction.) These two modes of distin- 
guishing method must not be viewed as 
identical. The discovery of truth, though 
to a large extent proceeding by induction, 
requires deduction as a supplementary pro- 
cess. On the other hand, the true method 
of instruction must combine the inductive 
process of detecting general rules through 
and by means of concrete examples with 
the deductive explanation of new facts by 



214 



MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) 



tlie aid of g-oueral truths already leariit. 
Anotlier distiuotion of method related to 
that of iuduetiou and deduetion is that 
known as analysis and synthesis (see 
Analysis). In addition to these funda- 
mental distinetions we tind writers on 
education speaking of other varieties of 
method. Thus we have the contrast be- 
tween the en^pirical and the rational or 
scientitic method [see EmpiktoaljNIetuod) ; 
the distinction between the intuitive or 
concrete and the abstract method, between 
tlie heuristic or inventive and the dogmatic 
metliod. and so fortli. It can easily be 
shown, however, that these distinctions, so 
far as tliey embody a real ditierence of 
logical method, and not merely a difference 
of mode or manner of proceeding, take us 
back to tlie fundamental distinction be- 
tween induction and deduction, that is to 
say. the setting out with concrete fact or 
example and with abstract principle. (See 
Jevons, Ul. Lessons, xxiv. ; Compayre, 
Cours de Pedai^ogie, pt. ii. sec. i. ; Schmidt's 
Enci/clopddie, art. ' Methode.') 

Middle Ag^es (Schools of the).— The 
social conditions iinder which people lived 
in the Middle Ages were such that, ex- 
cept for those intended for ecclesiastical 
offices, education was not only not a neces- 
sity, but even a superfluity. Accordingly 
we should expect to tind that the tirst 
schools bi'ought into existence when Wes- 
tern Europe emerged from its political 
and social convulsions into comparative 
repose would be ecclesiastical in character, 
and that for many years these would be the 
only schools. We should further expect 
to tind that, where the desire for some in- 
tellectual training arose among the laity, 
it would lirst show itself among the lei- 
sured and wealthy classes, in the courts 
of princes and the castles of nobles. 
This natui-al process of development is the 
actual one. Passing over the earlier and 
more spasmodic efforts to train candidates 
for the priestly office, it will be sufficient 
here to start from the first oi'ganised 
effort in this direction made by the great 
founder of Western monasticism, St. Bene- 
dict (480—34:1). The monasteries under 
his rule included ^^-ithin their precincts 
schools — schools in the oldest and widest 
sense of the term, not as now limited in 
the age of the scholars and the range of 
the instruction — where the regiilar clergy 
themselves attended for instruction as 
part of the discipline of the monastery, 



and also where the your.g children and 
youths dedicated by their parents to the 
religious life were pi-epared for the strict 
profession which they would in due course 
adopt. It is natural, and, as far as can 
be gathered, it is the case, that the 
monastic theory of education in those 
times entirely excluded attention to secu- 
lar learning. Gregory the Great (544- 
604), who was such a zealous suppoi'ter 
of the Benedictines, undoubtedly opposed 
any such inclusion ; and the energies of 
Archbishops Theodore and Hadrian, the 
patrons of clerical education in England 
in the seventh century, though vigorously 
directed to the education of both the regu- 
lar and secular clergy, were equally vigo- 
rously directed against the introduction 
of secular learning into their scheme of 
education. Coming to the eighth cen- 
tury, the names of Bishop Aldhelm, hiui- 
self educated at Hadrian's monastic school 
at Canterbury, and ' of the ' Venerable ' 
Bede, also educated at Canterbury after 
passing through the monastic schools at 
Wearmouth and Jarrow, stand out con- 
spicuously as the promoters of education 
in England. The former founded a school 
at Malmesbury, and the latter, the famous 
cathedral school at York, Avhich not only 
opened its doors to the seciilar clergy, but 
also soon expanded its curriculum to in- 
clude the more liberal studies, such as the 
" pagan ' Latin and Greek writers. Here 
Alcuin (735-807), who was not a monk, 
and was a widely-read Greek and Latin 
scholar, was educated, to become the most 
learned man of his age. His reputation 
j was such that Charlemagne sent to York 
to implore his assistance in the efforts tlie 
great king was then making for the re- 
vival of letters in France ; and there is 
no doubt that the monastic and cathedral 
schools founded in France under Alcuin's 
influence have had lasting results upon the 
progress of education all through Western 
Europe. But Charlemagne went further, 
and the next step in the extension of the 
field of learning was reached by his ear- 
nest promotion of lai/ schools. 

Education had become, at last, a desired 
luxury, if not a necessity, for the ruling 
classes ; and Charlemagne instituted the 
palace school, where the children and 
youth of the king and his nobles could 
be pi-epared in all coui'tly accomplishments, 
which were now no longer confined to 
proficiency in the old unintellectual pas- 



MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) 



215 



times, but which included literature, espe- 
cially poetry, music, and the fine arts. 

This step of Charlemagne's marks a 
distinct epoch in the history of education, 
and henceforth we note, by a distinct and 
easy transition, the development of liberal 
education both in England and France, 
the widening of the curriculum in monas- 
tic and cathedral schools themselves, and 
the extension of their advantages to other 
classes of society downwards through the 
social scale. The monasteries and cathe- 
drals added to the scope of their functions 
already named that of training the young 
of the laity residing in their neighbour- 
hoods, now every day growing more and 
more populous. Accordingly we find two 
kinds of schools existing : the internal 
school for the clergy and those preparing 
for the profession, which was situated 
within the precincts of the cloisters ; and 
the external school for the laity, which 
was held in a building outside the monas- 
tery or cathedral proper, but usually 
within its precincts. And then another 
development took place. As monasticism 
declined, and education fell almost ex- 
clusively into the hands of the bishops 
and secular clergy, the range of liberal 
studies became further enlarged, and a 
consequent increase in the complexity of 
school education followed. The disad- 
vantages arising from the training of both 
the young and the adult in the same school 
became increasingly obvious ; and the 
principles of the division of labour and 
centralisation were called into action to 
produce the desired improvement. First 
the bishops, and then, following their ex- 
ample and actuated by similar motives, 
the nobles, founded those schools for the 
more adult students, and for the highest 
education, at Oxford and Cambridge in 
England, at St. Andrews in Scotland and 
elsewhere, which we know under the 
name of Universities, but which still re- 
tain in their local nomenclature the fact 
that they are, in the old sense of the word, 
' schools,' like the ' school at Wittenberg,' 
to which Shakespeare makes Prince Ham- 
let desirous of proceeding. 

The colleges, as places for the resi- 
dence and supervision of the students at- 
tending a university, must be looked upon 
as institutions naturally, but not neces- 
sarily, arising out of the conditions under 
which students from all parts of the coun- 
try attend a central place of instruction. 



The university was the ' school ' in con- 
nection with which each college was the 
' boarding-house.' A university can exist 
without colleges ; it is the cause of their 
existence, not its effect. This conception 
of the university as an institution not in- 
dependent of school, but part of school, 
really the highest and final stage of school, 
is most conspicuously apparent by the ac- 
tion of Bishop William of Wykeham, who 
conceived simultaneously (a.d. 1370) the 
boarding-house and school, comprising his 
college at Winchester for boys up to six- 
teen or seventeen years of age, and the 
boarding-house at Oxford, known as New 
College, for those of his scholars at Win- 
chester who intended completing their 
scholastic studies at that university. The 
whole movement was alike a protest 
against the illiberal conception of school 
fostered by the monks, which had nar- 
rowed, rather than widened, under their 
growing demoralisation, but was also a 
tangible proof of the enlightened convic- 
tion of the bishops that the standard and 
character of the education of the English 
gentleman must be raised more and more 
if he was to fulfil the duties devolving 
upon him. And Bishop Wykeham does 
not stand alone. The same large-minded 
scheme presented itself in the next cen- 
tury to Bishop Chichele, who founded 
All Souls', Oxford, in connection with his 
school at Higham- Ferrers, in Northamp- 
tonshire; to Bishop Waynflete, who 
founded Magdalen College, Oxford, and 
connected with it both Magdalen College 
School at Oxford itself and his Grammar 
School at Waynflete, in Lincolnshire ; 
and notably to Henry YL, who erected 
and endowed within a few years of each 
other King's College at Eton (1441) and 
King's College at Cambridge (1446). 

The movement to meet the educational 
needs of the burgesses and traders in the 
towns — the middle classes, as we now term 
them — comes next in historic order, and 
must be briefly touched upon. This por- 
tion of the community, wholly left out of 
account by the monasteries, was not alto- 
gether lost sight of l;y the cathedral chap- 
ters. The inhabitants of the cathedral 
cities themselves, of course, enjoyed all 
that the learning of the cathedral clergy 
could supply ; but, in some dioceses, the 
cathedral authorities established branch 
or subordinate schools in other towns, 
which were known as collegiate schools. 



216 



MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF THE) 



At the same time it was to the fi-iars, or 
mendicant ordei's, that the trading classes 
are chiefly indebted for the educational 
advantages which reached them by their 
efforts in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
centuries. The work of the Franciscan 
or Dominican was not carried on in the 
retirement of cloisters, but in the busiest 
haunts of men ; and they inspired a reli- 
gious revival in the towns, which created, 
as a necessary consequence, a conscious- 
ness of ignorance and a thirst for know- 
ledge. The trade guilds, organisations 
which had in their inception the sole 
purpose of regulating trade dealings, pro- 
tecting trade interests, settling the condi- 
tions of apprenticeship, and acting as a 
court of appeal in trade disputes, became 
also, under the influence of the friars, 
organisations for spiritual ministration by 
the erection of chantries and the main- 
tenance of preaching friars and secular 
priests, for the offering of masses for the 
faithfvil departed, for the exercise of 
Christian charity towards the aged and 
infirm, and, finally, for the education of 
the young. The guild of Corpus Christi 
at Cambridge is a case in point. Founded 
originally as a purely trade guild in Ed- 
ward I.'s reign, it obtained in Edward IIL's 
reign (1352) letters patent enabling it to 
acquire and manage a house of scholars, 
chaplains, and others, which is now known 
as Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. 
The growing thirst for knowledge among 
the townsfolk reacted upon the friars 
themselves, and they sought admission 
and obtained a welcome at the universities. 
There they applied themselves with ardour 
to the studies of the place, and became 
consummate masters of rhetoric and dia- 
lectics. What knowledge of the physical 
laws of the universe was then possible to 
the world became their inheritance by 
right of earnest and untii^ing intellectual 
effort. Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274), the 
most learned of the ' schoolmen,' and 
Roger Bacon (1214-1292), the greatest 
physicist of the Middle Ages, were both 
friars, while Simon de Montfort (1206- 
1265), who must have been conspicuous 
among his fellows in these early times for 
the keenness of his political instinct, was 
a pupil of the friars. Besides the schools 
above mentioned, the following are some 
of the schools Avhich were in existence at 
the time of the Schools Inquiry Commis- 
sion, 1862-68, and which date their original 



foundation as far back as the Middle Ages : 
— Carlisle {temp. William II.), Derby 
(1160), Huntingdon {temp. Henry II.), 
Salisbury (1319), St. David's (before 1363), 
Hereford (before 1385), Penrith (1395), 
Oswestry {temp. Henry IV.), Sevenoaks 
(1432), Ewelme (1437), Wye (1447), 
Rotherham {temp. Edward TV.). 

It remains to give some account of the 
curriculum of the schools of the Middle 
Ages. The complete course of education 
comprised the seven so-called liberal arts — 
grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, music, arith- 
metic, geometry, and astronomy, the uses 
of which were set forth in the well-known 
lines — 

Gramm loquitur, Dla vera doeet, Bhe verba colorat, 
3Ius canit, Ai- nuuierat, Geo ponderat, ^s colit astra. 

The three first formed the trivium, the 
four last the quadrivium, the whole 
making a course of at least seven yeai's. 
Religion, as a subject of study, is not ex- 
pressly mentioned, because it was univer- 
sally regarded as the object and crown of 
the whole system. But only those monas- 
tic and cathedral schools which were or- 
ganised to do the work now undertaken 
both by the school and the university 
attempted the complete course ; indeed, 
it is doubtful whether the large majority 
even of these schools went beyond the 
trivium, except the select few which made 
it their function to give that special train- 
ing to those of the regular or secular clergy 
who were qualified to receive it, and who, 
as the ' schoolmen ' of the eleventh to the 
fourteenth century, made their names 
famous for their application of Platonic 
and Aristotelian dialectics to their schemes 
of speculative theology. And even of the 
trivium,, the first subject, grammar, princi- 
pally Latin, imparted from the works of 
Priscian and Donatus, was the only one 
taught to the youths of the neighbourhood 
of the monastery or cathedral in the ex- 
ternal schools provided for them. Hence, 
although the term ' grammar school ' does 
not occur in deeds of foundation until 
that of Magdalen College School, founded 
by Bishop Waynflete (1480), yet the re- 
ferences to these scliools in contemporary • 
records contain no allusion to any other 
subject of instruction than grammar, except 
occasionally music, and, in the case of cho- 
rister and cathedral schools, also chanting. 
One other point is worthy of notice — 
all the schools of the Middle Ages, with 
only a few expressly noted exceptions. 



MIDDLE-CLASS SCHOOLS 



217 



gave education gratuitously. Their prin- 
ciple is expressed in the line — 

Discere si cupias, gratis quod quffiiis liabebis. 

The scholars for whom the monastic and 
■cathedral schools Avere provided were of 
no one class in particular, but comprised 
all the children or youth of the neigh- 
bourhood who desired an education based 
•on grammar. Among these would be some 
of all classes, and naturally only a few of 
the labouring classes. But the oppor- 
tunity of education was open to all. In 
some instruments under the seal of the 
founder, as that of Wye, founded by 
Archbishop Kempe in 1447, the school is 
distinctly stated to be ' a college for the 
instruction of youth, gratis, both rich and 
poor.' 

The example thus set by earnest men 
interested in education in the Middle 
Ages was followed by the earliest founders 
of the Reformation and post- Reformation 
periods. The grammar schools of the 
Tudor period, whether revived on the ruin 
and decadence of the monastic schools, or 
newly endowed by the educational zeal 
of the 'Revival of Learning' (q.v.), were 
free schools, in the sense of affording edu- 
cation gi^atuitously. In another way also 
we can trace the influence of the school 
system of the Middle Ages. The grammar 
of the triviiLin was the germ from which 
the humanistic education of our English 
schools, holding the field almost exclusively 
doAATi to our own day, was developed. 
This first of the liberal studies, elaborated 
and perfected by the scholars of the Re- 
formation, constituted the main — it may 
fairly be said the only — educational instru- 
ment for the intellectual training of Eng- 
lishmen for three centuries afterwards. 
An interesting and detailed account of the 
system of endowed schools founded since 
the Reformation may be found in vol. i. 
of the Report of the Schools Inquiry Com- 
missioners, published in 1868. 

Middle-class Schools. — In the year 
1858 a Royal Commission was appointed 
to inquire into the education of boys and 
girls of the labouring class. In 1861 a 
second Commission was appointed to re- 
port on the nine greater public schools 
(q.v.) of the country. These inquiries, 
however, did not cover the whole ground ; 
and so in 1864 a third Royal Commission 
was appointed to inquire into and report 
on all the schools not included in the re- 



ports of the former commissions. The 
work of this third Commission extended 
over the years 1865-67, and the results 
of the investigation appeared in 1868 in 
a Blue-book of twenty volumes. Upon 
this report was founded the ' Endowed 
Schools Act' of 1869, which gave au- 
thority first to the 'Endowed Schools 
Commissioners,' and afterwards to the 
' Charity Commissioners,' to frame new 
schemes for the better working of the 
schools dealt with by the inquiry, and, 
where advisable, to divert to the benefit 
of the schools other endowments not ori- 
ginally educational. The report, amongst 
other things, recommended that the schools 
should be marked off into grades, accord- 
ing to the prevailing type of education to 
be given in each. This type should mainly 
depend upon the length of time the chil- 
dren were allowed by their parents to 
remain at school {Report, vol. i. p. 15). 
The grades recommended were : third- 
grade schools, for those whose education 
is to stop at the age of fourteen or fif- 
teen ; second-grade, for those remaining 
up to sixteen or seventeen ; and first- 
grade, for those continuing their educa- 
tion up to eighteen or nineteen. With 
regard to the second-grade schools the re- 
port advises that they should ' prepare 
youths for business, for several profes- 
sions, for manufactures, for the army, for 
many departments of the Civil Service. 
Many of the farmers, many of . the richer 
shopkeepers, many professional men, all 
but the wealthier gentry, would probably 
wish to have their sons educated in schools 
of this sort, if the education were tho- 
roughly good of its kind.' ' Latin would 
be a necessity in all but a very few of 
these schools, since most of the occupa- 
tions presuppose it in some degree, and 
many of the examinations prescribe it.' 
In addition to Latin, one or two modern 
languages, English literature, and mathe- 
matics (practical), should be taught {ihid. 
vol. i. p. 84). Third-grade schools should 
train boys to become skilled artisans by 
providing them with ' that basis of sound 
general education on which alone tech- 
nical instruction can rest ' (ihid. vol. i. 
p. 79). They would supply the needs of 
artisans, smaller shopkeepers, and smaller 
farmers, and generally of ' the whole of 
the lowest portion of what is commonly 
called the middle class.'' In them should 
be taught reading, writing, arithmetic, 



218 



MILTON, JOHN 



English grammar, English history, either 
some modern language or the elements of 
Latin, drawing, and a little mathematics 
(ibid. vol. i. p. 80). The basis of length 
of time at school on which these grades 
rested was a sound one ; but the division 
between the second and third grades did 
not prove to be rightly placed, either with 
respect to subjects or parents ; and hence 
schools of an intermediate type came more 
into vogue, to which unfortunately the 
title of ' Middle-class Schools ' has com- 
monly been given. After the 'Elemen- 
tary Education Act' of 1871 was passed, 
and schools of the third grade were prac- 
tically handed over to the care of the 
State, the need for middle-class schools 
became greater than ever. In the best 
of these schools Latin is now an optional 
and extra subject, the other subjects be- 
ing : Erench (and sometimes German), 
English language and literature, English 
history, geography, mathematics (prac- 
tical and theoretical), physical scieiice, 
drawing, vocal music, reading, writing, 
and arithmetic. Of late years these 
schools have been and are very largely 
used by the cleverer boys from the ele- 
mentary schools who have passed the fifth, 
sixth, or seventh standard, and their cur- 
riculum and organisation are consequently 
undergoing a new development. (See also 
an excellent pamphlet on Middle-class 
Education, by J. B. Lee, Rivingtons, Is.) 
Milton, John (1608-1674), known to 
his own age chiefly as a vigorous political 
pamphleteer and a learned theological con- 
troversialist, and to all after ages as the 
author of Paradise Lost, has liere to be 
considered only as a schoolmaster; the 
most notable man, we may safely assert, 
who ever pursued the 'homely, slighted 
trade.' It was in 1639, soon after his 
return from Italy, that Milton undertook 
the education and instruction of his sister's 
two sons, John and Edward Phillips, and 
from the younger of his two nephews is 
derived the little that we know directly 
of Milton's practice as a teacher. In 164:0 
he removed from a lodging in St. Bride's 
Churchyard to ' a pretty garden house in 
Aldersgate, 'then almost a suburban quarter 
of London. Here in 1643 he received 
other pupils, ' the sons of some gentlemen 
that were his intimate friends,' so says 
Phillips, who wishes to present his uncle 
as an amateur, not a professional school- 
master. Of the course of studies pursued 



we only know that it was multifarious and 
unremitting, even Sundays being fully oc- 
cupied with divinity lessons. As far as 
numbers went Milton was a successful 
master; in 1645 he had to remove to a 
larger house in Barbican ; but we do not 
know that any of his pupils . attained to 
eminence, and the after career of his two 
nephews must, as Mr. F. D. Maurice re- 
marks, have been one of those bitter dis- 
appointments which attend the life of every 
great I'eformer. But it is with Milton as 
a theorist rather than as a practical school- 
master that we are concerned ; yet it is 
well to bear in mind that though his great 
tract on education seems purely utopian, 
yet it has a basis of personal experience, 
and the methods therein advocated had, 
in part at least, been tested in the school- 
room. The tractate Of Education : to 
Master Samuel Hartlih, Avas first published 
on June 5, 1644. It is described by the 
author as ' that voluntary idea which hath 
long in silence presented itself to me of a 
better education, in extent and compre- 
hension far more large, and yet ofttimes 
far shorter and of attainment far more 
certain than hath been yet in practice.' 
Of such a well known book an analysis 
would be superfluous, and it has been re- 
cently edited for the Pitt Press by Mr. 
O. Browning. All we can here attempt is 
to define Milton's historical position, and 
consider his claims to be numbered among 
educational reformers. In Milton's trac- 
tate we see the advance which even literary 
men nursed on the writings of Greece and 
Rome had made towards the study of 
nature. Unfortunately we have no Eng- 
lish word answering to the German Real- 
isnius, so when we speak of 'I'eal realism' 
and ' verbal realism,' we must explain our 
meaning. The scholars of the Renascence 
turned away from the material world to 
study first the style, then the thoughts, 
of the great writers of antiquity. But 
from Rabelais onwards there was a protest 
raised against this idolatry of the classics, 
and ' things, not woi'ds,' were proposed as 
the true subjects for teaching. But so ac- 
customed was every one to turn to books 
for instruction, that the first i-ealists were 
what the Germans call ' verbal realists,' 
i.e. they would teach indeed about things, 
but for this teaching they would use not 
the things themselves, but books about 
them. Milton shows a great advance on 
the classicists of his day in declaring that 



MILTON, JOHN MISCHIEVOUSNESS 



219 



the learning of languages was in itself use- 
less, and that the scholar might be inferior 
to the unlettered man who knew his mother 
tongue ; but he hardly went so far as Ra- 
belais in recommending the study of actual 
things, and he would use the ancient wri- 
tings to give information which would have 
proved totally out of date and worthless. 
Thus he would incite and enable his pupils 
hereafter to improve the tillage of their 
country by the study of the great authors 
of agriculture, Cato, Varro, and Columella. 
For all that appears in the Tractate, the 
works of Bacon were to Milton a book 
with seven seals. And in the study of 
literature there is the same blind reverence 
for antiquity. Among the poets which 
will be read with care and pleasure are 
third-rate authors, such as Nicander, Op- 
pian, Dionysius; but Chaucer, Spenser, 
and Shakespeare are ignored, and indeed 
the only modern authors recommended are 
those who write of the use of the globes. 
Judged from a modern point of view, the 
Tractate has another and even more radical 
defect. Its chief aim is the communica- 
tion of knowledge, not the training of 
faculty. It inculcates omniscience, and 
there is not a hint of the desirability of 
specialisation, or the duty that is laid on 
every master to study and further the in- 
dividual bent and inclination of his pupils. 
Milton's ideal pupil is equally ready to be 
prime minister, command the Channel fleet, 
and occupy the chair of poetry, rhetoiic, or 
philosophy. Milton takes his own powers 
as the standard of human capacity, and 
would form men in his own image. With 
haughty self-reliance he formulates his own 
scheme of education, and sneers at Modern 
Janua's and Didactics, the two monumental 
works of his great contemporary which 
were revolutionising the art of teaching. 
In spite of these radical defects we shall 
not with Mr. Pattison pronounce the Trac- 
tate valueless as a contribution to educa- 
tional theory, and of purely biographical 
interest. 1. Negatively, as a protest against 
the Public School Education of England, 
which still in a great measure survives, 
its influence has been great. It is the 
armoury whence our modern reformei"s — 
Farrar, Huxley, Seeley, Quick — have bor- 
rowed their keenest shafts. 2. Positively, 
it sets before the teacher a noble, if some- 
what vague and shadowy ideal. Even Mr. 
Pattison allows that Milton's definition of 
education has never been improved upon : 



' I call a complete and generous education 
that which fits a man to perform justly, 
skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, 
both private and public, of peace and war.' 
3. Although the intellectual curriculum 
he proposes is absurdly ambitious on the 
one hand, and pedantically narrow on the 
other, as deriving all knowledge from the 
medium of books, yet Milton was the first 
of the moderns to insist on the co-ordina- 
tion of physical, moral, mental, and aesthetic 
training. ' The best teachers of the present 
day may well have the same object at heart ; 
and they need not be ashamed to learn from 
a man who may have made a thousand mis- 
takes, but who nevertheless had a wisdom 
and a righteousness of purpose in him 
which the best and truest living will most 
delight to honour and to possess.' (From 
notes of an unpublished lecture by F. D. 
Maurice, delivered before the Royal In- 
stitution.) 

Mind (Science of). See Psychology. 

MiscMevousness. — This term refers to 
the disposition to do harm rather from 
carelessness and wantonness than from 
any malicious motive. A large part of 
children's mischievousness springs out of 
their destructive propensities. That the 
love of destruction is a strong force in the 
yotmg and in the untamed adult, is a fact 
of everyday observation. When the brutal 
instinct is clearly present in a boy's mischie- 
vous act, as when he breaks a thing in a fit 
of passion, the action is a proper subject for 
reprehension, and, if need be, for punish- 
ment. At the same time the moral edu- 
cator must be careful to distinguish savage 
destruction from the more venial mis- 
chievousness which springs from mere 
exuberance of activity and high spirits. 
It is to be remembered, too, that a good 
deal of children's mischief-making is the 
outcome of curiosity and the natural im- 
pulse to experiment with things. As a 
quality whose moral gravity cannot safely 
be estimated by the amount of incon- 
venience it causes others, mischievousness 
requires very careful handling. No doubt 
the child must be trained to see the con- 
sequences of his wanton acts ; but full 
allowance must be made for the absence of 
intention. Much the same line of remark 
applies too to that form of mischief which, 
though involving an intention to provoke, 
springs out of childish roguishness or a love 
of fun. A wise parent, or teacher will 
often prefer to pass by such mischief alto- 



220 



MIXED EDUCATION MODERN LANGUAGES 



gether than to run the risk of betraying 
personal annoyance by inflicting an exces- 
sive penalty. {See Locke, Thoughts on 
Education, §116; also article ' Unart/ 
in Schmidt's Encyclojoddie.) 

Mixed Education. — The education of 
students of both sexes together. {See 
Provincial Colleges.) 

Mixed Schools. See Classification. 

Mnemonics (from Gr. (jlv^imt], memory) 
is the art of assisting the memory by defi- 
nite rules. Various devices have been 
proposed in ancient and modern times for 
facilitating the retention and reproduction 
of what is learnt. These refer to verbal 
retention, as in learning ofi'a speech, a series 
of names, &c. The underlying principle 
of the classical mnemonic system was the 
association of the consecutive heads of a 
verbal composition with the divisions of 
an extended surface or enclosed space, as 
the compartments of a building, so that 
when the eye or the imagination ran over 
these, the order of their arrangement in 
space would at once suggest the order in 
time of the words. It is now commonly 
recognised that these devices can have but 
a very limited value, and are likely to be 
a hindrance rather than a help in certain 
cases. In modern educational systems 
verse-form, rhyme, and alliteration, to- 
gether with the investing of disconnected 
matter, e.g. list of exceptions to a gram- 
matical rule, with the semblance of a con- 
nected meaning, have commonly been re- 
sorted to for the purpose of aiding the 
memory. The utility of presenting verbal 
material, such as the chief events of a 
reign, in a visible form by means of a dia- 
gram, is well known to every teacher. All 
such contrivances depend for their efficiency 
on the working of the Laws of Association, 
Contiguity, and Similarity, apart or in 
combination {see Association). It is in- 
disputable that we all instinctively tend 
to shorten the process of memorising by 
a number of such ingenious devices, and 
these may properly be made use of by the 
teacher. At the same time, great care 
must be taken lest, by an excessive use of 
these, the learner lapse into a mechanical 
way of learning. It is a far better exer- 
cise for the mind, and for the memory too, 
to associate things to be learnt by their 
natural ties, rather than by artificial ones. 
And a truly scientific management and 
control of memory will consist in forming 
.a habit of concenti'atinc: the mind on the 



subject matterto belearnt, of judiciously se- 
lecting important points, and arranging the 
whole with reference to these, and finally 
of making the fullest use of the laws of 
association in linking part with part, and 
the whole with what is already known. {See 
D. Stewart. Els. of the Phil, of the Human 
Mind, chap. vi. § 7 ; Sully, Teacher's Hand- 
hook, p. 203, &c. ; and Encycl. Brit., art. 
'Mnemonics.') 

Moderations ('Mods '). — The public ex- 
amination at Oxford before the masters of 
the schools, which has to be passed by 
successful candidates for the Bachelor's 
degree between responsions or 'smalls' 
(which corresponds to the Cambridge Pre- 
vious Examination, or 'Little Go') and 
the second public examination before the 
public examiners. 

Modern Languages. — Modern or liv- 
ing languages are so named in opposition 
to ancient and dead languages, the most 
important of which from a scholastic 
point of view are the so-called classical 
languages of ancient Greece and Rome 
— the Greek {q.v.) and Latin {q.v.) — 
and the Hebrew, in which the Old 
Testament or religious literature of the 
ancient Israelites is written. The in- 
trinsic value of a living language and its 
educational importance may be deter- 
mined by the following tests : (1) whether 
it is the key to a great literature, (2) 
whether it is spoken by a numerous more 
or less civilised population, and is there- 
fore useful for the purposes of commerce, 
and industry, or diplomacy. The modern 
tongues answering these tests are very 
few as compared with the total number 
of living languages. They are divisible 
into two great sections, (1) the Western 
or Occidental, and (2) the Eastern or 
Oriental languages. Of the latter sec- 
tion, including Arabic, Turkish, Persian, 
Chinese, Japanese, and the languages of 
Hindostan (Hindostani, Bengali, Hindi, 
Telugu, Tamil, Burmese, &.C.), nothing fur- 
ther requires to be said in this place, as 
their study is not comprised within the 
ordinary curriculum of elementary or se- 
condary English schools. The Occidental 
languages comprise the languages of the 
nations of modern Europe and their nu- 
merous colonies in North and South 
America, Africa, and Australia. Of these 
the most important are : — 

I. The Teutonic Family (daughters of 
the Gothic) : 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



221 



(a) English. 

(b) German. 

(c) Danisli and Norwegian. 

(d) Swedish. 

(e) Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, &c, 

II. The Grteco- Romanic Family (daugh- 
ters of the Latin and Greek) : 

(a) French. 
(6) Italian, 

(c) Spanish. 

(d) Portuguese. 

(e) Roumanian. 
(/) Modern Greek. 

III. The Slavonic Family : 

(a) Russian. 

(b) Ruthenian or Little Russian. 

(c) Polish. 

(d) Czech. 

(e) Serbian. 

(f) Bulgarian, Slovenian, &c. 

In addition to the preceding, the 
modern European tongues include : 
lY. The Celtic Family : 

(a) Welsh. 

(b) Gaelic. 

(c) Erse. 

(d) Manx. 

(e) Armorican. 

y. The Lithuanian and Lettish. 
VI. The Albanian, spoken by the 
Arnauts in the centre of the Balkan 
Peninsula. 

The foregoing six groups represent 
the modern European section of the great 
family of languages known as the Aryan 
or Indo-European. 

Of non-Aryan tongues there are spoken 
in Europe : the Finnish, Hungarian, and 
Esthonian, belonging to the Altai-TJgrian 
Family ; the Turkish ; the unclassifiable 
Basque, the ancient language spoken in 
Northern Spain and the neighbouring dis- 
tricts of South- Western France ; the lan- 
guage of the Laplanders, and some other 
dialects of minor importance. 

Of all the living languages of Europe 
there are only six that can on various 
grounds claim to be regarded as of un- 
questionably first-rate importance, to wit, 
English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, 
and Russian. Five of them are politically 
important as the native tongues and State 
languages of the six great Powers. All are 
commercially important as the languages 
spoken by races numbering from thirty 
to forty millions in the case of Italian and 
Spanish, about forty-five millions in the 
case of French, sixty millions in the case 



of German (including the Germans of 
Austria and Switzerland) and Russian, 
and one hundred millions in the case of 
English (including the United Kingdom, 
the United States, and other Anglo-Saxon 
colonies). In these languages, too, almost 
all that is valuable in modern literature 
is written, and each contains a special and 
valuable literature of its own. In the 
conventional phraseology of the scholastic 
profession in England, however, the term 
' modern languages ' is generally used in a 
still more restricted sense, and is under- 
stood to mean, not the mother tongue, but 
only two, or at the most three, foreign 
living languages, namely, French, German, 
and Italian. 

French, Gerinan, and Italian. — Leav- 
ing, therefore, the English laxiguage, which 
is dealt with in a separate article (q.v.), we 
shall proceed to deal with the chief foreign 
living languages usually taught in English 
schools. 

The possession of a competent know- 
ledge of a foreign living language — the 
ability, we mean, to speak, to read, to write 
it, and to translate it accurately, within the 
limits of ordinary non-technical discourse — 
is an accomplishment of high and often in- 
dispensable value, whether for the purposes 
of commerce, of literary and artistic culture, 
of travel and international intercourse, or 
of diplomacy and other professional pur 
suits. This fact is now so universally ac- 
knowledged that it would be unnecessary, 
even if our space permitted, to attempt to 
prove it in detail. The disadvantages of 
a total ignorance of foreign languages are 
keenly felt from the moment one steps on 
foreign soil to the moment one leaves it. 
The advantages of linguistic attainments, 
on the other hand, are every day illustrated 
by the increasing employment of foreigners, 
to the detriment of Englishmen, in all our 
great commercial centres, and in all posi- 
tions in which a knowledge of a foreign lan- 
guage (French, German, Spanish, or Rus- 
sian) is indispensable. The notion that 
foreigners have a talent for the acquisition 
of foreign tongues not possessed by Eng- 
lishmen is, we may parenthetically ob- 
serve, a pure hallucination. The class of 
foreigners who best succeed in the way 
above mentioned in England are Germans, 
and it is only because (1) the Germans in 
their own country devote to the gramma- 
tical and oral study of tongues not their 
own, years of dogged, persistent labour, 



222 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



and because (2) the methods of teaching 
in German schools are superior, that Ger- 
mans become more accomplished linguists 
than Englishmen. No doubt the want of 
success of young Englishmen in this branch 
of knowledge is in no small degree attri- 
butable to the repeated disappointments 
and false notions arising from the pro- 
mises of charlatan professors who under- 
take to teach a foreign language in 'twelve 
easy lessons of an hour each.' But how 
any rational English student, who, how- 
ever old he may be, is aware that he does 
not yet even know his own language per- 
fectly, can be deceived by such impostures 
it is difficult to understand. Not only in 
commerce are linguistic attainments of 
very material value, but in diplomacy, 
and some other professions connected with 
literature, science, and the arts, a knowledge 
of one or more foreign living languages is 
the conditio sine qud nan, the indispens- 
able qualification for admission to the most 
distinguished and lucrative positions. 

The value of the study of language as 
a mental discipline has been highly es- 
teemed in all ages, and indeed cannot be 
over-estimated, except whenit is permitted 
to exclude all other subjects of study, or 
to prevent a due share of attention being 
devoted to the mathematical and physical 
sciences. Hitherto in England this train- 
ing has been sought almost exclusively in 
the study of the classical or dead lan- 
guages — a choice justified by the fact that 
those tongues are the repository of the 
laws and literature, the history and the 
philosophy, of the two great peoples who 
laid the foundations of European civilisa- 
tion, and further by the fact that those 
tongues are the parents of all the Romance 
languages, and have supplied all the modern 
Western languages with almost all their 
vocabularies of art, science, politics, and 
philosophy. It is now generally admitted, 
however, that the attention devoted to 
Latin and Greek in the leading English 
public schools is excessive. The classics, 
in fact, have been allowed to monopolise 
an amount of time and labour out of all 
proportion, not only to their educational 
value, but to the period spent at school, 
to the ordinary length of human life, and 
even to the value of their literatures for 
the purposes of purely liberal culture. 

The educational value of linguistic 
study depends very largely on the correct- 
ness of the method of teaching, and in this 



point living languages have in England 
always had an advantage over those of 
antiquity. Modern languages are far more 
generally taught in a natural and rational 
manner than the dead tongues, and their 
utility, when properly taught, as a means 
of training pupils to think and to employ 
words with accuracy in the expression of 
thought is, in the opinion of some autho- 
rities, in no way inferior to Greek and 
Latin. 

French. — By reason of its prevailing 
clearness in point of grammatical construc- 
tion and logical analysis, and of the trea- 
sures of its literature, the French language, 
when rationally taught, is capable of being 
made a very effective instrument for train- 
ing the mental faculties of the student. On 
somewhat different grounds this may also 
be affirmed of German and Italian. For 
English youth the study of French is not 
only an indispensable part of a really liberal 
education, but it has peculiar claims on at- 
tention, (1) because since the Norman Con- 
quest the histories of England and France 
are so intimately connected with each other; 
(2) because the French language has ex- 
ercised so profound an influence in modi- 
fying the English tongue, both in its 
grammatical, and especially in its lexico- 
logical elements ; and (3) because the two 
nations, owing to their proximity to one 
another, are brought into closer and more 
constant intercourse, and exercise a more 
potent influ.ence on one another by the ex- 
change of ideas, as well as of commodities, 
than any other two independent nations 
in Europe. The characteristic style and 
spirit of the French form a strong recom- 
mendation to its study. No other tongue, 
ever spoken or written, is clearer or more 
logical in construction, or presents such a 
perfection or finish in style ; nor is there 
any other language whose analytical and 
synthetical study is more beneficial as a 
training in the accurate expression of 
thought. In this respect French is much 
preferable to German, as writers in the 
latter language, though often more pro- 
found, are seldom so perspicuous as the 
French. The French is, moreover, the 
easiest foreign language for an English- 
man to learn. It has given to the English 
tongue so many of its words, and of its 
formative or word-building elements, that 
a large portion of French grammatical 
forms and vocables are already familiar to 
English beginners. It is true that France 



MODERN LANGUAGES 



223 



and the French owe their name to the 
German conquerors of old Gaul, the Franks ; 
but though the language contains a number 
of traces of the speech of this Teutonic 
tribe, yet it is marvellous how small is the 
proportion of words and forms thus de- 
rived. Of the old Celtic language of Gallia 
the proportion existing in modern French 
is still smaller, hardly more than of the 
•old British in modern English. Both in its 
vocabulary and in its grammatical forms 
French is a daughter of the Latin, with, 
however, a considerable addition of words, 
chiefly scientific and philosophical, coming 
from the Greek. As to the history of the 
French language, it arose out of the lingua 
Bomana ricstica, the dialect of Latin spoken 
in Gaul, where in the tenth century it 
finally prevailed over the language of the 
ruling Frankish race ; but chiefly by the 
modifications they introduced French be- 
came distinguished as the lingua Jrancica 
or Jrancisca, otherwise the langue d'dil 
(oui), both from the Provencal, the langue 
d'oG, and from the Italian, the langue de si. 
The langue d'o'il, the dialect of Northern 
France, became the language of the law, 
of the court, and of literature, under 
Francis I., who reigned from a.d. 1494 to 
1547. The Provencal, or langue d'oc, is 
still the spoken dialect of Southern France. 
On the decline of Latin, as the medium of 
intercourse between scholars of different 
nations, French began to take its place, 
and in the department of diplomacy, and 
for the purposes of travel and international 
intercourse, French has for the past two 
centuries held undisputed pre-eminence. 
It has in fact been, and still is employed as, 
the quasi-universal language of the polite 
and educated classes of allEuropean nations. 
German. — In spite of the fact that 
German and English are far more closely 
related to each other than either to French, 
the first mentioned tongue is found I'^'ss 
easy of acquisition than the last by Eng- 
lish students. This is partly due to the 
retention of the old ' Black Letter,' the 
so-called German characters. Almost all 
other civilised peoples have long abandoned 
that variety of type for the far more legible 
and elegant Roman alphabet. The greatest 
German scholars, like the Brothers Grimm, 
long advocated in vain the entire aban- 
donment of the former in favour of the 
latter. Fortunately this reform is gra- 
dually being introduced in modern scien- 
tific works, but the movement generally 



is making but slow progress, although all 
German children are taught both alpha- 
bets at school. Another more serious diffi- 
culty the German presents to English 
learners is the elaborate inflexional deve- 
lopment and the complicated grammatical 
structure of the language. In the matter 
of style ordinary German compares most 
unfavourably with French.' The one fault 
which is not forgiven in a French writer 
is inelegance and want of clearness of ex- 
pression. The one virtue of a German 
writer is to be, or at least to appear, pro- 
found. A German who writes anything 
approaching to a clear and easy style is 
apt by his fellow-countrymen to be deemed 
a charlatan. The effect of these perverted 
notions is that in no other modern language 
is there so much slovenly writing. Ger- 
many has within the past century produced 
a larger number of profound scholars — 
men of deeper research in every depart- 
ment of literature and science — than any 
other country of the woi'ld ; but German 
scholars habitually neglect the study of 
style, and the consequence is that while 
the press of Germany year by year turns 
out double or treble as many publications 
as either England or France, there are 
relatively far fewer additions to permanent 
literature — fewer works that will live — 
produced by German than by contempo- 
rary French and English writers. German 
works are, accordingly, more generally 
valuable for their substance, French for 
their style, and hence it would be difficult 
to over-estimate the value of the study of 
French as a supplement and corrective to 
that of German. 

Methods of Teaching. — The ease and 
rapidity with which a language may be ac- 
quired, and the value of the study as a 
discipline of the mental faculties, depend 
mainly if not exclusively on the correct- 
ness of the method of teaching. There is 
proverbially no royal road to learning, or 
in other words no sound progress can be 
made in any department of knowledge 
without steady application, without sus- 
tained concentration of attention, without 
resolute devotion — in a word, without hard 
mental labour. But there is a right way 
as well as a wrong way in going about the 
work of learning a foreign tongue, and a 
given amount of mental effort under a 
correct method of teaching will produce 
incomparably superior results to many 
times the labour under a perverse method. 



224 



MODERN LANGUAGES MODERN SCHOOLS 



In the teaching of languages the correct 
method is indicated by the nature of the 
subject. All speech is something essen- 
tially oral, and no language, living or dead, 
can be soundly or profitably taught, espe- 
cially to beginners, where this fundamental 
characteristic is ignored. At the outset a 
language should always be taught by word 
of mouth. The pupils should learn first 
to recognise simple names or short sen- 
tences by ear ; secondly, to repeat the same 
with their own tongue, and not till then 
should they be taught to write them down, 
to spell, and to read them. The correct 
mode of teaching languages is by what is 
called the inductive method. It proceeds 
from particular instances to general rules, 
and not till the student has gathered the 
rules for himself from concrete examples, 
should he proceed to apply them deduc- 
tively or synthetically in forming new ex- 
amples. The vice of the old style of teaching 
the dead languages arises from the fact 
that the first half of this process is either 
wholly or partially omitted, and the pupil 
is hurried on to the second half without 
the indispensable real knowledge that can- 
not be gathered otherwise than by going 
thoroughly through the former process. 
Oral teacliing, familiarising the ear, the 
tongue, the eye, and the hand with each 
individu.al word, and every separate model 
in words and sentences, is the indispensable 
foundation of sound teaching in this de- 
partment of education. The rules of acci- 
dence as well as of syntax are to be ga- 
thered by the pupil one by one from the 
comparison of a sufficient selection of model 
words and sentences, and in each case he 
must be required to use the knowledge he 
has thus gained by its deductive appli- 
cation in the formation of fresh examples 
without further aid. Thus introduced to 
the study, the pupil will find the work 
attractive, and he will make sound and 
rapid progress, while under the vicious 
system too frequently in vogue with Latin 
and Greek, the labour becomes repulsive, 
and he wastes the best years of his youth 
without making a tithe of the progress he 
would have done under the natural and 
rational method of instruction above in- 
dicated. Wherever any progress, in fact, 
has been made in the pedagogic art, it will 
be found that as regards the teaching of 
languages, native or foreign, the improve- 
ment is in principle always reducible to 
the introduction of the inductive method, 



or its application in some improved form— 
the system of rising from particular cases 
to general rules at once followed up with 
the deductive employment of the rules in 
oral and written exercises. 

With regard to the teachers who have 
been successful in the department of foreign 
tongues, the names of Hamilton, Ollen- 
dorff, and Ahn, and others may be men- 
tioned as owing their success to the adoption,, 
though but in a more or less incomplete 
form, of theinductivemethod. Themanuals 
of Mr. Prendergast, the so-called Mastery 
Se7'ies, may also be mentioned as very effi- 
cient introductions to the severallanguages 
to which the system has been applied. 
The various German schoolbooks of Herr 
Karl J. Plotz, which are also mainly founded 
on the correct method, likewise deserve the 
attention of English teachers, as amongst 
the most successful of their class in Ger- 
many during the past generation. Dr. 
Otfco's grammars, and the Toussaint-Lan- 
genscheidt series will also be found among 
the best recent manuals published in Ger- 
many. See ai-ticles Prendergast, Pa- 
rallel Grammars, and Mr. Colbeck's Lec- 
tures on the Teaching of Modern Languages. 

Modern Schools, or Sides. — Modern 
sides may practically be considered ta 
have originated in Dr. Arnold's opening 
the doors of Rugby (somewhere about the 
year 1830) to the subjects of modern his- 
tory and geography, modern languages, 
and mathematics, which had long cla- 
moured for admission into the curricula 
of public schools. It is true that Dr. Ar- 
nold set no veiy great store by these sub- 
jects; but, nevertheless, under his rule 
they obtained a recognised footing on the 
list of studies. Since his time, the public 
demand for 'modern' subjects has con- 
tinually increased; and in the Endowed 
Schools Commission Report of 1868, re- 
ceived a still more authoritative sanction. 
In that report the Commissioners recom- 
mend that in schools of the First Grade 
(i.e. classical schools) opportunity should 
be given for the advanced study of modern 
lano-uaofes, and mathematics, or science. 
The introduction of these ' modern subjects 
into most, if not all, of our public schools 
has rendered the organisation of modern 
sides or schools necessary. As a rule, the 
modern side is distinct from the classical 
side as far as regards school-work. The 
boys on the modern side do no Greek, and 
somewhat less Latin than those on the 



MODS 



-MONITORIAL SYSTEM 



225 



classical side. They also learn French, 
German, mathematics, and generally some 
physical science (usually chemistry), a 
little history (usually of Greece and Rome), 
sometimes a little geography, and occa- 
sionally a little English literature. Up 
till quite lately, no boy of any marked 
ability had much chance of being allowed 
to go on to the modern side, that side 
being reserved for the incapable and back- 
ward. But since the universities of Ox- 
ford and Cambridge have more distinctly 
recognised 'modern' subjects, it is not 
wholly improbable that the Public Schools 
{q.v.) will before long treat these subjects 
with greater respect. The subjects taught 
on a ' modern side ' are almost exactly those 
recommended by the Report of 1868 for 
second-gradeschools, (see Mid.-class Schools). 
Occasionally second-grade schools organised 
on the lines of this report are termed 
' modern schools.' 

* Mods.' See Moderations. 

Monastic Schools. See Middle Ages 
(Schools of the). 

Monitorial System. — The rival preten- 
sions of Lancaster and Bell to the honour 
of discovering the monitorial system oc- 
cupied a very large share of public atten- 
tion, and provoked a controversy which 
was carried on with much bitterness. Had, 
however, Lancaster and Bell been students 
of the literature of pedagogy they would 
have known that the discovery on which 
they prided themselves was already more 
than a hundred and fifty years old. In a 
work so well known as the Didactica 
Magna, Comenius distinctly advocates the 
division of a school into classes of ten 
(which he calls decuriae) and the putting 
of each class under one of the best boys 
(whom he calls a decurio). Still, though 
Dr. Bell (6. at St. Andrews, 1753) was not 
the first to discover a monitorial system, he 
undoubtedly did adopt such a system, 
during his superintendence of the Military 
Orphan Asylum at Madras. Hence his 
system is sometimes called the Madras 
system. In 1797 he published an account 
of it. It was the unwillingness of adult 
teachers to carry out his wishes that led 
Bell to employ boy teachers. Southey 
tells how the idea first occurred to him. 
' Happening on one of his morning rides 
to pass by a Malabar school he observed 
the children seated on the ground, and 
writing with their fingers in sand which 
had for the purpose been strewn before 



them. He hastened home repeating to 
himself as he went ^vpqKa, "I have dis- 
covered it," and gave immediate orders to 
the usher of the lowest class to teach the 
alphabet in the same manner, with this 
difierence only from the Malabar mode, 
that the sand was strewn upon a board. 
These orders were either disregarded, or so 
carelessly executed as if they were thought 
not worth regarding; and after frequent 
admonitions and repeated trials made with- 
out either expectation or wish of succeed- 
ing, the usher at last declared that it was 
impossible to teach the boys in that way. 
If he had acted on this occasion in good 
will, and with merely common ability. 
Dr. Bell might never have cried Evp-qKa a 
second time. But he was not a man to be 
turned from his purpose by the obstinacy 
of others, nor to be bafSed in it by their 
incapacity ; baffled, however, he was now 
sensible that he must be if he depended 
for the execution of his plans on the will 
and ability of those over whose minds he 
had no command. He bethought himself 
of employing a" boy on whose obedience, 
disposition, and cleverness he could rely, 
and giving him charge of the alphabet 
class. The lad's name was John Frisken ; 
he was then about eight years old. Dr. 
Bell laid the strongest injunction upon him 
to follow his instructions, saying he should 
look to him for the success of the simple 
and easy method which was to be pursued 
and hold him responsible for it. What 
the usher had pronounced to be impossible 
this lad succeeded in effecting without any 
difficulty. The alphabet was now as much 
better taught, as till then it had been 
worse than any other part of the boys' 
studies, and Frisken, in consequence, was 
appointed permanent teacher of the class. 
Though Dr. Bell did not immediately per- 
ceive the whole importance of this suc- 
cessful experiment, he proceeded in the 
course into which he had been, as it were, 
compelled. . . .Accordingly, he appointed 
boys as assistant-teachers to some of the 
lower classes, giving, however, to Frisken 
the charge of superintending both the 
assistants and their classes. . . .The same 
improvement was now manifested in *-hppp 
classes as had taken place in teaching the 
alphabet. . . .Even in this stage he felt 
confident that nothing more was wanting 
to bring the school into such a state as he 
had always proposed to himself, than to 
carry through the whole of the plan upon 

Q 



226 



MONTAIGNE, MICHEL EYQUEM DE 



which he was now proceeding. And this, 
accordingly, was done. The experiment 
which, from necessity, had been tried at 
first with one class was systematically 
extended to all the others in progression. . . 
As to any purposes of instruction the 
master and ushers were now virtually 
superseded.' [See Southey's Life of Bell, 
i. 173.) 

Lancaster (h. Kent St., Southwark, 
1778) began to make use of monitors 
about 1800, and in 1803 he published an 
account of his plan. He did not deny 
that Bell had anticipated him, but he 
claimed, nevertheless, the credit of being 
a discoverer, in that he had employed 
monitors before he had ever heard of Bell 
or of his work. Speaking of the doctor's 
pamphlet, he remarks : ' From this tract I 
got several useful hints. I beg leave to 
recommend it to the attentive perusal of 
the friends of education and youth. I 
much regret that I was not acquainted 
with the beauty of his system till some- 
what advanced in my plan: if I had 
known it, it would have spared me much 
trouble and some retrograde movemerits.' 
Lancaster, in his first letter to Bell — a 
letter asking for counsel and help — says : 
* In puzzling myself what to do, I stumbled 
on a plan similar to thine,' and the doctor, 
in a perfectly friendly reply, did not dispute 
the claim. 

The distinguishing features of Lancaster's 
plan are, to quote his own words : 1. ' That 
by his system of order and rewards, together 
with the division of the school into classes, 
and the assistance of monitors, one master 
is able to conduct a school of one thousand 
children.' 2. ' That by printing a spelling 
book or any other lessons for reading in a 
large type. . . .they may, when suspended 
with a nail against the wall, be read by a 
number of children, a method whereby one 
book will serve for a whole school. 3. The 
introduction of slates and dictation, 'a 
method whereby five hundred boys may 
spell and write the same word at the same 
instant of time.' 4. ' An entire new method 
■of instruction in arithmetic, whereby any 
<!hild who can read may teach arithmetic 
with the utmost certainty.' 5. 'Cheapness 
— seven shillings a year for each child in a 
school of three hundred, and four shillings 
a child for a greater number.' The system, 
whether of Bell or of Lancaster, was built 
on the assumption that a child who knows 
nothing of the art of teaching, and next 



to nothing of the subject to be taught, can 
be an efficient instructor, and it was, be- 
sides, weak in a hundred details. Yet it 
was of real service to the cause of education, 
for it made schools very cheap. Urged 
by the British and Foreign School Society 
and the National Society, benevolent per- 
sons all over the country established and 
maintained schools which it would have 
been impossible to establish or maintain at 
the present rate of expenditure. Further- 
more, when the State resolved to subsidise 
elementary education, these schools were 
ready to receive aid at once, and could 
thus be brought into a satisfactory condi- 
tion sooner than new schools. We should 
also remember that monitors developed 
easily into pupil-teachers, and that the 
pupil-teacher system has produced the 
most skilful body of instructors the country 
possesses. (See Brief Sketch of the Life 
of Joseph Lancaster, by William Corston, 
London, 1840; LmjoroveTuentsin Education, 
by Joseph Lancaster, London, 1803 ; Out- 
lines of a Plan for Educating Ten Thou- 
sand Poor Children, by Joseph Lancaster, 
London, 1806; A Cojnparative View of 
the Plans of Dr. Bell and Mr. Lancaster, 
by Joseph Fox, London, 1808.) 

Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de (1533- 
1592), the essayist, lived in what Milton 
calls 'the scholastic grossness of barbarous 
ages,' ' ragged notions and babblements,' 
and when the Humanistic movement among 
the leaders of thought in Europe began to 
tell upon the education of youth. His 
father, a gentleman of private estate in 
the province of Guienne (of English de- 
scent), had notions of his own as to the 
education of youth, and Montaigne's own 
views on the education of the young are very 
much a reflex of his own experience and 
character. Put in the shortest form, Mon- 
taigne's idea of the end of education is, 
that a man should be trained up to the 
use of his own reason. ' A man can never 
be wise save by his own wisdom.' The 
end of education must ever be kept in view, 
and that end is to train to right reason 
and independent judgment, to moderation 
of mind, and to virtue. Montaigne's edu- 
cated man is the cultivated and capable 
man of afiairs, capable of managing his 
own business well, and of discharging pub- 
lic duties wisely. ' The most difficult and 
most important of all human arts is edu- 
cation,' he says. Lessons of philosophy in 
their simple and practical form are to be 



MORAL EDUCATION MORAL SENSE 



227 



inculcated from the very first. Ethical 
training, consisting of virtue and wisdom, 
is the main purpose of education. The 
ordinary subjects of reading, writing, and 
casting accounts are to be taught, of course. 
After this, whatever you teach, avoid words 
simply as words. ' The world is nothing 
but babble. . . . We are kept four or five 
years to learn nothing but words and to 
tack them together into clauses ; as many 
more to make exercises, and to divide a 
continued discourse into so many parts ; 
and other five years at least to learn suc- 
cinctly to mix and interweave them after 
a subtle and intricate manner. Let us 
leave this to the learned professors ! ' Ver- 
nacular and modern languages must be 
taught. Then ' the pupil may be admitted 
to the elements of geometry, rhetoric, logic, 
and physics ; and then the exercises which 
his judgment most ajQTects he will generally 
make his own.' History should not be 
neglected. Besides moral and intellectual 
instruction, there should also be physical 
instruction ; for, ' 'tis not a soul, 'tis not a 
body we are training only, but a man, and 
we ought not to divide him.' Efieminacy 
in food and clothes, or habits, ought to be 
eschewed. All instruction must be essen- 
tially ethical and humanistic. It should 
be added that, like Milton and Locke, 
Montaigne thinks only of the education of 
the sons of gentlemen. The best editions 
of Montaigne's works are those of Coste 
(3 vols. 4to., London, Tonson, 1724) and of 
Le Clere (5 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1826-28). 

Moral Education. — This forms one of 
the main divisions of mental culture {see 
Education, Theory of). It includes the 
proper development of the active powers 
and the will, together with the feelings so 
far as they are involved in volition, with 
the view of rendering the individual an 
efficient and good citizen. Such a result 
can only be obtained by the formation of 
independent moral habits, which again 
involve fixed internal dispositions towards 
what is right, or what Kant calls a good 
will. This building up of good habits 
and a moral character necessarily begins 
with the exercise of authority and the 
enforcement of discipline. A habit of 
obedience is the first element of character. 
This discipline must, however, be followed 
by a training of the will to a free and in- 
telKgent submission to the requirements 
of the moral law. Moral education is 
the crowning phase of all education {see 



article Kant). It includes at once the 
training of the intellect to clear discern- 
ment, the exercise of the feelings in 
worthy forms of manifestation, and the 
stimulating of the will to right action. 
Of the agencies to be employed here, 
moral instruction through concrete exam- 
ples drawn from real life and from books 
counts as an important one. A large in- 
fluence must be assigned to the educator's 
own moral example, which works through 
the impulse of imitation. Finally the moral 
educator, whether parent or teacher, must 
recognise the powerful influence of com- 
panions in forming the moral character, 
and control these so far as possible with 
a view to the furtherance of moral educa- 
tion. Cf. articles Discipline and Obedi- 
ence. (On the ends of moral education 
see Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, pt. i. ; 
on the methods of moral instruction see 
Locke, Thoughts, § 32 following ; Miss 
Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap, 
vi.-xi. ; H. Spencer, Education, chap. iii. ; 
Dr. Bain, Education as Science, chap, 
xii.; and Compayre, Cours de Pedagogic, 
lee. 2.) 

Moral Sense. — This is the name com- 
monly given to the faculty which we exer- 
cise when we approve what is morally right, 
disapprove what is morally wrong. It in- 
volves at once a capacity of feeling pleased 
or pained, and of judging as to the quality 
of the action which pleases or pains. 
When occupied with the. subject's own 
actions or dispositions the faculty is 
spoken of as conscience. Conscience is 
thus the moral sense turned inwards in 
the act of reflection. The question has 
been much discussed in modern ethics 
whether the moral sense is innate or a 
product of external circumstances and 
education. The truth probably embraces 
both of these opposing views. All nor- 
mally constituted children have by nature 
dispositions such as trustfulness, defer- 
ence, a love of approbation, and more 
generally what we call the social feelings, 
which favour the growth of the moral 
sentiment. It is possible, too, as the 
evolutionist maintains, that many genera- 
tions of moral culture have resulted in 
the formation of a more definite inherited 
bent to feel and think morally. At the 
same time it is incontestable that ex- 
ternal aids are necessary to develop this 
crude germ into the mature and compe- 
tent faculty. These external aids consist 



228 



MORE, Sill TIIOIVIAS JVIU 1.0 ASTER, KICMIARD 



of appi'opriato social surromi<1iugs, tho 
ert'oot of moral example, and all that is 
oompvised iiiulor moral education (which 
seo). (On the ditlerent views of the moral 
sense, seo Bain, Afental and Moral Science, 
Ethics; Sidgwick, Mcf/iodft o/' JiJthics ] on 
the education of the Morsil Faculty, seo 
Sully, Teacher's J/andhook, p. 42-1- and 
following ; Wait/,, A//(fe))iei.ne Pddatjin/ik, 
^ 11 ; Piistcrer, PddaqiMj. Psi/cholo(fie, 
§ 111.) 

More, Sir Thomas (b. 11 80, d. ir)3r.), 
tlie celebrated Chancellor, relates in liis 
Utopia (lf>18)that ' i>t>th men and women 
are taught to spend tliose hours in which 
they are not obliged to work in reading, 
and this they do through the whole pro- 
gress of life,' and in his insti'uctious for 
tlie education of his children he advocated 
the theory that girls sliould bo taught the 
same subjects, and be atVorded the same 
educational facilities, as the boys. 
Morpholog'v. ^sv^ Biology. 
.Mnlca-«t9r, Kichu\l ( 1 530 ?-l 61 1 ), was 
the tirst. head master of Merchant Taylors' 
School, founded in lolU. He was born of 
a good county family of Cumberland, pro- 
bably at the old border town of Bracken- 
hill Castle, on the river Line. He was 
educated ;it 'l<]ton and at King's College, 
Cambridge, whence he migrated to Ox- 
ford, and was elected student of Christ 
Church in 1555. After distinguishing 
himself at Oxford by his knowledge of 
Hebrew and Eastern literature he be- 
came a schoolmaster in London in 1558. 
Three years lator, as has been said, he was 
appointed head-master of JMeivhant Tay- 
lors' School at Laurence Pountney Hill, 
between Cannon Sti-eet and the river. It 
may be mentioned here that Edmund 
Spenser was one of his pupils, and it is 
said that amongst other pupils he num- 
bered nine of King James's translators of 
the Bible. In 1581 he published his Fo- 
sitions/or the Trai)ti)H/ vp of Children, 
either for Skilli)t their JJookv oo' Health in 
their Bodie, and in the next year his Ele- 
vietitarie, or tirst steps in education. In 
the former he sketches a really excellent 
all-round education for body and mind, 
and anticipates many of the newest ideas 
of our own day. The ' natural abilities 
of children, whereby they become either 
fit or unlit to this or that kind of life,' are 
to be considered. He lays great stress — 
for the tirst time in England — on the mo- 
ther tongue and the ability to read, write, 



and spell it in advance of, and, if neces- 
sary, to the exclusion of Latin. ' As co- 
sen germain to faire wi-iting is the ability 
to draw with pen or pencil,' and this should 
be taught, ' whih> the linger is llexible ' — 
another antiinpation of the views of our 
day. ' It is good,' he stoutly asserts, ' to 
have eA'^ery part of t\\o body and every 
power of the soul lined (or polished) to 
the best.' He would have every child 
taught music by voice and instrument, as 
he taught them at his own school. The 
younger the boy the nmi-e skilled his n»as- 
ter should be : ' the lirst grounds should 
be laid by the cunningest workman.' He 
insists that ' yt)ung maidens are to be set 
to learning, which is proved by the custom 
of our country, by our duty towards them, 
by their natural ability, and by the worthy 
ellects of such as have been well trained.' 
The book is dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. 
He deplores ' the incurable intirmities 
which })osting haste malceth in the whole 
course of study,' and points out ' how ne- 
cessary a thing sutlicient time is for a 
scholar.' He ends up with a vigorous plea 
for the tmining of all sclioolmastiM-s. These 
are but a few of the most striking points 
of a book well worth study. It has lately 
been reprinted by Mr. Quick. The Ele- 
meniarie only the tirst part of which has 
ever been published — is most notable for 
its splendidly eloquent plea in behalf of 
the study and use of English. We have 
only space for a very short quot<ation. ' Is 
it not a marvellous bondage to become 
servants to one tongue, for learning's sake, 
the most part of our time, with loss of 
most time ; whereas we may have the very 
same treasure in our own tongue with gain 
of most time ? Our own bearing the joy- 
ful title of our liberty and freedom, and 
the Latin tongue remembering us of our 
thraldom and bondage 'I I love Rome, 
but London better ; I favour Italy, but 
England more ; I lionour the Latin, but 
I worship the I^nglish. . . . But why not 
all (our learning) in English, a tongue in 
itself both deep in conceit and frank in 
delivery ? I do not think that any lan- 
guage, be it Avhatsoever, is better able to 
utter all arguments either with more pith 
or greater plainness than our English 
tongue is.' We need not wonder at such 
enthusiasm in one who was Spenser's liead- 
master, and not improbably the friend of 
Shakespeare. 

Mulcaster resigned the head-master- 



MULTUM NON^ MULTA- 



-MUSIC 



229 



ship of Merchant Taylors' School in 1586. 
Ten years later he was high master of St. 
Paul's School. In 1598 the Queen made 
him rector of Stanford Rivers in Essex. 
but he does not seem to have taken up 
his residence there till 1608. He died in 
1611. For further particulars see the 
Appendix to Quick's reprint of the Posi- 
tions ; Gentlemrui's Magazine, vol. Ixx. ; 
and Fuller's Worthies. 

Multuai non Multa. — It is somewhat 
difficult to state with certainty who was 
the first to give vent to this maxim. From 
the time of Socrates and Plato to our own 
days almost every writer on education 
has urged, in one form or another, that 
the true test of learning is that a man 
should know 'initch rather than many 
things, while some go so far as to assert 
that it is practically of greater use to 
know much of one or two subjects than 
to be generally informed about many ; 
though Montaigne, by the way, makes an 
exactly opposite assertion, in which in the 
main he is followed by Locke. It is to 
be remembered, however, that neither 
Montaigne nor Locke wish to produce 
learned men. Three writers have pushed 
things to a paradox ; Rabelais desiring 
both many things and much ; Rousseau de- 
siring neither much nor many things ; and 
Jacotot asserting that we should learn 
one thing well and derive all other know- 
ledge from it, or, at any rate, connect all 
other knowledge with it. Bacon, and 
still more Comenius, dreamed of a know- 
ledge which, for the learned few, should 
include all things knowable ; bit when 
they treat of education, Bacoi'i recom- 
mends the narrow but thorough system 
of the Jesuits ; and Comenius applies this 
very maxim to every one of his chosen 
school subjects. Indeed there is an im- 
mense consensus of opinion that true 
learning for the normal human being 
consists in knowing one, or at most 
two, subjects thoroughly. The question 
still undecided, and on which a great 
variety of shades of opinion have existed 
and still exist, is whether the maxim, 
' much not many things,' should be ap- 
plied to school work, and if so with what 
modifications and restrictions. If the 
question were really whether (as some put 
it) the aim of our schools should be to pro- 
duce learned men or able men fitted (to use 
Herbert Spencer's phrase) for ' complete 
living,' the vast majority would vote with 



Montaigne, Locke, and Rousseau for the 
' able man,' leaving the specialists for a 
separate consideration. But it is not a 
question simply between the storing of 
knowledge and the training of faculty; 
for, as every teacher of experience knows, 
there is a clear limit to the variety of sub- 
jects beyond which the faculties gain no 
valuable or efficient exercise, but are 
rather confused and baffled. It is pre- 
cisely in a case of this kind that psy- 
chology (or mental science) is of inestima- 
ble value. The answer it gives seems to be 
as follows : provide fully for the adequate 
exercise of every faculty, using for means 
of exercise that knowledge in preference 
which the pupil will need in his after life, 
and remembering that for each faculty 
some variety of subject is of great value. 
Be thoroughly sound in everything ; but 
deal rather with those properties and laws 
of a subject which have the widest and 
most ready application, attending more 
to its larger features than to a multiplicity 
of minor points. Leave all specialisation 
to the later years of school life, or still 
better to the university period. As far 
as may be, render it possible for every 
pupil to specialise hereafter; not in one 
direction only, but in any direction 
which his life may come to need. Fit him 
to acquire new knowledge and to be able 
to use it. 

Music among the Greeks held a most 
honoured post in the general educational 
system. This was due largely to Pytha- 
goras, who (lamblichos tells the tradition) 
came to the Greek cities of Italy from 
his native Samos, after having studied 
music and numbers in Babylon for twelve 
years. He, the most beautiful man in 
soul and body of his time, and with limit- 
less power over his disciples, preached to 
them the gospel of moral purification 
through the senses — the exact antithesis 
to the later Christian code of moral puri- 
fication in spite of the senses. And thus, 
teaching about a century before Sokrates, 
and while Tarquin the Proud reigned as 
the last of the ancient kings of Rome (that 
is circa 525 B.C.), he laid it down to the 
men of Crotona, and it became a law for 
all Greek culture, that of all the senses the 
sense of hearing was the chief moral agent. 
For beautiful sounds, he said, are more 
subtle in their nature, more variable, more 
constantly at hand, in every musical in- 
strument, than are beautiful sights. Mu sic 



230 



MUSIC 



he regarded as the finest source of beauty, 
and his object in training was to fill the 
soul with beauty. He disapproved of the 
flute as too sensuous, and chose the sterner 
lyre as his chief instrument. Melodies he 
composed, and caused to be composed, to 
cope with every mood, to assuage grief, to 
curb desire, to banish fear. Fine passages 
from the poets he set to music, so that 
noble ideas as well as noble emotional 
states should pass readily among the 
people. He relied strongly upon grave 
rhythms to steady character, and he always 
played somewhat on the lyre, on awaken- 
ing, to clear his brain; and before sleeping, 
to purge his mind of the distractions of 
the day, and clear the troubled waters of 
the soul. He even went so far as to con- 
demn his intimate disciples to a five years' 
probationary silence, not only to test their 
endurance by preventing them from speak- 
ing, but to ensure their receptivity for the 
beautiful sounds which he took care to pour 
into their ear. The order or brotherhood 
he thus founded lasted till the downfall of 
ancient republican Greece, and Epamein- 
ondas himself, last of the free heroes, was 
a member of it. This body, more power- 
ful over education and culture in its day 
than have been the Jesuits in ours, reposed, 
as we have seen, chiefly upon music as the 
basis of its teaching. 

o 

From musical melody Pythagoras 
taught the power of order, since all sound 
is orderly vibration as against irregular 
noise, and order is shown in daily life as 
organised labour ; next came harmony, 
which in souls is seen as friendship or 
love ; thirdly rhythm, which in daily 
studies appears in the sciences of number 
and in those bodily exercises which the 
Greeks held so essential to a finely edu- 
cated man ; in fact, music thus led up to 
grace and strength through its rhythm, as 
it led up to beauty through its melody; 
and to love through its harmony. Thus 
the Pythagoreans, trained to strength, 
beauty, and . love, formed a community 
whose renown even now fills our ears, and 
whose fame was co-extensive Avith Greek 
culture. On all hands they were admitted to 
surpass their contemporaries in moral ex- 
cellence and in intellectual attainments. 
They vs^ere the flower of Greek culture. 
So great educational value has never been 
since drawn from music. Even in detail 
the Greeks (for we may regard what has 
been said of Pythagoras as applying prac- 



tically to all the Greeks, and even includ- 
ing stern Sparta herself) credited music 
with .the power to train a man in tact and 
in savoir /aire, by training his physical 
touch (tactus) and his power of harmonis- 
ing sounds, for these faculties would, they 
taught, give him social touch and social 
harmonising power. When we consider 
that musical scales and ratios, including 
the theory of the vibrations of stretched 
strings and of pipes, wei'e discovered by 
these men, that the atomic theory, the 
revolution and rotation of the earth, were 
secrets known to them, that Aristaidn, 
Nikomachos, Philolaos, and, above all, 
Empedokles, were only some few of them, 
we are astounded at what was done by an 
avowedly musical education. Even Plata 
declares without reservation in his Be- 
p7(blic that to a perfect education there are 
but two absolute essentials, gymnastic for 
the body, music for the mind, and to a 
Greek, as we have already seen, gymnastic 
is a branch of music (moiisike). In Plato's 
time, and for long before, the Greek boy 
of the noble classes spent nearly all his 
time in these two studies, as any one may 
verify by referring to the sketch of a Greek 
boy's day in Lucian's Erotics. 

One must further remember that the 
Greek tragedies, flower of a superb litera- 
ture, were in musical recitative throughout 
the dialogue, and in formal melody (pos- 
sibly harmonised, but of this we are not 
sure) as regards the choruses ; so fii-mly 
persuaded were the Greeks of the neces- 
sity of music if the mind had to be strongly 
aroused. With a chorus of fifty, Aischulos 
(^schylus) produced such terror that ever 
afterwards fifteen only was the largest 
number the law allowed to a dramatist. 

The Romans stole their music, as they 
did all their other arts, from the Greeks, 
and, with the usual fate of exotics, music 
therefore proved meaningless to them. 
They made no use of it, never even tried 
to appreciate its worth. A trumpet-call 
was the sweetest sound to a man of the 
republic, lascivious flute-music lulled the 
voluptuaries of the empire. How great a 
contrast alike in the rugged coarseness and 
the efieminate debauchery to the elegance 
and completeness of the Greek ideal ! And, 
according to the universal testimony of the 
Greeks, their finely balanced character re- 
posed on the influence of music. 

At the downfall of Rome music di- 
vided sharply into two courses, the one 



MUSIC 



231 



half taking service with the church, the 
other half with lay folk. The influence of 
church music on education was of course 
very small ; to learn the ecclesiastical 
chants was part of a priest's professional 
work, and had its religious value, and no 
other, upon the people at large. With 
secular music it was otherwise, 

The troubadours or knightly minstrels 
of Southern France and the tx'ouveres of 
Northern France turned music, during the 
eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, into 
an important element of courtly education. 
With his attendant jongleur or accom- 
panist (who no doubt often supplied the 
practical corrections which the work of 
the noble amateur even of the present 
day occasionally cries out for), the trouba- 
dour passed from court to coui't, diffusing 
almost the only real refinement known to 
that rough age. Under the power of 
poetry, enhanced by music, chivalrous 
thoughts sprang up, just as Plato would 
have prophesied, and manners became en- 
dued with a grace not known before. A 
century later than the first of the trouba- 
dours came the noble Minnesingers of 
Germany, first rising to importance in 
Barbarossa's time (1152-1190), and dying 
out with Frauenlob in 1318, not, however, 
before they had done work for Germany 
like unto that accomplished by the trouba- 
dours for France and for the adjacent parts 
of Spain and Italy. The Minnesingers 
were succeeded by a very important class 
of musicians and poets, the Meistersingers 
of the great towns. Here for the first 
time we find the common people rising to 
their present place as rulers of the world 
(actually so, though not always in appear- 
ance), and it speaks volumes for the truth 
of the Greek reverence for the educational 
power of music that the rise of the strong- 
German burgher-system should be accom- 
panied by a remarkable municipal move- 
ment in musical culture. (The Greek life, 
noble as it was, reposed on slavery as its 
basis, but it must always be remembered 
that true democracy was then altogether 
unknown.) The renowned Hans Sachs, 
musician, poet, and shoemaker, of Nurem- 
berg, lived from 1494 to 1576, and marks 
the culmination of the epoch. The Meister- 
singers formed a guild like that of any 
other civic art, with apprentices, rules, 
and officers, and at periodical contests the 
candidates sought for admission, the public 
being the judges whether their song was 



according to the well-known rules of the 
guild. Similar guilds sprang up in France 
and England, but the records' are not per- 
fect, as are those of Germany. 

The next remarkable musical move- 
ment, also coinciding with a no less re- 
markable rise of a peojDle, is the School 
of the Netherland Musicians, which has 
in fact founded our modern music, and 
which sprang into being in the middle of 
the fourteenth century, just as that civic 
life began to stir which was to blossom, 
later on, into the magnificent civic life of the 
great Flemish and Danish cities. These 
Netherlanders passed into Italy, and there 
founded the Roman Church style ; into 
England, and there founded the great 
Madrigalian style. It is to these men 
that counterpoint is due, and also har- 
mony in our sense of the word. Again, 
music springs up as a great educational 
power in the rise of the Lutheran Refor- 
mation. The new musical form of the 
chorale or hymn tune coincides with the 
new religious life ; and in the South 
the motet and the oratorio show that in 
the Catholic Church, too, men's minds 
are awakening. The value Luther set on 
music is well known, and his own con- 
tributions to the art are noble and digni- 
fied, and above all characteristic. We have 
spoken of a great Madrigalian style in 
England, and let it be observed that the 
sudden rise to greatness under the Tudors, 
the large enthusiasms, the noble scorn of 
all that is common or mean, the boundless 
courage and enterprise, the truly artistic 
nature, which makes especially Elizabeth's 
time stand out gloriously in our annals, 
coincide with the development of an in- 
tense popular love for music, especially 
among the upper classes. So completely 
was this the case that an ambassador notes 
the usual practice of handing round ' parts ' 
(not scores) amongst the company at a 
festival, that the pleasure of concerted 
music might be enjoyed. Each man took 
it as a matter of course that he should 
bear his part. The narrator confesses how, 
for want of training, he had awkwardly to 
decline. The great queen herself was a 
noteworthy performer. Observe how under 
the unmusical rule of the Stuarts the tem- 
per of the nation declines, then hardens into 
the fierce rebound of Puritanism. Later on, 
observe how when Charles II. sapped the 
noble life of England, the characteristic 
music was the ' French violins,' that de- 



232 



MUSIC 



grading love of the froth of foreign nations 
and neglect of native art, and of the truer, 
if colder, regions of pure, noble, and ideal 
beauty, which has more or less continued 
down to our own day. 

Returning a moment to Elizabethan 
times, we observe the rise of opera, the 
next great musical form, to be directly due 
to the rise of the great Florentine republic 
and the Renaissance ; for it came out of a 
praiseworthy attempt by the father of the 
astronomer Galileo and some of his friends 
to resuscitate the Tnelos of the ancient 
Greek tragedy. 

During the eventful reign of Queen 
Victoria we have seen the rise of another 
national movement, the assumption by 
the democracy of the power in the State. 
Political power once theirs, we have seen 
the people thirsting for education, for cul- 
ture. JSTow, it is indeed remarkable that 
with this again we have a fresh develop- 
ment of music. For, whereas Handel was 
put to straits, even in a cathedral town, 
for some one to sing a chorus part that he 
might judge of the effect (' Yes, I can sing 
at sight,' the man replied to the furious 
composer, 'but not d.t first sight! ') we, not 
much more than a century later, can sum- 
mon, if we like to get a room large enough 
for them, 4,000 or 5,000 amateur vocalists, 
in any part of England, at a week's notice, 
competent to perform most difficult music. 
Our educational code demands music as a 
necessary part of education ; we have a 
new musical method, that of the Tonic 
Sol-fa System, which enables thousands 
on thousands who have but limited time 
to gain a knowledge of all the simpler 
effects of vocal music. Our church choirs 
are full and overflowing. Musical festivals 
of colossal dimensions are held triennially 
in a dozen places in England, on a scale 
that no continental nation can dream of 
rivalling. We have three or four great 
musical schools : the Royal Academy, the 
Royal College, and the great school due 
to the munificence of the city of London, 
the Guildhall School; and all these and 
others are crowded, and overcrowded, with 
scholars. 

Is it merely accidental, this contrast, 
which has just been made apparent, with 
the time of the Georges, and with other 
nations less free than ourselves 1 Or is it 
not true what Solon, Pythagoras, Plato, 
and the rest of the grand Greeks said, that 
music is the grand educational agent for 



all who wish to elevate the soul, to co- 
ordinate the faculties, to humanise the 
passions, and to stir the intellect 1 We 
believe that it is true ; that from Lord 
Chesterfield, who forbade his son to de- 
grade himself by learning the violin, to 
Prince Albert and Mr. Gladstone, who in 
our time (after the fashion of Pythagoras) 
have been accustomed to sweep the cob- 
webs from their brain with music, and with 
music to nerve themselves for fresh labours, 
there is a great gulf fixed. The one is ill- 
educated with all his learning ; he has put 
out an eye or cut off a limb of the mind ; 
he is self-blinded, one-sided. The other 
knows, with Plato, that ' every particle of 
human life has need of rhythm and har- 
mony.' 

It is sometimes convenient to draw up 
a short list of a few of the best books in 
any art, in case a student may not be able 
readily to cbnsult a master in his studies. 
The following are useful books, published in 
recent years, on the theory of music : Har- 
mony, Sir G. A. Macfarren ; Counterjyoint, 
Sir G. A. Macfarren ; by far the best and 
most consistent musical works on the sub- 
ject, embodying in a practical form the ex- 
cellent theories of Day. With these, for 
students preferring the ordinary views on 
music, and aiming merely at gaining a body 
of good grammatical rules, may be men- 
tioned the Treatise on Harmony by Dr. 
Stainer, Banister's Music is a compre- 
hensive little book, giving a glance over 
the whole field. Prout oji Instrumentation, 
Higgs on Fugue, Stainer on Composition, 
and Stone on the Physical Basis of Music, 
are four of Novello's primers, of great value 
and merely nominal price. Six Lectures 
on Hai'mony, by Sir G. A. Macfarren, is 
a book richly repaying the student. Of 
histories, the recent English translation of 
Naumann is very good; and the slight little 
volume of Bonavia Hunt, a well-arranged 
compendium of dates, with remarks on 
them, is useful in its way. The two series 
of Lectures on Musical History, by John 
Hullah, are priceless. Fillmore's History 
of Pianoforte Music (Sonnenschein) is ex- 
tremely good. In acoustical theory Helm- 
holtz on Sensations of Tone (tr. Ellis) is un- 
rivalled, Tyndall's Sound is very valuable, 
Sedley Taylor's work is highly interesting. 
The Tonic Sol-fa works by Curwen are 
easily obtainable, and extremely easy to 
understand. A Sol-fa harmony and a 
counterpoint are also done, but students 



NATIONAL ART TRAINING SCHOOL 



23^ 



"who mean earnest work would probably 
prefer the usual notation. 

An attempt to show how in teaching 
children the pianoforte a genuine know- 
ledge of the rudiments of music, of the 
power to write it down, and of its mean- 
ing to the mind may be given, by adopting 
the educational principles of the Kinder- 
garten System (g.v.), is due to H. Keatley 
Moore ; and a graduated series of six small 
works (under the title of the Musician) 
carrying on a similar view, suggesting 
courses of study, and analysing the pieces 



chosen, has been produced by Ridley Pren- 
tice. These works will probably be found of 
great use by teachers rather than by stu- 
dents, on account of the freshness of their 
view of the subject. For those who desire to 
penetrate the mysteries of the psychology of 
music, the secrets of its construction, there 
is really only one good book, the Jlarmonik 
and Metrik of Hauptmann, of which the 
English translation, by Heathcote and 
Moore, appeared at the beginning of 1888. 
These last three works are published by 
Sonnenschein &, Co. (See Singing.) 



N 



National Art Training- School. — This 
school is a development of the former 
School of Design and Central School of 
Art at Somerset House, and its special 
object is the training of art teachers of 
both sexes, of designers, and of art work- 
men, to whom facilities and assistance are 
afforded in the shape of scholarships, 
maintenance allowances, and complete or 
partial remission of fees. A school for 
the instruction in art of general students 
is attached to, and serves as a practising 
school for, the training school. In 1853 
the school was removed from Somerset 
House to Marlborough House, and opened 
under the designation of ' National Train- 
ing School of Art.' In 1856-57 the school 
was transferred to South Kensington. In 
1863 a system of scholarships was estab- 
lished, open to candidates from local schools. 
In 1871, with a view to enable the school 
to fulfil more efficiently its primary object 
of training masters for art schools, it was 
found necessary to impose an examination 
test for all candidates for admission, and 
to make certain alterations in the regu- 
lations of the schools, introducing pay- 
ments on results. 

The course of instruction is as follows, 
though it is understood that it is not pro- 
gressive in the order in which the stages 
are named : (1) linear drawing by aid of 
instruments, including linear geometry, 
mechanical and machine drawing, per- 
spective, details of architecture, and scio- 
graphy ; (2) freehand outline drawing of 
rigid forms from flat examples or copies ; 
(3) freehand outline drawing from the 
* round ' ; (4) shading from flat examples 
or copies ; (5) shading from the ' round ' 



or solid forms and drapery ; (6). drawing 
the human figure and animal forms from 
copies ; (7) drawing flowers, foliage, and 
objects of natural history from copies ; 
(8) drawing the human figure or animal 
forms from the ' round ' or nature ; (9) 
anatomical studies, drawn or modelled ; 
(10) drawing flowers, foliage, landscape 
details, and objects of natural history, from 
nature ; (11) painting ornament from flat 
examples ; (12) painting ornament from 
the cast, &c. ; (13) painting (general) 
from flat examples or copies, flowers, still- 
life, and landscapes ; (14) painting (gene- 
ral) direct from nature, flowers, or still- 
life, landscapes, and drapery ; (15) paint- 
ing from nature groups of ^till-life, flowers, 
&c., as compositions of colour ; (16) paint- 
ing the human figure or animals in mono- 
chrome from casts; (17) painting the 
human figure or animals in colour ; (18) 
modelling ornament ; (19) modelling the 
human figure or animals and drapery ; 
(20) modelling fruits, flowers, foliage, (fee, 
from nature ; ^21) time sketches in clay 
of the human figure or animals from 
nature ; (22) elementary design, includ- 
ing studies treating natural objects orna- 
mentally, ornamental arrangements to fill 
given spaces in monochrome or modelled, 
ornamental arrangements to fill given 
spaces in colour, and studies of historic 
styles of ornament drawn or modelled ; 
(23) applied designs, technical or mis- 
cellaneous studies, including machine 
or mechanical drawing, plan drawing, 
mapping, and surveys done from measure- 
ment of actual machines, buildings, ttc, 
architectural design, ornamental design, 
as applied to decorative or industrial art, 



234 NATIONAL EDUCATION LEAGUE NATIONAL SOCIETY 



;^ 



and figure composition, and ornamental 
design witli figures, as applied to decora- 
tive or industrial art, both flat and iii 
relief. 

Certificates of . competency to teach 
the subjects included in these twenty- 
three stages of instruction are given to 
candidates who pass the necessary exami- 
nations, and are called (a) the preliminary 
or Art Class Teacher's Certificate, and 
(b) Art Certificates of the Third Grade. 

National Education League (The) was 
founded in Birmingham in the early 
part of 1869, its primary object being ' to 
secure the education of every child in 
England and Wales.' This it was pro- 
posed to effect by the following means : 
(1) local authorities to be compelled by 
law to see that sufficient school accommo- 
dation is provided for every child in their 
district ; (2) the cost of founding and 
maintaining such schools as might be re- 
quired to be provided out of the local rates, 
supplemented by Government grants ; (3) 
all schools aided by local i-ates to be under 
the management of the local authorities, 
and subject to Government inspection ; 
(4) all schools aided by local rates to be 
unsectarian ; (5) to all schools aided by 
local rates admission to be free ; (6) school 
accommodation being provided, the State 
or local authoi'ities to have power to com- 
pel the attendance of children of suitable 



At the first annual meeting, which was 
held in Birmingham on October 12, 1869, 
Mr. George Dixon, M.P., the originator 
of .the movement, was unanimously elected 
pi'esident. The report, which was adopted, 
set forth that the League was formed in 
consequence of the alarming state of igno- 
rance revealed by the investigations of the 
Manchester and Birmingham Education 
Aid Societies. In Manchester and Sal- 
ford it was ascertained the number of chil- 
dren between three and twelve years of 
age, of all classes, was 100,000, and that 
of these only 55,000 were on the books of 
the elementary schools, while tlie average 
attendance was no more than 38,000. In 
Birmingham the case was still worse. 
The number of children in that town be- 
tween the ages of three and fifteen was 
45,056, and of these 17,023 were at school, 
6,337 were at work, and 21,690 were 
neither at school nor at work. Nor did 
the case end here, for it was found that 
the education of those at school was most 



unsatisfactory. From independent inves- 
tigations made in London it was estimated 
tliat there were between 150,000 and 
200,000 children without the means of 
education. These facts, and many others 
which had been laboi'iously collected, led 
to the inference that the voluntary system 
had failed, and that justice and expe- 
diency alike demanded that a national 
system should be established. Hence the 
formation of tliQ League. It was an- 
nounced at the meeting to which refer- 
ence has been made, that the League had 
been joined by 3,500 persons, including 
forty members of the House of Commons 
and between 300 and 400 ministers of 
religion. The League cari-ied on an active 
propaganda for several years, branches 
being established in every town of im- 
portance in the kingdom. It took a lead- 
ing part in the popular opposition to the 
twenty-fifth clause of Mr. Forster's Edu- 
cation Act (the clause sanctioning the 
payment of Government grants to denomi- 
national schools), to which the Noncon- 
formists especially were averse. In March 
1877, its main objects having been 
achieved, the League was formally dis- 
solved. The immediate consequence of 
the formation of the League was the esta- 
blishment of a rival organisation, The 
national Education Union, which had its 
headquarters at Manchester. The final 



age not otherwise receiving education."**, congress of this body was held in that 



city on November 3, 1869, the late Earl 
of Harrowby presiding. Its avowed ob- 
ject was ' to secure the primary education 
of every child by judiciously supplement- 
ing the present denominational system of 
education ; ' and in the report it was 
stated tliat the formation of the National 
League in support of secular education 
necessitated ' a union of all in favour of 
denominational teaching.' 

National Education Union (The). See 
National Education League. 

National Schools. — Schools of the Na- 
tional Society {q.v.). See also Classifica- 
tion and Code. 

National Society. — The 'National So- 
ciety for Promoting the Education of the 
Poor in the Principles of the Established 
Church throughout England and Wales' 
grew out of the labours of Dr. Bell. It 
was founded in 1811, and incorporated in 
1817. The object is defined by its title. 
To carry out this object it strove to estab- 
lish schools, and to provide suitable teachers 



NATIONAL ITNION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 



235 



for them, and, since Boai-d Schools, neces- 
sarily unsectarian, have become a large 
factor in popular education, it has empha- 
sised its declaration in favour of distinctive 
religious teaching. The connection of the 
Society with the Established Church placed 
at its disposal a powerful and far-reaching 
organisation, and its growth was, therefore, 
rapid. Li 1812 there were fifty-two 
schools, with 8,620 pupils in union with it ; 
next year there were 230 schools with 
40,484 scholars ; and now more than half 
the elementary schools of the country are 
connected with it. The training of teachers 
began in a humble way at the Central 
Schools in Baldwin's Gardens, Gray's Inn 
Lane, but with the increasing number of 
schools, and the consequent increasing 
demand for qualified masters and mis- 
tresses, the Society established one after 
the other, five institutions, which up to 
1887 have trained 8,296 students. Three 
of these institutions — St. Mark's, Chelsea, 
and St. John's, Battersea, for masters, and 
Whitelands for mistresses — still exist. 
The other church colleges are not under 
the direction of the Society, but it makes 
them a gi^ant for each of their .students 
who passes the archbishops' examination in 
Scripture. When the Committee of Coun- 
cil was appointed in 1839, it proposed to 
establish a State training college, but the 
Church opposed the proposal with a vigour 
which almost wrecked the Government of 
Lord Melbourne. The ground of opposi- 
tion was twofold : in the first place! Dis- 
senting students were to be taught religion 
by their own ministers, and in the next 
the Church claimed under the canons of 
1604 a monopoly of the functions of 
training and licensing teachers. For some 
time the controversy raged in Parliament 
and the press. By drawing the attention 
of Churchmen very forcibly to the claims 
of the National Society, it largely increased 
the funds of the institution. In 1838-39 
the income from donations and subscrip- 
tions was 2,842?. ; in 1839-40 it was 
17,339?. The normal income is now about 
12,000?. Before 1839 there was no uni- 
formity in the terms on which schools 
were affiliated to the Society ; in many 
cases the desire of the managers for afii- 
liation was considered sufficient guarantee 
for the nature of the instruction to be 
given. Since 1839, however, the Society 
has required the insertion in the trust 
deed of any school asking to be united to 



the Society, of a clause providing that the 
school shall be conducted 'according to 
the principles, and in furtherance of the 
ends and designs' of the Society. In the 
statistics of the Education Department 
there is no distinction made between 
Church schools affiliated to the Society, 
and those not so affiliated. The Blue 
Book for 1887 gives the number of Church 
schools in England and Wales as 11,864, 
providing accommodation for 2,548,673 
children, with 2,136,797 on the rolls, and 
1,634,354 in average attendance. Their 
income was 133,159?. from endowments, 
586,950?. from voluntary contributions, 
869,026?. from fees, 1,344,115?. from Gov- 
ernment grants, and 33,732?. from other 
sources. The Society's charter of incorpora- 
tion provides that the Archbishop of Can- 
terbury shall be the president, and that ' the 
Archbishop of York and all the bishops, 
and ten other persons being either tempo- 
ral peel's or privy councillors,' shall be vice- 
presidents. The Rev. James Duncan, M. A. , 
is the secretary, and the offices are in the 
Broad Sanctuary, Westminster. 

National Union of Elementary 
Teachers (N.U.E.T.).— Before 1870 each 
class of teachers — British, Church, and 
Wesleyan — had an association of its own. 
These were, separately, too weak to in- 
fluence public opinion ; indeed, they ap- 
peared to exist chiefly to discuss methods 
of teaching, and to provide opportunities 
for social intercourse. The passing of the 
Education Act, by enlarging the scope of 
education, quickened professional spirit, 
and made teachers think more of their 
common interests than of their denomina- 
tional difierences. The leaders of the as- 
sociations consequently held several meet- 
ings at King's College, London, to discuss 
the basis for a National Union of Ele- 
mentary Teachers. From the first it was 
resolved that the union should be one of 
associations, and not of individual mem- 
bers, and that each association should con- . 
sist of the teachers of a particular district, 
not of a particular sect. In 1870 there 
were 26 associations, with 400 members. 
By 1881 the Union had grown to 321 
associations, with 13,178 members. Then 
there was an increase in the annual sub- 
scriptions, which led to a falling ofi" in the 
numbers. In 1884 there was a fui-ther 
increase in the subscription, but as the 
additional sum was to form a Legal Defence 
Fund — a very tangible benefit — the loss 



236 



NATIONAL UNION- 



-NEEDLEWORK 



of nioiubers was only temporary. At the 
end of 1886 there were 314: assoeiatious, 
Avitli l"2,t;>l members. Counocted with 
the N.IT.E/r. there area 'Teaehers' Bene- 
volent Fund,' a 'Teaehers' Orphana^i^ and 
Orphan Fund,' and a ''IVaohers' ProNideut 
Society.' The BenevoUmt Fund grants 
temporary relief in oases of distress, ill- 
ness, aeoident, or sudden enuM-geney, gives 
loans for short periods, makes grants to 
widows, and pays annuities to ineapaci- 
tatetl teaehers. The Orpluinage and Or- 
phan Fund maintains an orphan sehool for 
boys at Peek ham Rye, and another for 
girls at Sliertield, and pays 'home allow- 
ances' when the orphans are living with 
friends. The Provident Society offers 
means whereby teaehers can be, in sickness 
or old age, beyond the need of benevolence. 
The ortioes of the Union are at 30 Fleet 
Street, and the General Secretary is Mr. 
T. E. Heller. 

National ITnion for Improving- the 
Education of Women. See Education of 
Girls. 

Nations. aS^c' Rkctou. 

Natural Aptitude. Natural Talent. — 
By these terms is meant a special degree 
of innate capacity for some particular 
mode of intellectual or practical activity. 
Thus we speak of a. natural aptitude for 
scientitic discovery, the study of languages, 
artistic desigix, or mechanical contrivance. 
Such original aptitude commonly involves 
not merely a superior degree of mental 
power of a special kind, but a high degree 
of perfection of one or more of the organs 
of sense and of the muscular organs. It 
also implies a predominant taste for and 
impulse towards the particular pursuit. 
Individuals ditl'erwidely in their particular 
aptitudes, and these differences constitute 
much of what we nuwn by individuality 
on its intellectual side. As the history 
of great men tells us, natural aptitudes 
are frequently inherited. It behoAes the 
educator to make a careful study and 
estimate of the natural aptitudes of chil- 
dren, so as to adapt the course of educa- 
tion to some extent to these. (See Indi- 
viouALrrv and Ouuuxality.) 

Natiiral Philosophy. See Physics. 

Nature is the name of the sum total 
of the processes aiul laws of the material 
woT'ld in which we live. It is a sphere 
Avlvich contrasts with that of conscioi;s and 
purposive human action. Hence nature 
is commonly opposed to art, which is ac- 



tion elaborated into a rational nu)thod. 
All that is instinctive in ourselves is re- 
ferred to nature as its source, and distin- 
guished from that which is designedly 
produced by the art of education, or, to 
use Air. Galton's antithesis, by nurture. 
Nature is a term that has played a con- 
siderable part both in etlucal and eiluca- 
tional writings. The prect^pt 'follow na- 
ture ' has been erected by aiu-ient and by 
ntoderu moi'alists into the ultimate nun*al 
principle. And nuideru pa'dagogic writ- 
ings are full of references to nature and 
her methods of teaching as our proper 
model. It is probable that the word is 
frequently used in this connection with a 
certain degree of vagueness. The work 
of tlie educator is, pace Rousseau, to make 
good the deticiencies of nature, i.e. the 
spontaneous tendencies of the child, and 
to a considerable extent to oppose and 
counteract its forces. In order to do this, 
however, he must carefxilly study the 
workings of nature, and atljust liis pro- 
cedure to its unalterable laws. Thus it 
is a lixed principle in modern education 
that the order of instruction must follow 
that of the developuuuit of the child's 
faculties (.s-cc Okdeu of Stuwes). The 
teacher must, therefore, work with nature, 
that is, according to natural and unalter- 
able conditions, even though he aims at 
an ideal I'csult far above the reach of 
nature's unaided powers. (See for a care- 
ful analysis of the term 'Nature' Mills's 
article ' Nature ' in his Essays on Beli- 
(lio)i ; of. Payne, Confribiitions to the 
Science of Bducaf ion, chap. vii. ; and Com- 
payre, Cottrs de Fed., p. ill.) 

Navy (Education for the). See Edu- 

CATU^X FOK THE NaVY. 

Needlework. — (1.) In the scheme of 
piiblic elementary education needlework 
is obligatory for girls in day-schools, and 
it is frequently taken up by boys as well. 
One of tlie conditions required to be ful- 
filled by a school in order to entitle it to 
an annual Parliamentary gi-ant is, that the 
Department must be satistied ' that the 
girls (in a day-scliool) are taught plain 
needlework and cutting-out as part of the 
ordinary course of instruction ' (Xen' Code, 
Art. 96 (b) ). Tlie grant for needlework 
is l.s\, and it is calculated on the average 
attendance of girls only, unless the boys 
are taught the subject (Art. 10(> (c) ). 
In 1886 the grant of I*', under this article 
was earned in 11,484 schools and classes 



NEEDLEWORK 



237 



(97*75 per cent.), and by an average at- 
tendance of 883,418 ; it was not earned in 
264 schools and classes (2"25 per cent.). 
The infant boys obtained a fair share of 
the grant ; out of an average attendance 
of 528,592 boys the grant was earned by 
422,258 (80-07 per cent.) In schools for 
older scholars also thei'e may be obtained 
a similar grant of Is., calculated on the 
average attendance of girls only (Art. 
109 (c)) ; and needlework is one of the 
recognised class subjects for which there 
may be obtained ' a grant on examination 
amounting to Is. or 2s. for each subject, 
if the Inspector's report on the examina- 
tion is fair or good' (Art. 109 (/) ), but 
this grant cannot be obtained along with 
the grant under Art. 109 (c). In 1886 
the grant under Art. 109 (c) was recom- 
mended on account of the girls in 10,493 
(58 '74 per cent.) departments ; it was not 
paid in 560 departments (3*14 per cent.), 
with an average attendance of 21,326 
(1'84 per cent.) ; the remainder of the 
schools eligible for a grant for needlework 
6,809 (38'12 per cent.), with an average 
attendance of 681,080 (58-89 per cent.), 
made their claim for it as a class subject 
under Art. 109 {/) vi. ' It is the smaller 
schools that claim for needlework under 
Art. 109 (c), the average " number for pay- 
ment " per school under this article being 
43 as against 100, the average for schools 
claiming grant as a class subject' {Report 
for 1886-87, p. xxi.) The requirements 
of tho Code are set forth in Schedule III., 
and the Department is of opinion that 
' the obligatory parts contain no more 
work than can be fairly mastered by any 
girls' school in which four hours weekly 
have been devoted to this subject ' {Report, 
1886-87, ' Minutes and Instructions,' sect. 
42, p. 169). In the first two standards 
hemming, seaming, and felling are re- 



quired. Standard 
sewing-on straight, 
(only on canvas or 
darning (on canvas 
troduces oratherins:. 



III. adds stitching, 
herring-bone stitch 
flannel), and simple 

I. Standard IV. in- 
setting-in, button- 



holing, and sewing on buttons, with simple 
marking (on canvas), plain darning (as 
for thin places) in stocking- web material, 
and herring-bone jDatch (at least 3 inches 
square) on coarse flannel. Standard V. 
requires the running of a tuck, plain darn- 
ing of a hole in stocking- web material, and 
patching in calico and flannel. Standards 
YI. and VII. add whip-stitch and setting- 



on frill, with plain darning on coarse linen, 
and patching in print. Besides, garments 
must be shown in each standard, in the 
same condition as when completed by the 
scholars: in Standard III., say a pinafore, 
shift, or apron; in Standards IV. and V., 
say a plain night-shirt, night-gown, or 
petticoat ; in Standards VI. and VII., say 
a baby's night-gown or child's frock. In 
Standard V. cutting-out is reached, the 
requirement being the cutting out of any 
garment, such as is required in Standard 

III. ; in Standards VI. and VII. the 
cutting out of any under-garment for mak- 
ing up in Standard I V. In the first three 
standards each garment must be entirely 
made by its own Standard ; in Standard 

IV. and upwards each girl must present a 
gai-ment made by herself. Further, knit- 
ting is included, and runs through the 
grades of comforters, mufiatees, socks, 
stockings, and the lik e. The pupil-teachers' 
(girls) requirements, which are also set 
forth in Schedule III., correspond largely 
with the four highest standards of the 
girls' and infants' departments, but are 
somewhat more advanced. My Lords 
specially urge that ' the material used 
should not be so fine as to strain the eye- 
sight of the children.' ' In many schools,' 
says Mr. Blakiston {Report, 1886-87, p. 
274), ' the teacher's effoi'ts are marred, and 
systematic teaching hindered, by mothers- 
being allowed to send garments, not only 
of unsuitable material, but involving un- 
suitable stitches, to be made up in school. 
We do our utmost,' he continues, ' to in- 
duce managers to supply suitable ma- 
terials, and to recoup the cost by the sale 
of garments sensibly planned and cut out 
and made up under the eye of the teacher. 
It is the latter's fault if any serious loss 
ensues, as is the case where she takes no 
pains to consult the taste of her customers.' 
This latter responsibility cast upon the 
mistress we consider to be most unfair, 
wholly extraneous to her proper duties, 
and calculated to keep her mind in cruel 
anxiety. The scheme of requirements and 
the mode of inspection are by no means 
generally accepted as satisfactory. One 
lady witness before the recent Royal Com- 
mission on the working of the Elementary 
Education Acts, declared that ' the needle- 
work is all wrong throughout the country, 
every bit of it.' For example: ' It is ridi- 
culous for a gentleman to examine needle- 
work ; he may do it to a certain degree — 



238 NEEDLEWORK NORMAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE ETC. 



he may sec evonuoss, but ho does not know 
whether that evenness is in the riij;ht di- 
rection or in the wrong direction ' (iSccond 
Report, 1887, C. 505(5, p. 17G). Some of 
tlie inspectors, however, do know ; but 
tluM-(> is undoubtedly not a little point 
in (lie I'l-itii'ism. (2) In the syllabus for 
f(Mii;ile c.indida,tes for the Tniining Col- 
leges the requirements (1887) are as fol- 
anvs — Pirst year : the cutting out, making, 
and repairing of any plain article of under- 
clolhing ; the drawing of diagrams on sec- 
tional paper — a woman's chemis(>, an in- 
fant's shirt, a pair of drawers for child of 
five; the answering, on pa.per, of ciuestions 
on needlework. Second yeai- : the higher 
branches of plain needlework, including 
tucking, whipping, and feather-stitching, 
the repairing of linen and print, and darn- 
ing in stocking-web stitch ; the drawing 
of diagi-ams on sectional paper — a wo- 
man's nightdress, a boy's shirt, a. child's 
nuislin pinafore; the cutting-out and mak- 
ing of the above gai-ments; the a.nswering, 
on paper, of questions on needlework. (See 
riahi Nccdh'irork and P/ahi Cntfi)i(f-oi(f, 
both by the Examiner of Needlework to 
the School Board of London (GrilHth, 
Fa.rra,n, Okeden, it Welsh) ; and Flaiu 
JWrdlt'irork and KnUtitnj, by Briet/.cke 
and Rooper (Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrev 
<t Co.). 

Needlework. The Royal School of Art, 
in Exhibition Road, South Kensington, 
was founded in 187li, under the presidency 
of the Princess Christian, for the twofold 
purpose of supplying suitable employment 
for gentlewomen who wish to eke out an 
insurticient fortune, and restoring orna- 
mental necdlewoi'k to the high place it 
once held an\ong the decorative arts. It 
is not a Covernment institution. In 1878 
it was placed on a pernianent basis by 
incorporation of the original association. 
The ultimate protits, after payn\ent of the 
debentures, are to be applied to such 
charitable or other purposes as the asso- 
ciation nuvy from tinu> to time determine, 
not being inconsistent with the provisions 
of the memorandum of association, which 
requires that the shareholders shall not 
take any personal protit out of the asso- 
ciation. There are classes for the instruc- 
tion of amateurs in every kind of stitch in 
crewel, silk, and gold, and the School holds 
itself prepared to supply all sorts of eccle- 
siastical embroidery. Applicants for ad 
mission as qualijied loorkers must (1) be 



gentlewomen by birth and education, and 
(2) be able and willing when employed to 
devote seven hours a day to work at tlie 
School. Every applicant is required to go 
through a course of instruction, consisting 
of nine lessons in Art Needlework of five 
hours each, for which the charge is N.. 
When the coui'se is completed, and the 
teacher has certilied to the due attendance 
and sulHcieiit skill of the applicant, her 
name is registered in the list of the qualihed 
workers of the school. Such registration 
does not entitle the lady to any employ- 
n>ent frou\ the school, but simply renders 
her cpia,litied for employment whenever 
tlie School may have need of lier services. 
The School has agencies in the principal 
towMis of England, and in Canada and in 
the Ihiitetl States of America. 

Newnham College. iSec. Education 
OF CiHi.s and Tkaining of Teachers. 

New Zealand University. See Uni- 
versities. 

Niemeyer, August Hermann (h. 1754, 
d. 1828), (lerman educationist, became in 
1770 professor of theology in the Univer- 
sity of llalle, and inspector of the Halle 
Theological Seminary, and in 1787 prin- 
cipal of the teachers' seminary in the 
Erancke Institution. His Principles of 
Educaiion and I)i,s(ruc(ion, (1799) was 
the lirst attempt at systematising Ger- 
man pedagogy and at aiming at a history 
of education. This work has run through 
nuiny editions, the first eight editions 
being edited by himself. 

]Viglit Schools. See Apult Educa- 
tion. 

Normal College and Academy for the 
Blind. ^V(^ EnuoATioN of tiik Rlind. 

Normal Schools. See Training op 
Teaouers. 

Normal School of Science and Royal 
School of Mines, South Kensington and 
Jermyn Street, is an institution to sup- 
ply systematic instruction in the various 
branches of physical science to students 
of all classes. While the school is pri- 
marily intended for the instruction of 
teachers and of students of the industrial 
classes selected by competition in the 
examinations of the Science and Art De- 
partment, other students are adniitted so 
far as there may be accommodation for 
them, on the payment of fees tixed at a 
scale sufficiently high to prevent undue 
competition with institutions which do 
not receive State aid. 



NOTES OF LESSONS OBEDIENCE AND DISOBEDIENCE 239 



The Royal School of Mines is affiliated 
to the Normal School. Students enter- 
ing for the associateship of the School of 
Mines obtain their general scientific train- 
ing in the Normal School. Instruction 
is given in the school in the following 
subjects : mechanics and mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, biology and botany, 
geology and mineralogy, agriculture, me- 
tallurgy and assaying, mining, elements 
of astronomical physics, practical geo- 
metry, mechanical and freehand drawing. 
Occasional students may enter for any 
course of instruction, or for any number 
of courses, in such order as they please ; 
but students who desire to become asso- 
ciates of the Normal School of Science, or 
of the Royal School of Mines, must fol- 
low a prescribed order of study, which 
occupies from three to three and a half 
years. In the first two years the students 
must all go through the same instruction 
in mechanics and mathematics, physics, 
chemistry, elementary geology, astronomy, 
and mineralogy, with drawing ; afterwards 
they must elect to pass out in one or other 
of the eight divisions, to the subjects of 
which the third and fourth years' studies 
are entirely devoted, namely : (1) me- 
chanics, (2) physics, (3) chemistry, (4) 
biology, (5) geology, (6) agriculture, (7) 
metallurgy, (8) mining. 

A student who passes in all the sub- 
jects of the first two years, and in the 
final subjects of divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 
6, becomes an associate of the Normal 
School of Science ; while, if he takes the 
final subjects of divisions 7 or 8, he be- 
comes an associate of the Royal School of 
Mines. The work of the school is arranged 
in such a manner as to permit the student 
to concentrate his attention upon one sub- 
ject at a time, and he is never occupied 
with the subjects of more than two divi- 



sions in the same term. There are twelve 
Royal Exhibitions to the Normal School 
of Science and Royal School of Mines, 
besides a number of free studentships and 
scholarships. 

Notes of Lessons. — Dr. Arnold of 
Rugby, though unusually well acquainted 
with Roman history, used to prepare all his 
lessons on the subject as carefully as if it 
were new to him, and when some one ex- 
pressed surprise at this he replied, ' I want 
my boys to drink out of a running stream, 
rather than out of a stagnant pool.' No 
teacher can be successful who does not 
give thought beforehand to the matter and 
the method of his lessons. A general, 
even a minute, knowledge of the subject 
is not enough. We must consider what 
are the facts to which we will draw atten- 
tion, which of these we must tell, and 
which we can elicit, what illustrations we 
can employ, and what exercises will best 
impress the whole upon the pupil's memory. 
The fulness of a teacher's notes of a 
lesson will depend largely upon whether 
they are meant for his own use only, or 
for the inspection of another. If for his 
own use only, they will, so long as he is 
dealing with a familiar subject, give the 
merest outline of the matter, and the 
briefest hints of the method and illustra- 
tions ; when the subject is unfamiliar the 
matter will be given more fully. Pupil- 
teachers in elementary schools, students 
in training-colleges, and all who submit to 
the examinations of the Education Depart- 
ment have very often to write notes, not 
for their own use, but to show an in- 
spector how they would give a set lesson. 
In these cases the notes must be self- 
explanatory, and indicate clearly not only 
what would be taught, but how it would 
be taught. 



O 



Obedience and Disobedience. — By an 

act of obedience we understand an action 
performed in response to some command. 
The external form must here be distin- 
guished from the internal reality. A true 
act of obedience involves not merely the 
outward compliance with a command, but 
the inward attitude of submission to au- 
thority. Thus, a boy who refrains from 



a prohibited action merely to escape a 
dreaded form of punishment, whilst he 
hates the preceptor who imposes the pro- 
hibition, does not in the full sense obey. 
Obedience is of two kinds. Of these the 
first is that which is given without any 
recognition of the reasonableness of the 
command and solely in deference to a per- 
sonal authority. This is Kant's ' absolute 



2tO 



OBJECT LESSONS 



obodieuoc' The second kind is the intel- 
ligent and free obedience to law which the 
subject cordially accepts as good. The 
educator of the young is directly concerned 
with securing the lirst kind of obedience. 
Here the iutluence of respect and atlection 
for the personality of the governor counts 
as an important condition of securing true 
obedience. This respect is to be gained 
partly by the habitual display of impar- 
tiality or fairness in administering disci- 
pline, by a perfectly consistent example of 
good conduct, and by a^ judicious mixture 
of kindness and tlrmness. The principle 
of habit is strikingly illustrated in the 
practice of obedience. A child that has 
always been accustomed to obey does so 
at last without any sense of etibrt (str 
Habit). Of all the nioral habits obedi- 
ence most imperatively demands to be 
cultivated in the tirst years of life. An 
infant should be trained in the rudiments 
of obedience as soon as it understands a 
prohibitory word or sign. And when 
the utmost has been done by the parent 
to lay the foundations of the habit there 
need be little fear of disobedience after- 
wards to any properly enforced autho- 
rity. Disobedience has been divided into 
two kinds : that proceeding from a dull, 
sluggish will, as wliere a child fails to 
attend to a command ; and that which 
arises from energy of the individual will, 
or self-will. Each of these requires its 
o\\ni mode of treatment. In dealing with 
the secoi\d kind the teacher should remem- 
ber that the energy of will which shows 
itself in the disobedient act is itself good, 
and requires directing luther than sup- 
pressing. He should be careful to avoid 
the appearance of a struggle of individual 
wills for mastery. In all cases alike, as 
Kant has shown, the preceptor should have 
as his goal the free self-imposed obedience 
to law of the good will, and should seek 
by all the agencies of moral educatioii to 
train the young mind in a clear discern- 
ment of the grounds of the commands im- 
posed and in free acts of moral choice. 
(,S't;t?M. Edgeworths Practical Uducatioi, 
vii., articles ' Gehorsam ' and ' Ungehor- 
sam,' in Schnudt's £)ici/cIopddh', cf. articles 
'Discipline' and 'Moral Education.') 

Object Lessons. — Prof. Bain complains 
(Education a^ a Scioice, page KU) that 
' object lessons ' is a ' very ambiguous and 
misleading phrase.' Here it means lessons 
on sensible things, and on the phenomena 



of nature. The purpose of such lessons is : 
— (i.) To form habits of observation: One 
of the chief defects of school methods is 
that, to a large extent, telling takes the 
place of teaching, cramming of education. 
Facts which children are told are artiticial 
tlowers ; facts which they are made to iiud 
out are living plants, and it is the very 
essence of a good object lesson to make 
the pupil discover for himself everything 
which his senses can reveal, (ii.) To form 
habits of reasoning. A skilful teacher 
does not I'est content Avith getting his 
scholars to observe for themselves (though 
that is a great point gained) ; he also tries 
to make them think for themselves. The 
Urst step is to note a fact, the next to seek 
the cause. Little ones, probably, cannot 
find that without aid, but by careful ques- 
tioning it can generally be elicited, (iii.) To 
■increase knotrledge of '■common things.' 
It is possible to inform without educating, 
but it is not possible to educate without 
informing, and as to the kind of informa- 
tion, it may be said that good teaching, 
like charity, begins at home. 

Object lessons ought to ha^'e the first 
place in infant schools, and not the last 
place in junior schools ; in senior schools 
they ought to be replaced by specific science 
lessons for which they prepare the way. 
Object lessons should be gi\en in courses 
carefully planned and leading up to clearly 
detined ends. The scheme issued by the 
School Board for London, as a suggestion 
to its teachers, is so thoughtfully devised 
as to be woi'th quoting. It is, brieiiy, as 
follows: — For infants. A few objects 
should be selected from each of the four 
following groups : — (a) Domestic Group. — 
The school- room itself, with door, chair, 
table, desk, tire-place, and clock. The 
child's coat, cloak, frock, cap, shawl, and 
boots. Pins, needles, knife, scissors, bell, 
and kettle; to which may be added any 
other articles of school or house furniture, 
clothing, or common utensils, (b) Animal 
Group. — First in importance comes the 
child itself, afterwards the cat, dog, hoi'se, 
cow, sheep, cock and hen, sparrow, herring, 
fiy, beetle, to which may be added any 
other familiar animals, such as donkey, 
rabbit, mouse, goose, caiuvry, lark, pigeon, 
shrimp, crab, lobster, sole, plaice, spider, 
butterfly, bee, periwinkle, oyster, earth- 
worm, itc. The parts of animals may 
form the subject of lessons, such as head, 
hand, foot, paw, eye, ear, mouth, nose, 



OBJECT LESSONS- 



-OPTIMES 



241 



hair, feathers, wool, etc. (c) Plant Groxip. 
— The choice will depend upon the season 
of the year, and should include the nearest 
trees, and such smaller plants as are ac- 
cessible, as the pi"imrose, violet, daisy, 
crocus, dandelion, wallflower, hyacinth, 
geranium, and fuchsia, holly, cabbage, 
pea, bean, potato, onion, carrot, turnip, 
wheat, barley, oats. The parts of plants 
may also form subjects of lessons, as the 
wood, bark, leaves, flowers, seed, root, 
stem, &c., or special products, as apples, 
nuts, starch, sugar, gum. Attention should 
also be drawn to the simple phenomena of 
vegetable growth, by means of actual ob- 
servation or experiment. id) Mineral 
Group. — This should include any acces- 
sible stone, with chalk, sand, coal, salt, 
blacklead, and water, together with iron, 
brick, clay, sulphur, glass, &c. Opportu- 
nity should be taken of bright sunshine, 
black clouds, fogs, heavy showers of hail, 
rain, or snow, strong wind, a rainbow, or 
a thunder storm, to draw attention to 
these natural phenomena. 

Standard 1. Extension of the Object 
Lessons in the Infant School, with simple 
illustrative experiments. Standard II. 
Comparison of different plants or animals. 
Ordinary phenomena of the earth and 
atmosphere. Substances of domestic use. 
Standard III. Simple principles of classi- 
fication of plants and animals. Further 
phenomena of the earth and atmosphere. 
Substances used in the Arts and Manufac- 
tures. Standard IV. More complete clas- 
sification of plants and animals, with typi- 
cal examples. The three forms of matter 
familiarly illustrated. Standard V. (a) 
Animal and plant life, with the most useful 
products, or (b) more definite notions of 
matter and force, illustrated by simple 
machinery or apparatus. Standard VI. 
(a) Animal and plant life, with special 
reference to the laws of health ; or (6) 
the commonest elements and their com- 
pounds ; the mechanical powers. Standard 
VII. (a) Distribution of plants and animals 
and the races of mankind ; or (6) light, 
heat, and electricity, and their applica- 
tions. 

The most common faults in object les- 
sons are : — (i.) In the Hatter. This is 
often too hard, sometimes too easy. It is 
uninteresting in the one case because it 
is unintelligible, in the other because it is 
familiar. All that there is to teach on a 
subject cannot be taught in a lesson, and 



thus a teacher, while choosingmatterwhich 
is neither too hard nor too easy, may yet 
from the facts at his disposal make an 
unwise selection. The general rule is that 
besides being within the comprehension 
and beyond the knowledge of the children, 
the information introduced should be useful 
and interesting, (ii.) In the Illustrations. 
If the teacher is talking about an object 
he should always show a specimen of it. 
It may be quite common, but for children 
familiarity as well as novelty is attractive, 
and, besides, the teacher may wish to call 
particular attention to some feature which 
has hitherto escaped the pupil's observation. 
Pictures, valuable as they are, are only 
worth having when the thing itself can- 
not be got. A picture of a fish, for in- 
stance, will show the shape and position of 
the fins and of the gills, but a goldfish in 
a bowl, or even a stickleback in a bottle, 
will show fins and gills at work. Lessons 
which involve something of science are 
too often given without experiments ; they 
might as well not be given at all. Some- 
times when experiments are carefully pre- 
pared and skilfully performed, they are 
not properly explained. It must be borne 
in mind that an experiment is not neces- 
sarily an illustration, (iii.) In the Lan-- 
guaye. The most common fault in this is 
'bookishness.' It is only after years of 
experience that teachers fully realise how 
small is the vocabulary of a child, especially 
of a child coming from an illiterate home. 
Lessons to little ones are sometimes quite 
unintelligible because the language is too 
difficult, (iv.) In the Questioning. With 
questions, as with illustrations, the most 
common fault is one of omission. The 
chief faults of commission in questioning 
are making the questions long and involved 
so that the pupil can scarcely follow them ; 
or vague, so that it is impossible to say 
what the teacher wants; or clearly ad- 
mitting of two answers, and thus encourag- 
ing guessing. 

Observation. See Perception. 
Open Queen's Scholars. Candidates 
who, not having been pupil-teachers, pass 
the examination for admission into a train- 
ing college (the 'Queen's Scholarship' Ex- 
amination). 

Ophthalmia. See Communicable Dis- 
eases. 

Optimes. — The title of those who gain 
honours next to the wranglers at the Cam- 
bridge Mathematical Tripos {q.v.) ; they 

R 



242 



ORAL INSTRUCTION ORGANISATION 



are divided, according to merit, into Senior 
and Junior Optimes. 

Oral Instruction. — ^Tlie work of the 
teacher consists in training his pupils by 
inducing them to exercise their faculties, 
and in helping and enabling them to ac- 
quire knowledge quickly, soundly, and 
lastingly. To train the faculties properly 
the exercise employed must be suitable to 
their degree of developmeut at the par- 
ticular time. To ascertain what this is, 
and what mode and subject of exercise 
are most suitable, the teacher must enter 
into personal communication with his 
pupil; must question him, and make use 
of the answei-s he gives ; and having found 
one mode or one subject of exercise unsuc- 
cessful, must try another. In the same 
way personal communication between the 
teacher and his pupil, and question and 
answer, are necessary when any person 
seeks to enable another to acquire know- 
ledge quickly, soundly, and lastingly. For 
the teacher must ascertain what knowledge 
his pupil possesses, and how far it is sound ; 
must exercise him in the use of that 
knowledge, and must make perfectly clear 
and interesting the connection of the new 
knowledge to be acquired with that already 
possessed. When we add to this the fact 
that the thing shown, the spoken word, 
and the living interest of the teacher are, 
by the nature of the child, much more 
readily intelligible to him, much more 
powerful in creating interest, and much 
more easily and quickly varied to suit 
every circumstance than thewritten symbol 
ever can be, we shall see the absolute 
necessity for the young of what is called 
'oral instruction ;' and that this necessity 
increases witli the youth of the child. 
For the particular characteristics of good 
oral instruction see articles on Object 
Lessons, Question and Answer, Teacher, 
Teaching and Learning,' &c. 

Orbilius Pupillus, the schoolmaster of 
Horace, and nicknamed by him Plagosus 
on account of his ilogging propensities, 
was a native of Bcneventum. Before 
adopting the profession of a teacher at 
Rome, where he settled in 63 B.C., he 
served first as apparitor (magistrate's 
officer"), and afterwards as a soldier. 
He is said to have lived to be a hundred 
years old, and died about 15 B.C. 

Orbis Pictus. See Comenius. 

Order of Studies. — The proper order 
of studies, so far as this can be determined | 



by theoretic considerations, must be de- 
cided by a reference to psychological and 
to logical principles. The former, by 
showing us that the faculties develop in a 
fixed order (see Development), require us. 
to adapt the subjects of teaching to this, 
order. Thus branches of instruction which, 
like the simple aspects of natural history 
and of physical geography, appeal mainly 
to the observing faculty and the imagi- 
nation should, on psychological grounds, 
precede other branches, as grammar and 
mathematics, which make heavy demands, 
on the faculty of abstract thought or 
I'eason. At the same time, these conclu- 
sions from psychological laws are modified 
by logical considerations which impose on 
the teacher the necessity of beginning with, 
what is relatively simple and fundamental, 
and gradually going on to what is complex 
and derivative. Thus, mathematics, as the 
most general or abstract science, needs to> 
be studied to some extent at the outset as 
the groundwork of all the sciences (see 
Abstract Science). The best order of 
studies is that which most completely 
satisfies the general conditions of psycho- 
logical development, and the more special 
conditioiis of logical dependence. {See ar- 
ticle Instruction (Course of); also Bain, 
Education as a Science, chap. vi. and vii.) 
Organisation.— The woi-k of a school 
naturally arranges itself under three heads i. 
(1) oo'gariisation, which includes all that 
relates to the material and machinery of 
the school; (2) discipline, or that which 
has to do with the government and conduct 
of the pupils; and (3) teaching, or the 
training and instruction of their minds. 
Organisation includes the following mat- 
ters : The site of the school and its sanitary 
arrangements ; the size, shape, and dispo- 
sition, etc., of the rooms; the playground 
and gymnasium ; the dormitories; the 
mode of lighting, ventilating, and warming 
the class-rooms ; the furniture and fittings 
of class-rooms, lecture-rooms, laboratoi'ies, 
etc. ; apparatus, maps, pictures, &c. ; books ; 
registration of admission and attendance ;. 
oflice-work, &c. — all these refer to the 
material of the school. With regard tO' 
the machinery of the school tlie points to 
be considered are : the qualifications, duties, 
and distribution of the head of the school,, 
the adult assistants, the pupil-teachei-s, 
monitors, officers, and servants ; the clas- 
sification of pupils, their arrangement in 
forms, sets, parallel classes, &c. ; their pro- 



ORIGINALITY- 



-OVERPRESSURE 



243 



motion, superannuation, dismissal; place- 
taking, marking, and prizes; arrangements 
of subjects of instruction; hours for lessons 
and for preparation of lessons; playgi^ound 
and out- of -school regulations ; dormitory- 
regulations. Most of these points will be 
found treated in separate articles under 
their respective titles. 

Originality. —This quality, the charac- 
teristic property of genius, is the most 
striking and interesting feature of indivi- 
duality {fi. v.). The original Ijoy or girl 
is one whose ideas do not readily adjust 
themselves to the prescribed pattern, but 
arrange themselves in new forms. Ori- 
ginality thua always involves deviation 
from the average type of intelligence. At 
the same time, it is not necessarily abnormal 
as eccentricity always is. Originality im- 
plies exceptional mental power, but it differs 
from the superior aptitude for learning 
which takes a boy to the head of his class 
{see Natural Aptitude). Hence the 
practical difficulties which arise in con- 
nection with the education of the gifted 
or original boy or girl. As the biographies 
of the great show us, the ordinary disci- 
pline of the school and the college is apt 
to obstruct rather than to promote the 
development of genius. The great mind 
must always be in an exceptional sense its 
own educator (see Self-education). A 
consideration of the rarity and high value 
of originality should put the preceptor on 
his guard against suppressing it by a too 
severe and inelastic mode of instruction. 

Orthoepy. A'ee Elocution. 

Orthography. ^S'ee Gramjiar. 

Overpressure is the name now com- 
monly given to the overwork in connection 
with school life. A knowledge and appli- 
cation of the physiological principles under 
which the brain works would prevent the 
possibility of its occurrence. The brain 
during the period of school life is a rapidly 
growing organ. At birth its average weight 
is from eleven to fourteen ounces, while 
in the European adult it averages between 
forty-nine and fifty ounces. Just as in- 
creased muscular exercise leads to increased 
size and strength of the muscles, so may 
increased brain exercise, durmg the period 
of its natural growth, increase the indivi- 
dual growth of brain. Growth in size and 
increase of complexity of the brain struc- 
ture (which is involved in education) are, 
however, in some degree antagonistic to 
each other. If complexity of structure, 



with its corresponding mental maturity, 
is obtained at an early age, it is at the 
expense of size of brain and real mental 
power. Precocity is generally followed by 
inferior mental organisation. The impor- 
tant point is so to combine work and 
recreation (always remembering tliat the 
brain requires abundant food and fresh 
air) as to obtain the best results in mental 
development. Ordinary school work, in- 
terrupted by vacations, seldom produces 
excessive strain of the mental powers of 
children. It is only in exceptional cases, 
where children are insufficiently fed, or 
are of a peculiarly nervous and excitable 
temperament, or the hours of study are 
unduly prolonged, that this result is likely 
to occur. Headache in such cases is one of 
the earliest symptoms, though this is more 
commonly the result of indigestion, bad 
atmosphere, or defects of vision (see Eye- 
sight). The brain may become congested 
from overwork, and this would predispose 
to the production of meningitis (inflam- 
mation of the membranes of the brain). 
The most common cause of meningitis is, 
however, tubercular disease, and school 
work only at most tends to hasten the at- 
tack. Chorea (St. Vitus's Dance) has also 
been ascribed to school work, though with 
doubtful accuracy. After acute illnesses, 
as fevers, &c., it takes many weeks before 
the brain recovers its former condition 
of nutrition and power. Similarly, after 
severe blows on the head or concussion of 
the brain, prolonged mental rest should 
be allowed. Overpressure in school work 
is apt to occur when the school work is 
excessive or badly arranged, or when the 
scholar's health is depreciated from any 
cause. Deficient exercise, impure air, de- 
ficient clothing, or insufficient or unsuit- 
able food, are all causes of incapacity for 
mental work, especially the last. Hotne- 
lessons are frequently given which require 
unduly prolonged attention ; and when to 
this is added the fact that they usually 
have to be prepared in the evening, and 
frequently encroach on the time for amuse- 
ment and meals, it will be evident that 
they are frequently a cause of mischief. 
A had arrangement of school loork, as by 
having too long lessons, and no changes of 
occupation, may be responsible for some 
mischief. A change of subjects, as from 
languages or history to mathematics, means 
that different parts of the brain are exer- 
cised, and so a balanced action is secured, 

k2 



244 



OVERPRESSURE 



without overwork of any one part of the 
brain. The introduction of manual in- 
struction in schools has an important part 
to play ill the teaching of the future. 
Examinations are chiefly sources of over- 
pressure when they are competitive in 
character ; and gii-ls, who have a more 
mobile nervous system and a greater 
preponderance of the emotional faculties, 
are peculiarly prone to suffer from them. 
When properly conducted an examination 
may be of great educative value, by finding 
out weak points, and stimulating the future 
efforts of scholars. It is when undue strain 
is put on children for some weeks before 
the date of an examination, that mischief 
may result. 

In Prussia and various other States of 
Germany the question of overpressure has 
occupied much attention. In 1881 the 
whole question was ref en'ed by the Prussian 
Government to a special Commission, con- 
sisting of Professor Virchow and other 
eminent medical authorities. The report 
presented by this body is the last and most 
authoritative word that has yet been spoken 
on this question, so far as Germany is con- 
cerned. Overpressure is defined by the 
Prussian Commission as existing where 
' the brain-work demanded of scholars is 
excessive, either as regards quantity or 
time,' or as ' the imposition of excessive 
labour on certain organs, to wit, the brain 
and nervous system, whether by demand- 
ixig too much work of them in a given 
time, or by habitually keeping those organs 
.at work too long a time together.' In 
Prussia overpressure has been inferred 
from the fact that the number of children 
■of school age who commit suicide has been 
on the increase of late years. The Prus- 
sian Statistical Office repoi'ts that the 
number of children between ten and fifteen 
years of age who committed suicide in the 
year 1869 was 19. By the year 1881 
the number of suicides of the same age 
had risen to 53. Between ten and twenty 
years of age the number of suicides had 
increased from 165 in 1869, to 260 in 
1881. These figures are, however, rather 
misleading, as the percentage had remained 
the same in proportion to the population. 
Insanity was the cause to which a large 
proportion of the suicides of youths and 
girls from ten to fifteen years of age was 
attributed ; but the Commission held that 
no proof had been adduced of the alleged 
tendency of education in the higher classes 



of schools to produce mental disorders. 
In various districts of Prussia such mala- 
dies as headache, bleeding at the nose, and 
congestion of the brain among scholars 
appeared to be increased by their school 
work ; but even on this point the Com- 
mission held that the evidence before them 
was quite inconclusive. It may be re- 
marked that in Germany the question of 
overpressure has arisen mainly in con- 
nection with the higher grade schools, 
such as the Gymnasia and Real-Scliulen, 
while in England complaints of this cha- 
racter have been connected chiefly with 
elementary education. In spite of the fact 
that the quantity and kind of mental work 
in the former make far greater demands 
on the scholars than in the latter, the 
Prussian Commission state their opinion 
that no conclusive evidence of overpressure 
has been produced as regards Prussian 
schools. On the general question of the 
eft'ect of school work on the health of chil- 
dren, the following passages from the 
official report will be read with interest : — 
' It is matter of common observation,' 
the Commissioners remark, ' that upon a 
large number of scholars, especially those 
of tender age, school life exercises a visibly 
weakening effect. The children lose their 
freshness of appearance ; they become pale, 
show a loss of appetite, and feel fatigued 
and exhausted ; their vision and energy 
decrease, and they become indifferent and 
inattentive, while their memory becomes 
uncertain, and their thoughts confused. 
The holidays, especially if spent in the 
country, restore them ; the colour returns 
to their cheeks, they regain their vivacity 
of movement, and their mental activity is 
reiiewed. A few weeks after the resump- 
tion of school-work, however, the favour- 
able effects of the holidays disappear, and 
after a few months the pupils are in 
ui'gent need of a fresh period of rest and 
I'ecreation. The extent of the changes is 
exceedingly various in individual cases. 
With many scholars it is the central ner- 
vous system that is affected ; in others 
the organs of digestion ; in a third class 
the muscles and respiratory organs. The 
symptoms are sometimes fatigue and ex- 
haustion, and in other cases nervous irri- 
tation of every degree up to spasmodic 
convulsive fits. The removal of such chil- 
dren from school for a longer or shorter 
time is often then advisable. Many chil- 
dren no doubt date their permanent con- 



OWENS COLLEGE-^OXFORD 



245 



dition of mental or physical weakness from 
this period, 

' Yet it is our opinion,' continues 
the report, ' that this weakness is not at- 
tributable simply to overpressure. The 
vitiated atmosphere of schools, and in 
many cases faulty domestic arrangements, 
have much to do with it.' The Commis- 
sioners recommend teachers to study the 
individual characters of pupils. ' There is 
no constant standard,' they add, ' by which 
the limits between overpressure and an 
admissible amount of work can be deter- 
mined. What in some cases is allowable 
is in others overpressure. The symptoms 
of the latter are only to be perceived after- 
wards ; but whether they can always be 
properly distinguished by teachers without 
medical assistance is very doubtful.' The 
Commissioners hold that competent me- 
dical assistance is required to collect the 
materials to foi'm a conclusive judgment on 
the question of overpressure in Germany. 
Still, ' overpressure depends more on the 
teacher and the method of teaching than 
on anything else.' For the influence of 
school work in producing phthisis see Con- 
sumption. 

Owens College. See Provincial Col- 
leges. 

Oxford. See Universities. 

Oxford and Cambridge Schools Exami- 
nation Board was established by articles 
of agreement between the Schools Exami- 
nation Delegacy and Syndicate of Oxford 
and Cambridge respectively, November 8, 
1873. The Board consists of the Vice- 
chancellors and twelve other members of 
each University, appointed from time to 
time by election and nomination. There are 
two secretaries. The organisation of the 
Joint Board is quite distinct from that of 
the Syndicate and Delegacy of Local Ex- 
aminations {see Syndicate). The work of 
the Joint Board, which is concerned with 
' secondary ' schools (schools with a regu- 
larly constituted governing body, or which 
send a fair proportion of pupils to the 
Universities), is of two kinds : 

I. To examine and report on the work 
of schools and parts of schools by arrange- 
ment with the head-master or governing 
body. 

II. To hold a yearly examination at 
such schools as desire it, and at Oxford, 
Cambridge, and other centres, and to 
award certificates on the examination. 

There are three kinds of certificate 



examination, for (i.) Higher certificate, 
(ii.) Lower certificate (first examination, 
July 1883), (iii.) Commercial certificate 
(first examination, July 1888). 

(i.) Higher Certificate. — To obtain this 
the candidate must satisfy the examiners 
in four subjects, taken from not less than 
three of the following groups. (Distinc- 
tion may be obtained in each subject ex- 
cept II. (1).) 

Group I. (1) Latin, (2) Greek, 
(3) French, (4) German. 

Group II. (1) Elementary, (2) Addi- 
tional mathematics. 

Group III. (1) Scripture knowledge, 

(2) English, (3) History. 

Group IV. (1) Natural philosophy, 
mechanical division; (2) Natural philo- 
sophy, physical division ; (3) Natural phi- 
losophy, chemical division ; (4) Botany ; 
(5). Physical geography and geology ; 
(6) Biology. 

In the case of girls, (1) The examina- 
tion may be taken in two parts, the can- 
didate being required to pass in two sub- 
jects at each examination. (2) A choice 
is given of three other subjects : a. Italian 
(Group I.), h. Drawing (II.), c. Music 
(IV.) 

Fee, 21., or \l. 10s. for candidates who 
hold a certificate. 

(ii.) Lower Certificate. — A candidate 
must pass in five subjects, taken from not 
less than three groups, of which I. and II. 
are compulsory. 

Group I. (1) Latin, (2) Greek, 

(3) French, (4) German. 

Group II. (1) Arithmetic, (2) Addi- 
tional mathematics. 

Group III. (1) Scripture knowledge, 

(2) English, (3) English history, (4) Geo- 
graphy. 

Group IV. (1) Chemistry, (2) Physics. 

Geometrical drawing may be taken, 
but not as one of the five necessary sub- 
jects. Fee, 21s., with extra fee of 10s. for 
a candidate examined away from his school. 

(iii.) Commercial Certificate. — A can- 
didate must pass in (1) at least one of 
the following : French, German, Italian, 
Spanish ; (2) Arithmetic and algebra ; 

(3) English and geography ; (4) One of the 
following : («) Latin, (6) English history, 
(c) Political economy, {d) Drawing, (e) In- 
organic chemistry, (/) Organic chemistry, 
{g) Mechanics, (li) Electricity and mag- 
netism, (i) Sound, light, and heat. Fee, 
1/. 5s., with an extra fee of 10s. for a can- 



246 



OXFORD PARALLEL C RAlNOt ARS 



didato oxnuunod awiiv U-om his srhool. 
Tliero are two classes in i\u'h siilijei't in 
botli (ii.) and (iii.) 

.Statist ies for 1887. — Scltools cxaDtijivd : 
73 boys", o8 girls' soliools. JJii/JirrcertiJt- 
cnte. — Candidates, 902 ; certilieates, r)84. 
Lower certificate. — Candidates, 1^7 ; cer- 
tiiieates, 273. 

Cost of School IJ.va))ii)iatio)i. — Tliis 
varies Mith tlie staiidard of papers set and 
the size of elasses examined. A set of 
liigher oertitieate papers set to a elass eosts 
about 1 r^s'. per paper abo>'o the eertitieate 
fees if the boys or girls in the elass are 
all i-audidates for eertiiieates, and if tlie 
authorities of the sehool want the marks 
before the results of the eertitieate exa- 
uiination are published. The eharge for 
exaauiniug lower forms deereases in pro- 
portion. ' Inspeetioual ' papers, examined 
first by a master and inspected by the 
examiner, are charged at a lower rate. A 
reduction of one-tliird in the total charge 
is made, under certain conditions, to 
schools of less than 100. In the case of 
the lower and commercial eertitieate exa- 
uunation there is a charge of one guinea 
a day for a super\ isor. 

Ji.ir)uptio)is.— The higher eertitieate 
exempts, under certain conditions, from 



respcMjsions, the preliminary examination 
for JNlus. Bac. at (.)xford, the previous 
examination at Cambridge, the preliuvi- 
naiy examinations of the Incorporated 
Law Society, the Ceneral Council of Me- 
dical Education, from parts of the exami- 
nations of the Royal Institute of British 
Ari'hitects, of the Surveyors' Institution, 
and from part of the examinations for 
Sandhurst and Woolwich. The lower eer- 
titieate exempts, uiuler certain conditions, 
from the preliminary exivminations of the 
Pliarmacinitieal Society and of the Royal 
JNlilitary College, and of the Ceueral Coun- 
cil of JNledical Kducation. 

Application for school examinations 
should be maile to one of the secretaries 
before Februaiy 15, .and names of candi- 
dates for certilicates sent in before JNIay 20. 
Further inforuu\tiou may be obtained from 
the Report of the Joint Hoard for 1 880-7, 
and the Regulations for 1888 (Oxford : at 
the Clarendon Press, and at IIG High 
Street ; Cambridge : at the University 
Press, and at Messrs. Deighton, Bell ife 
Co., Trinity Street), and from the secre- 
taries — E. J. Gross, M.A., Caius College, 
Cambridge, and P. E. Matheson, M.A., 
New College, Oxford. 



Pansopliic Method. ^'('<• Comextus. 

Parallel Classes. — Thereareboth maxi- 
nunn and mininunn limits to the lunuber 
of pupils who can with advantage be 
placed together in one class, however 
skilful the teacher may be. INloreover, 
tJie nximber of grades or steps in a school 
sliould never be more than a normal pupil 
can ascend during his school life, without 
being unsettled by a too frequent and 
irregular promotion. Hence, in a. school 
of any size, it is connnonly found necessary 
to separate pupils of the sauu^ proticicncy 
into two or more classes, and to reduce 
the number of grades by placing two or 
more classes in the school ladder upon the 
same level. These two considerations 
produce the same result ; viz. that in 
certain parts of the school there are classes 
whose work is the same — which are^)(?>-(?//(7 
ami not successi>-e to one another. These 
are called ^jjaralhl clasttctt.' The same 
thing also occurs in the lower stasres of 



schools by no means large, when the iiewly 
entercil pupils are too numerous for one 
class, and yet have shown so far no marked 
diflerence in proticicncy. 

Parallel Grammars. — The need for 
uniformity of method in dealing with the 
grauuuatical phenomena of ditierent lan- 
guages Avas early felt by ediicational re- 
formers. Ratich {q.i\) enunciated the 
principle, 'Uniformity in all things, as 
well in the nu^thod of teaching as in the 
books, rules, i^'c. ; so that the grammars 
of the various languages taught nuiy be 
as far as possible harmonised.' Comenius 
{q.r.) held the same view : 'Let there be 
one and the same method for instructing 
in all tongues.' In more modern times 
several scholars of high repute have lent 
the authority of their names to this prin- 
ciple. For an eloquent appeal on behalf of 
uniformity the reader may be referred to the 
delightful work of Prof. D'Arcy Thompson 
called Da>/ I)rea»is of a ScJtoolmaiiter. 



PARALLEL GRAMMARS 



247 



'' We still separate by arbitrary boundaries 
studies that we know, or should know, to 
be cognate. If Latin, Greek, and Teutonic 
are really sisters, and French a daughter 
of one of them, why should it be thought 
impossible to teach them all on some 
catholic plan? At the very least, the 
grammatical terms employed in one school- 
room might be employed in another. If a 
boy were called upon to parse such a 
sentence as "/ should like to know," in 
three consecutive class-rooms, he would 
find a Conditional Mood in the French 
room, a Subjunctive one in the Latin, and 
an Optative one in the Greek. A very 
Proteus of a mood; now a bear, now 
crackling fire, now running water, that 
slips through one's fingers.' 

The evils of anarchy in grammar are 
obviously of no slight magnitude. When 
the pupil finds terms used in different 
senses in different books, he either ceases 
to attach any meaning to them or be- 
wilders himself in the attempt to reconcile 
what is irreconcilable : the result is that 
.grammar appears to him to l)e an arbitrary 
puzzle, and his only safeguard seems to lie 
in keeping a separate compartment of his 
mind for the grammar of each separate 
language. To take a single example : 
what idea can a pupil attach to tense 
names, when he is presented with no less 
than five different names for the five 
forms wrote, schrieb, scripsit, ecrivit, eypaxf/e, 
the use of which appears to him to be 
identical? In French it is Definite, in 
Greek Indefitiite (doptcrros), in German 
'(generally) Imperfect, in Latin Perfect, in 
English simply Past (or Past Indefinite). 
Were these names really distinctive of 
various shades of meaning in these forms, 
Ihey might be justified on scientific grounds, 
if not from the point of view of teaching ; 
but, as a matter of fact, the diversity 
depends, not on anything in the nature of 
the forms — though, of course, the scope of 
the Greek and French tenses is less wide 
than that of the English and German 
forms — but simply upon different points 
of view in the writers of grammars. Each 
name has sprung into existence from a 
desire to express some important aspect 
of a grammatical fact ; but none has been 
dictated by consideration for the needs of 
other languages. These tense-names are 
in fact not adapted to be used side by side. 
Similar anarchy prevails in the nomencla- 
ture of cases and moods, and the parts of 



speech. Nor is this surprising. Our 
grammars are based upon systems derived 
from such different sources as Roman 
emperors. Stoic philosophers, the French 
Academy, and English headmasters. Thus 
the term Mood is used in two quite diffe- 
rent senses — sometimes denoting a distinct 
form, sometimes a certain class of sentences. 
Hence the term Potential Mood, which 
has not yet died out, in spite of Mr. Ma- 
son's vigorous protest against it. . The 
description of the Subjunctive is very dif- 
ferent in different books ; in some it is the 
mood of possibility (Morris), in others the 
mood of doubt or uncertainty, in others 
the mood of unreality, in others the thought 
mood, in others the mood of unll (Del- 
briick, Brugmann), as distinct from the 
Optative, or mood of vmh. The pupil 
infers simply that it is the mood of vague- 
ness. (Compare article Grammar.) In the 
parts of speech the greatest confusion pre- 
vails. What is a pronoun in one grammar 
is an adjective or adjective-pronoun or 
pronominal adjective in another. The Pub- 
lic School Primer and many other gram- 
mars call all words like qiiurn, si, dum, 
nt, 'Subordinate Conjunctions.' Mr. Roby, 
in his Latin Grammar, calls them all' Con- 
nective Adverbs. ' Mr. Mason, in his En- 
glish Grammar, distinguishes the corre- 
sponding English words as: L Relative 
Adverbs [tvlien, vihere, as, &c.), 2. Subordi- 
nate Conjunctions (J)ecause, after, vnhile, 
if). The article is for the most part given 
up, as a separate part of speech, in en- 
lightened English grammars, but still lin- 
gers on in French and German. When 
we come to the verbals (Yerb-Nouns, 
Yerb- Adjectives) we find that while En- 
glish grammars adopt a scientific line of 
treatment, in French the gerund is, as a 
rule, not recognised at all; the pupil is 
told that in the phrase en jxissant, he has 
to deal with a participle (Yerb- Adjective). 
In the analysis of the sentence we have 
much confusion. The term sentence de- 
notes sometimes the expression of a 'com- 
plete thought ' (i.e. a thought containing 
both subject and predicate) by means of a 
finite verb, sometimes the expression of 'a 
complete thought,' whether by means of 
a finite verb or not. Subordinate groups 
containing subject and predicate of their 
own are called sometimes sentences (adjec- 
tival sentences, &c.), sometimes clauses 
(adjectival clauses, &c.). The term phrase 
is used by most teachers of French as 



248 



PARALLEL GRAMMARS 



inoauing srn'cucr : in KngHsIi ^Taianiai's it 
denotos a group i^t' words having tlie t'uuo- 
tiou of a single part of speech, and con- 
taining no finite verb. The simple sentence 
is analysed on difterent principles (.s-tt' 
Analysis of Skxtkxcks); the varieties of 
the compound sentence are sometimes 
treated under one heading, soraetimesundev 
two headings (Compound and Con\plex 
sentences). The arrangement of the phe- 
nomena of syntax proceeds sometimes on 
the lines of accidence (this maybe described 
as the old-fashioned method); sometimes 
on the basis of analysis. The latter method 
is followed by ^Ir. ^Mason and by Pr. Ken- 
nedy in the Public School Latin Grannnar 
(partly, too. in the Public School Latin 
Primer). Teachers of naodern la)\guages, 
as a rule, prefer the old n\ethod ; the new 
method is, at least partly, followed by n\ost 
recent English grammars. These two 
schools of grammarians ditTer foto caJo in 
their views as to teaching syntax ; the old 
method discusses the «.v't\s' 0/ /on»s, and 
arranges its matter imder the headings of 
eases (nominative, accusative, t.^'c.), moods 
(indicative, subjunctive, *.te.). The new 
metliod may be called the method of sen- 
tences; it begins by classifying sentences 
and then asking how (i.e. by what^o/v^.s-) 
each kind is expressed. The lirst nu^hod 
aims at presenting in one place the whole 
doctrine of, say, the subjunctive mood, the 
other exhibits the unity of tlie Subject, the 
Object, the Co))>j^fe))ie)it ; the Statement, 
the Questio)!, the Coiinnand, ikc. Xeither 
systen\ can be quite rigorously carried out 
in practice; but it is obvious that the 
onler of syntax will ditier in most vital 
points according as the one or other method 
is preferred. And it is clear that the 
pupil cannot be expected to translate 
grammatical facts from the one system to 
the other. Rules which might be ex- 
pressed in identical terms for difterent 
knguages are expivssed in various and 
even contradictory terms. For example, 
a mai-ked feature common to Aryan lan- 
guages is the use of the Intinitive after 
cei-tain verbs, e.g. : / can (rrite, icli kann 
schreiben, posftnm ^cnbere^je judg ecrire, 
Si'ja/ioi yfnif^eir, etc. In Liitin, the pupil 
at many of our public schools is nowadays 
taxight that the Intinitive is rrolative, i!e. 
, carries out' the construction of the tinite 
verb. In German, on the contrary, the tinite 
verb is called Anxiiian/ to the Intinitive: 
each mode of treatment is partially justi- 



iied, neither expresses the whole truth. 
In Greek and French this use of the 
Intinitive is often not named at all ; the 
rule simply speaks of ' 'T/te Intinitive.' The 
term Coniplenicnfari/ is sometimes used. 
To determine which is the best tenn may 
be ditlicult ; but any one employed consis- 
tently Avould be an improvement on the 
present st^vte of things. xVgain, the sphere 
of the Indirect Object is ill detined. The- 
Public School Primer treats not only the 
Dative after verbs of 'giving,' «fec., but 
also the Dative after /aveo, parco, rideo)\ 
itc., and eA-en that after adjectives, as. 
Datives of the Indirect Object (though no 
Direct Object is expressed or understood 
in the latter case) ; others even treat the 
second Object after verbs of 'teacliing,' 
i^'C, as an Indirect Object. 

But, it may be asked, are not thes& 
incongruities in the grannnars of ditl'erent 
languages inevitable? No doubt the ques- 
tion is hedged round withditViculties ; and 
the idea of uniformity must not be inter- 
preted in a narrow spirit. If there are- 
striking resemblai\ces between the mem- 
bers of tlie Indo-European family — re- 
semblances which have often been ob- 
scui-ed by the current treatment in school 
j books — there are also radical dift'erences- 
I between the languages of Teutonic origin 
I and those derived from Latin. To ignore 
then\ would be to do violence to the genius 
of the one or the other group. 

But there are two considerations which 
may be of service in solving that problem: 
(1) If the method be adopted of laying 
down certain distinctions of thought, and 
then asking how twch language expresses 
them, or whether it leaves them confused, 
a parallel treatment is quite possible. Such 
a method might very well be based on tlie 
analysis of sentences as now widely prac- 
tised in English-speaking countries. It 
would be necessary to guard against the 
encroachment of mere logic upon the do- 
main of grammar {see Analysis of Sen- 
TKXCEs); any revival of the attempt to 
deduce the laws of grammar from categories 
of thought would be an anachronism. It 
Avould be necessary to draw up a carefully 
selected list of constructions worth consi- 
deration and explanation, ami to limit the- 
grammars to them only. {'2) Mi;ch ad- 
vantage might con\e froni n\aking English, 
the point of depai-txn-e : pantllel grammars, 
for Englisli schools slioiild tind a centre ia 
a grammar of English. The other gram- 



PARAPPIRASE PASCAL, JACQUELINE 



249 



ixiars would tlien have to provide an answer 
to the question : How far does the usage 
of a particuhir foreign language coincide 
with that of English, and in how far is it 
different? The advantage of such a treat- 
ment would be that it would illustrate the 
one language by the help of the other, and 
thus lead to clearer ideas about both. In 
current grammars it is often difficult to 
distinguish what is common to the two 
from what is a special feature of one of 
them. To quote the words of the Great 
Didactjic of Comenius: 'Let the precepts 
of a new language be first known as diffe- 
rences from languages already known. . . . 
It is not only useless to teach what is com- 
mon to a new language with one already 
acquired, but it is confusing and over- 
whelming.' Greek grammar may safely be 
treated in connection with Latin, because 
few people learn Greek first; but other 
languages ought to be based directly upon 
the mother-tongue. 

At the present day there are many 
teachers who regard uniformity in the 
teaching of grammar as a not merely 
fanciful ideal, but one from which they 
expect great results; believing that the 
difficulties involved in applying the method 
may be overcome, and that grammar will 
then become a more useful instrument of 
teaching than it is at present. Several 
schools, both in England and America, 
have formulated schemes for use, and the 
results, so far obtained, are pronounced to 
be encouraging. In 188.5 a society called 
the Grammatical Society was formed by a 
number of teachers representing all kinds 
of schools and colleges, with the express 
purpose of introducing uniformity of ter- 
minology into the teaching of English, 
Latin, French, German, and Greek (Pre- 
sident, Rev. A. R. Vardy, M.A., Head 
Master of King Edward's School, Bir- 
mingham). 

Paraphrase. — This term is not infre- 
quently taken to signify an attempt to 
change the vjordiny of a sentence or para- 
graph without changing its mea7iing. Such 
an attempt is not only in most cases en- 
tirely hopeless, but seldom or never has it 
any educational value — especially when 
the original is the work of a real artist in 
language. To change the wording m^ust, 
to some extent, change the meaning — ex- 
cept, perhaps, as far as the substitution of 
modern for obsolete words is concerned — 
and must change or destroy the beauty of 



the passage. As a school term paraplorase 
should (and does generally) signify the 
expansion and ex]> licit statement of all 
that is im,plied Vjy the metaphors and 
similes, references and associations, of a 
passage of prose or verse. Its educational 
value, in this sense, is considerable ; for it 
is only by unravelling and carefully exa- 
mining the material used by a skilled • 
writer to produce his effect — be the mate- 
rial figure of speech or associations con- 
nected with the words, or even the cadence 
of the sentences — that we can learn to do 
likewise, or can give evidence that we 
understand and appreciate the passage 
set before us. By this process the passage- 
is not disfigured or destroyed, but search- 
ingly, clearly, and completely expounded. 

Parsing. S'ee Analysis op Sentences.. 

Pascal, Blaise. >^ee Jansenists. 
^Pascal, Jacqueline (b. 162.5, d. 1661),. 
sister of the celebrated Blaise Pascal, 
achieved a considerable reputation in con- 
nection with the education of children at 
the institution at Port Royal des Champs. 
After the death of her father, Jacqueline, 
in January 16.52, joined the Port Royalists 
as a religieuse, and next year assumed the 
name of Soeur Sainte-Euph^mie. In 1655 
she was appointed submistress of the 
novices, charged to conduct their educa- 
tion, and for tlie rest of her life remained 
at the head of that department. In this 
position she greatly distinguished herself. 
The principles slie pursued in the educa- 
tion of her pupils she described in a special 
treatise entitled Reylement des Ecoles de 
Filles de Fort-Royal. Among otlier things 
Sister Euph(imie attempted to introduce 
an improved method of teaching reading, 
originally devised by her brother. In the 
first part of her Reglement pour les En- 
fants she gives a minute account of the 
method she pursued in the physical, men- 
tal, and religious education of her girls- 
at Port Royal. The second part of the 
treatise is of most pedagogic interest. It 
describes the character and behaviour of 
the schoolmistress as she ought to be 
according to Catholic Jansenist ideas, and 
discusses the whole field of the manage- 
ment of children, the question of rewards 
and punishments, the course of reading, 
and the training of the moral character of 
pupils. However obsolete many of the 
special recommendations in this treatise, 
its general character is such as to extort 
our admiration for the authoress, as an 



2r>o 



PAUPE 11 ED r ATION 



oxnmplo ot" lot"ty sclt'-saoritu'o and ikno- 
tiou to duty iiv the work ot" trtiiiiiug the 
youTig. The suppvossion ot" the school, 
whk'li was etleotod in April UU>1, and the 
perseoutvon to wliioli the Port Royalists 
weiv svibjeeted, oliiotly throusih Jesuit 
jealousy, was a eruel blow to Sister Eu- 
pheuiie, aud she died iu October in the 
sauu> year of a broken heart. (N»(' Jan- 

.SKXISTS.) 

Pauper Education. — The sixteenth 
Annual Report of the Local (.Tovernnunit 
Boanl, J uue 1887 (^lCyreai\d 8pottis\voode, 
ox. Wl.), showed that in our workhouses, 
woi'khouse schools, and distinct union 
schools, there were 55,472 children of the 
iState, excluding o,ll77 boarded out iu pi*i- 
vate families. Of these iU,Oll were 'or- 
phans or other children ivlieved without 
their parents," the latter phnxse applying 
chietly to children pinictically orphans, v^*- 
•deserted by parents who cannot be found. 
Of the 55,47- children for whom the Poor 
Law provided education, 7,0t.>9 were in dis- 
trict schools, •J4,58o were tavight in work- 
houses aiui separate Poor l^aw schools other ! 
than district schools ; the ren\ainder were 
sent out to public elementary schools. There i 
are four inspectors of Poor I^aw schools ; 
o7,o"J;V. waspaid forteachers in the schools. ' 
This total has steadily decreased since 188'J, 
owing to the increasing favour with which 
boards of guardians look upon the plan of 
sending their cliildreu out to school instead j 
of keeping them night and day in the same i 
atmosphere and euvironnunxt. In "JOO of I 
the 047, i.e. 41 percent, of the unions, the 1 
ohildivn aiv now (1888) sent out to public i 
elementary schools ; in "J 71 they are taught 
iu the workhouse (but 1 2 of these unions 
seiul some of the children out) ; in 58 they 
aiv taught iu detached or separate schools 
other than district schools ; in ."U cases 
they are sent to district schools ; and iu 
:21 they (being few) are sent to the schools 
<>f another union. 

Public attention has been of late years 
much diivoted to the inadvisability of 
keeping children in pauper establislnnents, 
wheivby the pauper taint aiul characteris- 
tics an\ it is urgvd, inevitably civated, 
especially in the case of girls. Air. Nassau 
Senior (whose works should be consulted) 
was perhaps the piovieer in this direction, 
and public opinion has been enlightened a;ul 
diivcteil also by the labours of the Metro- 
politan Association for Befriending Young 
iServants (15 Buckingham 5>tivet, Adelphi, 



W.O.) ; the Association for Promoting the 
Poanlii\g out of Pauper Children (Miss 
W. Hall, Devonshire Place, Eastbourne, 
hon. sec.) ; Aliss EUice Hopkins (Percy 
House, Bnghtoi\) and her Ijadies" Associa- 
tions for Befriending Friendless Girls ; 
Mr. F. Peek's iSoaal Wirckaijt' ; aud the 
work of the Church of England Society 
for Providing Honu^s fo)" Waifs and Stnvys 
(;>-J Charing Cross. 8.\V.), and others. 

It is widely admitted that the old plan 
of keeping children ami adults together in 
workhouses is thoroughly bad, and not to 
be thought of, except when parents accom- 
pany their children aud arepi'obably only 
in for a short time. Sepai'ate schools and 
disti'ict schools ai-e also open to many ob- 
jections, as ingraiuing pauperism by keep- 
ing and tniining children apart from any 
healthy contact with the outside world. The 
huge district schools, chietly metropolitan, 
wherein 000 children may be barracked 
together, are found to produce most evil 
results, from u\oi';il, ecoi\ou\ical, and social 
points of view. On the other hand, it has 
been argued that to keep down pauperisni 
the pauper stigma must be kept on the 
children. Our colonies at tirst naturally 
copied the English Poor Law system, but 
have discovennl its faults. Several Aus- 
tralian colonies now have no State children 
in any State institution of the workhouse- 
school type. 

Good u\ay be done by sendii\g the chil- 
dren out to mingle in a National or Board 
school with others whose lot is move happy 
aud life more uatuiul. In Leeds this is 
not only done, but the ordinary pauper 
uniform is discarded. Put the depauperi- 
sation of children may best be etl'ected in 
the following ways, all of which are beii\g 
increasingly adopted : (1) By boarding out 
all orphan and deserted children of tender 
years with foster-parents, mxder certitied 
committees of ladies in the country. This 
is the most econon\ical, as well as the best 
plan, aiul has for many years been tho- 
ivughly worked in Scotland, Ireland, our 
colonies, and ii\ fact nearly eveiy country 
except England. In 1888 our 047 boards 
only thus benetited 1,1 7 il childivn, i.e. not 
two per board. (_) The childnm are placed 
with foster-parents, but within the limits 
of the union to which they belong, ai\d ai-e 
inspected by the ivlievingothcei'S andguar- 
diatis. Theiv were LM05 thus placed out 
in 1888. This is really only a kind of out- 
door ivlief, preferable, however, to keeping 



PAUPER EDUCATION 



251 



the children in the workhouse, or destroy- 
ing their individuality and depriving them 
of home education in a district school. 
(3) Placing elder children, especially girls, 
in voluntary homes or industrial schools 
established and managed by private indi- 
viduals. The Waifs and Strays Society 
had in 1888 six of this kind certified and 
inspected by the Local Government Board, 
besides others affiliated to it. In the same 
year tliere were 143 of such schools in 
England and Wales. (4) By emigration 
to Canada under the special care of pri- 
vate persons or philanthropic societies — 
e.g. the Waifs and Strays Society — who are 
recognised by the Local Government Board. 
Great care is here necessary in the selec- 
tion of children. Canada readily distin- 
guishes between a workhouse or institution 
child and one who has had the more natu- 
ral training of a small home, and it is de- 
sirable for guardians to send to such homes 
for at least six months those whom they 
wish to emigrate. Emigration costs about 
10/., or about one-third of the cost for one 
year of a child in some of our district 
schools. Yet only 166 were emigrated in 
1886. The emigration officei'S of the Ca- 
nadian Department of Agriculture now 
report to the Local Government Board the 
results of their inspection of the children 
placed out, and these reports are described 
as ' generally satisfactory.' The Board 
prefer girls to be under ten years old. It 
is generally believed that if these four plans 
were more commonly adopted the number 
of children reared as paupers would very 
rapidly diminish, the saving to the rates 
would be great, and the gain to the health 
and wealth of the State greater still. 

In this article distinctions are assumed 
between paupers and tlie indigent poor. 
The education of the poor and their chil- 
dren involves questions merging in various 
articles on primary and State education 
{see articles Ragged Schools, Waifs and 
Strays, Vacation ScnooLS, Royal Com- 
missions). The National Society (Sanc- 
tuary, Westminster, S.W.) is the recog- 
nised handmaid of the Church of England 
for promoting the education of the poor 
in distinctive religious principles. By 
means of the ofFer-ingsof Churchmen it did 
a great work for the nation before School 
Boar-ds were thought of. Between 1811 
and 1886 it spent 1,191,000/^. voluntarily 
contributed by Churchmen, the largest 
item, 586,800Z., being on schoolhouses. It 



publishes weekly tlie School Guardian. 
Since the Government ceased to inspect 
in religious subjects Diocesan Inspectors 
of schools have been appointed for these 
schools. The education of the poor is also 
fostered by the following organisations, 
chiefly by grants of books and apparatus 
both to teacliers, pupils, school and parish 
libraries, missions, &c. Details are sent 
to teacliers and managers on application. 
Society for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge (Northumberland Avenue, Charing 
Cross, S.W.) ; Religious Tract Society (56 
Paternoster Row, E.C.) ; Pure Literature 
Society (11 Buckingham Street, Stx-and, 
W.C.) ; Church of England Book Society 
(11 Adam Street, W.C.) ; Book Hawking 
Association (hon. sec. Rev. P. Lilly, Col- 
laton St. Mary, Paignton, Devon ; depot, 
190 Oxford Street, W.). The S.P.C.K. is 
publishing a new Penny Library of Fic- 
tion, also Parish Magazine, Dav)n of Day 
(200,000 monthly), Home Words, Day of 
Days, tfec. Among other parochial maga- 
zines are the Gospeller, Things New and 
Old, the Evangelist, and the Banner of 
Faith. There are other good magazines 
issued by the various Sunday school 
organisations. 

There are two broad questions con- 
nected with pauper education which are 
subjects of controversy. They involve 
problems of (1) localisation, (2) distribu- 
tion. That is : (i.) Are pauper children 
to be treated as the children of the State 
or of a small local community % (ii.) Are 
the children to be massed together or dis- 
tributed in small homes here or in the 
colonies % The first question has been 
answered in England since the days of 
Elizabeth by the Poor Law system, which 
may almost be called the eldest daughter 
of Protestant Christianity (see Fowle's 
Poor Law, Macmillan's English Citizen 
series, 2s. 6f/.). We see in fact that 
Church prevision preceded State provision. 
This is still the case, although the unity 
of Church and State (purporting to act for 
the benefit of the nation) is not as marked 
now as it was in the early days of the 
poor laws. We have now arrived at an 
age of great cities, when about half the 
total population of England are crowded 
into the towns, as contrasted with about 
one tenth even in India. Hence new 
difficulties. For the efficiency of the pre- 
sent system depends too much upon the 
varying characters of local boards, and the 



•253 



PAurKii EDUCATION — rAYiMF.NT r>Y iu:8iu;r8 



oompnititivo bivnkdown of thoiv systoiu 
in donling with pauper children in the 
great eities has led to the great ineivnse 
ot" supplementary methods during Vic- 
torias reign. It is i\ot unnatural for local 
boards to ivgard the children as burdens, 
to be disposed of as soon ns possible. 
They ha\e therefore sometinies to be 
Avatched. say, by l^tate otlicials, Avho see 
that a labour proticicncy certificate is 
propei'ly granted. The child, it is also 
argued, is liable to be turned out less able 
to resist the pauper taint, at\d more likely 
to become a burden in the workhouse. It 
is theivfoit^ proposed by some that the 
childivn slioxild not be treated as those of 
a locality, but ns those of a nation. The 
second question is i\ow being keenly dis- 
cussed. It is often i-eferivd to ns the 
' barracks ' ^rrsH$ the ' boai-ding-out ' 
system. Ii\stead of being kept ii\ the 
\vorkho\ise or industrial school, children 
are now placed with widows and families 
wlio are paid to bring them up. The 
average cost of children is abo\it 5,^". a 
week. The controversy au\ong boards of 
gufiiiiians often turns upon the relative 
cost, r}\ther°than the ethciency either to 
the childrex\ or the State. Some of the 
guaniians are making experiuumts in mi- 
gration to other parts of the empire. The 
bi'ight side of the large school systeui is 
the regular and constant occupatioii of 
the xnind, and a discipline which eixsures 
both order ai\d genei-al con\fort. In a 
cottage home the discipline may or may 
not exist, but it is urged that the girls are 
moi-e likely to be better tniiued as do- 
mestic servants than iu the schools. The 
children are, it is complained, too much 
sliut out of the world. The children be- 
come weary of the monotony and the 
walls. In large towns, if they' are let out 
for a few houi-s weekly, there is the danger 
of their bringing infection to the school, 
but this and other dithculties could pix^b- 
ably be overcon\e. The ' n\oral ' ditticul- 
ties exist in both cases, and are not entirely 
dependent on the tone or watchfulness of 
school or home. Teachers and friends 
may do much by visiting the childi-en by 
arrangement with the niaster or mistress, 
giving simple lectui-es. experiments, pic- 
tures, asking questions, and thus showing 
pei-sonal sympathy with the children and 
teachers. Ladies and geittlemen of leisure 
can still do a great work iu this direction. 
Theassistant-tt'^achers need encouragement 



a\ul sympatliy ; for it must be remembered 
that the uatui'o of the inspection system 
is essentially a spy systen^, and the fact 
that assistants and chajOaius are appointed 
and disu\issed by the lioard, not by the 
master as in public schools, encoui-ages 
suspicion at\il seltishness. Annual treats 
and yearly kind words ai-e not ei\ough ; 
nvoi'eover, Christmas reuuMubrauces are 
never overwhelming, as they are some- 
tinu^s said to be iu infirmaries or oi-phan- 
ag-es. 

Thei-o is, lastly, the great ditliculty of 
parental control. Ought dissolute and 
ui^worthy parents to have the legal con- 
trol of their children ? If not, would 
measuivs with the children otrerapremium 
to such parentage'^ It is impossible to 
punish the vnnvorthy parents thromjh 
their childrtm. ^Ve seem to have other 
questions also being put, e.g. Is it the 
duty of the State or the con\mut\ity to 
thid work for the unemployed of ai^y age ? 
Is idleness a sin or a crime, or both '? 

Payment by Eesiilts. — The origin of 
the controversy which has stij'red to its 
very depths that portion of the education 
world which is it\terested in public elemen- 
tary education dates from the year 1801, 
whetx the Connuitteeof Council, under the 
Yice-rresidency of Mr. Robert Lowe (^Lord 
Sherbrooke), framed and presented to Par- 
liament the Jit'ri^t-d Codt' of Minutes and 
Kegulations for the future distribution of 
the parliamentary grant. By that code — 
which followed iu this particular the recom- 
mendations of the Koyal Commission on 
Popular Educatioii, which had sat since 
18o8 — grants were for the lirst time to 
be appoi'tioned to schools, in part, oi\ the 
I'esults of the ixdiridita/ examination of 
the scholars. This is what is nu^ant by 
'payn\ent by results.' This principle, thus 
introduced, was not rendered any the more 
palatable to the body of teachers in public 
elenientary schools, by the gi-ounds upon 
which jNlr. Robert Lowe recomn\ended its 
acceptance to the country. In his speech 
in the House of Counuo\is oi\ February 14, 
1882, he used the following words : 'It 
seems to me that tlie only possible condi- 
tions under which, without a i-eckless 
expeiuliture of public money, we can pos- 
sibly ivconnnet\d that teachers of an in- 
ferior class should be entployed in these 
schools, woiild be on the understanditig 
that thei-e shall be some collateral and 
independent pwof that such teachers do 



PAYMENT BY RESULTS 



253 



their duty;' and he proceeded to show that 
that proof could only be obtained by indi- 
vidual examination of the scholars, and to 
recommend that a sensible portion of the 
grant should depend on that examination. 
He dwelt, too, on the vague nature of a 
report based on examination by classes, 
and described such terms as 'general effi- 
ciency,' 'general impression on the whole,' 
'moral atmosphere,' &c. in inspectors' re- 
ports, as 'impalpable essences,' which it 
was not wise for Parliament to treat as 
substantial tests that its money was well 
spent. It was natural that the tone of 
this reference to the elementary teachers, 
and the implication that they would not 
rise to the level of their duty as conceived 
by the nation, except under the pressure 
of the aryuinentum ad crumenavi, should 
cause the deepest offence. A bitterness 
has, therefore, been imported into this 
controversy that is only intelligible when 
this episode is borne in mind. But expe- 
rience has shown that, on purely educa- 
tional grounds, the principle of ' payment 
by results ' has worked considerable mis- 
chief. No doubt it has remedied the 
evil it was called into working to remedy. 
The charge brought against previous codes 
was that they encouraged the teachers to 
pay attention to the regular, the bright, 
the well-to-do scholar, and to neglect the 
irregular, the dullard, and the poor scholar, 
and that the utterly ignorant were left in 
their ignorance. But ' payment by results ' 
is charged with introducing other great 
evils, which were not wholly unforeseen, 
and which have more than fulfilled the 
forebodings of practical educationists. 
These evils may be summarised as follows : 
— a. It has organised a system of cram, 
under which 'results,' measured by the 
standard examinations (see Standards), 
as opposed to 'methods,' have received 
undue recognition and reward, b. All 
scholars, whether clever or dullards, pro- 
gress at the same rate — one standard per 
annum; and at the same rate in all 
subjects simultaneously, c. The degree of 
success, with neglect, incapacity, and the 
bad influences of home surroundings, meets 
with little recognition as compared with 
the success in 'passing' a high percentage 
of scholars. d. The profession of the 
teacher is degraded by persistent and 
obtrusive appeals to the desire of gain. 
In the absence of monetary inducements, 
teachers are tempted to neglect scholars 



who are not likely to earn good grants. 
e. Little encouragement is given to teachers 
to forwaixl the higher moral and intellec- 
tual training of their scholars, as opposed 
to the mere acquisition of mechanical 
facilities in the subjects of examination. 
/. Scholars trained under this system, and 
subsequently passing on to secondary 
schools, are characterised by a lack of 
mental alertness, and frequently disappoint 
their early promise. The bad effects 
brought to light in the practical working 
of this principle have forcibly stirred many 
of the succeeding Vice-Pi-esidents of the 
Committee of Council to retrace, in part 
at least, the steps which the Royal Com- 
mission of 1858 and Mr. Lowe prevailed 
upon Pai'liament to take in 1862. During 
the period of his vice-presidency, Mr. Mun- 
della consulted the leading advisers of the 
Education Department and other educa- 
tionists, and presented a body of recom- 
mendations to Parliament which were 
adopted in subsequent codes, and have, 
though only partially, remedied the evils 
inveighed against. Of these, what is known 
as the 'Merit Grant' is the most con- 
spicuous. This grant consists (see Code) 
of a payment of Is., 2s., or 3s. per scholar 
in average attendance — according as a 
school is reported to be fair, good, or 
excellent. The following extract from 
the Instructions to H.M. Inspectors point- 
ing out what, in the opinion of the Edu- 
cation Department, should be the attributes 
of a school deserving of the 'excellent' 
Merit Grant, will show how much may be 
done under its provisions to counteract the 
evil effects of the principle of 'payment 
by results.' The principle itself, however, 
has at most been ' scotched ' thereby, not 
killed. Extract from Instructions: — 

'It is the intention of their Lordships 
that the mark " Excellent " should be re- 
served for cases of distinguished merit. 
A thoroughly good school in favourable 
conditions is characterised by cheerful and 
yet exact discipline, maintained without 
harshness, and without noisy demonstra- 
tion of authority. Its premises are cleanly 
and well-ordered ; its time-table provides 
a proper variety of mental enjoyment and 
of physical exercises; its organisation is 
such as to distribute the teaching power 
judiciously, and to secure for every scholar 
— whether he is likely to bring credit to 
the school by examination or not — a fair 
share of instruction and of attention. The 



254 



rAYNK, joiSKrn 



toaohing- is animatod aiul iutorostiui;;, and 
voti tlun'ou,i>h aivd aoouvato. Tlio n>a.din<>; 
is (IiumU, caroful, and oxprossivo, and tlu* 
I'luldivn an^ holpod by t|uostionini;' and 
oxplanaiion to t\>llo\v tho nu\vnin<>-ot' what 
<l\ov road. Arithniotio is so (auii'hl as to 
onal>l(Mliosoholav,snot only to obtain oonwt 
answors io sums, hut also to undorstai\d 
(ho roason of tho prooossos onipUnod. If 
hiii'hor suhjoots avo attoniptod, tho h^ssons 
aro not oonfinod io n\onu>ry work and to 
tlio U\arninn- of toohnioal tonus, but aro 
dosij^noil to givo a. oh^ar kno\vhHl!>'0 i>f 
fa^'ts, and to tniin tho loarnor in tho 
pravtioo of tliinking and obsorving. Bo- 
sidos t'ultilling all thoso conditions, whioh 
JUV all ox{>tvssod or impliod in (ho Oodo, 
suoh a srliool sooks by othor moans to bo 
of sor\ ii'o to tho ohiUhon who attond it. 
It providos for tho uj^por olassos a rosi'niar 
systom of Ivomo-oxoroisos, and arnvngo- 
nionts for oorrootinu' thom oxpoditiously 
antl thoroughly. W'horo i-^roumstanoos 
pormit., it has also its londing' library, its 
saviniis bank, and an ordorly ooUootiou of 
simplo objoots and apparatus adapted to 
illustrato tho sohool lossous. and fonuod 
in part by tho oooponvtion of tho Si-holars 
thouisolvos. .\bo\o all, its toaohiui;- and 
disoiplino aro suoh as to oxort ;v riiiht in- 
tluonoo on tho m.-uvnors. tho conduct, and 
tho charaotor of tho childrou, to awakou 
in thon\ a lovo of reading, and such an 
inteivst in thoir own uvontal iniprovomout 
!vs may iwisoiiably bo oxpoctod to last 
boyond tho perioti of school life." Tho 
system of payment by results has not been 
adopted in any ooui\try outside the British 
Isles except the Pi-ovince of Victoria. 
Australia, fvnd oven theiv its evils are 
now fully recognised by the authorities. 

Payne. Joseph (^1808 187(5).— A theo- 
ivtical and practical educator, ami teacher 
of teachei"s. of whom it was said in the 
£tftu'afio)ial 'riiinsiov duiu'' 1. 187G. just 
over a n\ontl\ after his decease, that 'it 
would be ditlicult to over-estimate the loss 
which the cause of educational progivss 
and reforn^ has sustained by the ivcent 
death of Mv. Joseph Tayne. At the pi'e- 
sei\t juncture, when so givat an impetus 
hivs been given to popular education, and 
such rapid strides aro being taken. i\ot 
always with the cleaivst light or it\ the 
wisest diivotion, and when the guidance 
and iixtluence of mei\ of wide experience, 
caivful thought, and untiring devotion is 
n\ore than ever necessarv. few could be 



named whose place it wiudd be more ditli- 
cult to su[>ply.' 

Ti\e business of ]Mr. Paym^'s lif»^ was 
to n»;ike education a reality rather than a 
pretence; and with this purpose in view 
he exposed the futility of the unintelligei\t 
routiiu^ with which educators have too 
commonly contented themsel vos.and sought 
to nnise them to substitute for it n\ethoils 
which would call the expanding faculties 
of the young into healthful activity, and 
sympathetically guide them in the course 
of their develo[)ment to the best and wisest 
ends. The only teaching which he regarded 
as worthy of tlio name was that which 
impartoil tho power of self-teaching ; and,, 
whilst awakening in tho loarnor a desire 
for knowledge, guided him by tho surest 
and ivadiest means to its atta.inn\ent. In 
oixlor to oarry out the intelligent and 
scientific principles which are essential to 
the achioNoment of such a. result, it was 
necessary that the teacher nnist learn how 
to teach — nuist have aci]uired. that is, not 
only a thorough knowledge of the subject 
to be taught, but of the laws which govern 
the exercise and development of the facul- 
ties of those whom he teaches. He must 
know, indeed, both tho lesson and tho 
scholar, ai\d the means by which the two 
may be brought into edifying and fruitful 
contact. * These aims JNlr. Payne pursued 
throughout his life, unobtrusively indeed, 
yet with single-minded enthusiasm, and 
unswerving tenacity of pux'pose.' 

Joseph Payne was born at Bury St. 
Edmunds, on JNlay *J, 1808. His early 
education was very incomplete, tvnd after 
a short experience, which comnieuced when 
he was alnnit fourteen years of age, of 
ivally competent instruction, he was early 
thrown on his own resources for procuring a 
livelihood. He bec;une an assistant in a 
London school ; and, as he hin\self main- 
trained, he would have fallen into the ordi- 
nary groove of routine teaching if he had 
not accidentally become acquainttxl with 
tho principles of the French refonner 
Jacotot, and been Hivd with the enthusiasut 
which Jacotot succeeded in kindling far 
and wide, both in his own country .and in 
Belgium. In l<higland ^Ir. Payne was tlu^ 
tirst (in importance, if not in tinu^) of the 
disciples of Jacotot, of whom he always 
spoke as ' his mast^n* ' ; and, tindiug that 
the new principles entirely changtnl his 
notions of the teaclun-'s otlice, and turned 
routine into a course of never-eiuling ex- 



PAYNE, JOSEPH 



255 



periment and discovery, he forthwith set 
about preaching the new educational doc- 
trine. Though a very young man, and 
with small resources, he published his 
earliest educational essay, which was indeed 
his earliest published work on any subject, 
on the Princij)les and Practice of Professor 
Jacotoi's System of Education, 1830; and 
gave public lectures to arouse teachers to 
a sense of its importance. The system 
interested a lady, the wife of Mr. David 
Fletcher, of Camberwell, who induced 
Mr. Payne to undertake the instruction of 
her own children; and from the circum- 
stance that the children of one or two 
neighbours were admitted to the benefits 
of his teaching, a small preparatory school 
sprang up, which afterwards expanded 
into the important institution known as 
Denmark Hill Grammar School, where, 
with Mr. Fletcher as his partner, he con- 
tinued his labours for many years. 

In 18.37 Mr. Payne married Miss 
Dyer, who was at the head of a girls' 
school of high repute, which she continued 
to carry on for some time. She was a 
lady of great tact and energy of character, 
of approved skill and method in the con- 
duct of afiairs, and in perfect accord and 
sympathy with the educational aims and 
ambitions of her husband, whom she greatly 
assisted, not only in his school-keeping, 
but in all his undertakings, his studies, 
even, included. 

Mr. Payne's connection with the school 
at Camberwell continued till the year 
184.5, when he established himself inde- 
pendently at the Mansion House, Leather- 
head, Surrey. Here he laboured with 
great energy and success for about eighteen 
years, his school taking rank as one of the 
very first private schools in this country. 
In 1863, having acquired a modest compe- 
tence, he retired from the active duties of 
his profession. None the less, however, 
did he continue to devote himself strenu- 
ously to the cause of educational progress; 
and his career ofiers a striking exception 
to that law of the decay of enthusiasms in 
virtue of which they generally retrograde 
as age advances. When, after between 
thirty and forty years of honourable labour 
in his vocation, he found himself free to 
spend his remaining days as he chose, he 
set to work with an ardour and energy 
and self-devotion rarely found even in 
young men to arouse teachers to a sense 
of their deficiencies, and to be a pioneer in 



the needed science of education. It was, 
it is believed, mainly owing to his influence 
and to that of his friend, Mr. C. H. Lake, 
that the College of Preceptors instituted 
an examination for teachers — the first 
held in this country. In 1873 the College 
took another important step, and appointed 
the first English Professor of the Science 
and Art of Education, their choice falling 
unanimously upon Mr. Payne, than whom 
no man could have been found with higher 
qualifications. He had always been a 
hard student ; and, till but a few months 
before his death, he was wont to continue 
his work into the small hours of the 
morning. He had thus a wider culture 
than is usually found in schoolmasters, 
or, indeed, in any class of hard-worked 
men, and his habits of reading and writing 
gave him great advantages as the occupant 
of the newly-instituted chair, which he 
further illustrated by his profound belief 
in the present value and the future possi- 
bilities of the science of education. No 
work could have been moi-e congenial to 
him than endeavouring to awaken in young 
teachers that spirit of enquiry into princi- 
ples which he had found the salt of his 
own life in the schoolroom. And, short as 
his tenure of the professorship unhappily 
proved, he succeeded in his endeavour; 
and left behind him students who have 
learnt from him to make their practice as 
teachers more beneficial to others, and 
infinitely more pleasurable to themselves, 
by investigating the theory which not 
only explains right practice, but also points 
out the way to it. 

The meaning of the word 'teacher,' as 
usually understood of one who communi- 
cates knowledge, was unsatisfactory to 
Jacotot and to his English disciple. What 
is knowledge but the abiding result of 
some action of the mind ? Whoever causes 
the minds of pupils to take the necessary- 
action teaches the pupils, and this is the 
only kind of teaching which Mr. Payne 
would hear of ; thus the paradox of Jacotot, 
that a teacher who understood his business 
could 'teach what he did not know,' was 
seen to point to a new conception of the 
teacher's function. The teacher is not 
one who 'tells,' but one who sets the 
learner's mind to work, directs it, and re- 
gulates its rate of advance. In order to 
' tell,' one needs nothing beyond a form 
of words which the pupils may reproduce 
with or without comprehension. But to 



256 



PAYNE, JOSEPH 



'teach,' in Payne's sense of the word, a 
vast deal moi-e was required: an insight 
into the working of the pupil's mind, a 
power of calling its activities into play 
and of directing them to the needful exer- 
cise, a perception of results, and a know- 
ledge how to render those results perma- 
nent. ' Such,' to quote the ipsissima verba 
of his friend, the Rev. R. H. Quick, 'was 
Mr. Payne's notion of the teacher's office, 
and this notion lies at the root of all that 
he said and wrote about instruction. It 
would be useless to attempt to decide how 
far the conception was original with him. 
"Everything reasonable has been thought 
already," says Goethe. Mr. Payne, as we 
have seen, was always eager to declare his 
obligations to Jacotot. The same notion 
■of tlae teacher is found in the utterances 
of other men, especially of Pestalozzi and 
Frobel. But when such a conception 
becomes part and parcel of a mind like 
Mr. Payne's, it forthwith becomes a fresh 
force, and its influence spreads to others.' 

]\Ir. Payne took a lively and active 
interest in several of the most important 
movements, the purposes of which were 
identical or kindred with his own ; such, 
for instance, as the Women's Education 
Union, and the Girls' Public School Com- 
pany, the improvement of women's educa- 
tion having long been one of his most 
cherished objects. He studied profoundly 
the methods and systems of all who have ob- 
tained celebrity as educators, and the Kin- 
dergarten system of Frobel was one in which 
he took a keen interest. He was especially 
interested in the history of the development 
of the English language, and the charac- 
teristics of the different dialects ; and more 
particularly in the history of the Norman- 
French element. This led him to a rather 
extensive study of the dialects of French, 
and the history of the French language 
genei'ally. A paper of great value by him 
on these subjects, entitled 'The Norman 
Element in the Spoken and Written Eng- 
lish of the l'2th, 13th, and 14th Centuries, 
and in our Provincial Dialects,' appears in 
the Transactions of the Philological Society, 
1868-9, of which he was a distinguished 
and an active member. 

As in the beginning of his career 
Mr. Payne was not deterred from his 
special vocation by the labour to which he 
was compelled, or by the privations from 
which he was not altogether free, so to- 
wards its close the same vocation was 



fullilled with dignity, and with so much 
tenacity as could co-exist with the suffering 
or other disability he was called upon to 
endure. The death of his wife, which 
occurred in the autumn of 1875, is believed 
to have aggravated the symptoms of a 
malady of some standing, which termi- 
nated on April 30, 1876, a life of singular 
purity and. nobleness of aim, of strenuous 
and unintermitting industry, and of un- 
seltish devotion to high and worthy ends. 
By his will Mr. Payne bequeathed a sum 
of money to the Endowment Fund, and a 
valuable library of educational books, which 
he had been for some years collecting, to 
the College of Preceptors. 

Having regard to the assiduous and 
exacting labour demanded of Mr. Payne 
during so large a portion of his. life, it 
may be said, on the Avhole, to have been 
one of not inconsiderable literary produc- 
tiveness. His works comprise, besides 
the exposition of Jacotot's system ah-eady 
mentioned. Epitome Historia;. Sacrce : a 
Latin Eeading-hook on Jacotot's Syste77i, 
1830; Select ^Poetry for Childre7i, 1839 
(eighteenth edition, 1874); Studies in Eng- 
lish Poetry, 1845 (eighth edition, 1881); 
Studies in English Prose, 1868 (second 
edition, 1881); The Curricuhim of Modern 
Education, 1866; Three Lectures on the 
Science and Art of Education, delivered at 
the College of Preceptors in 1871; 'Theories 
of Teaching, with their corresponding Prac- 
tice,' and 'On the Importance and Necessity 
of Improving our Ordinary Methods of 
School Instruction,' in the Proceedings of 
the Social Science Associatioji, respectively 
for 1868-69 and 1871-72; The Impor- 
tance of the Training of the Teacher, 1873; 
The True Foundation of Science Teaching, 

1873 ; The Science and Art of Education: 
an Introd'uctory Lecture, 1874, and Pes- 
talozzi, 1875, both of them being lectures 
delivered at the College of Preceptors ; 
Frobel and the Kindergarten System, 

1874 (third edition, 1876); and articles in 
the British Quarterly Periew, respectively 
on ' Eton,' 1867, ' Education in the United 
States,' 1868, and ' The Higher Education 
of the United States,' 1870. A Visit to 
German Schools in the Autumn of 1874 
was published after the author's death in 
1876; and a first volume of his Works 
was published, first and second edition, 
1883, with the title of Lectures on the 
Science and Art of Education, with other 
Lectures and Essays. By the late Joseph 



PEDAGOGY 



257 



Payne, the First Professor of the Science 
and Art of Education in the College of 
Preceptors, London. Edited hy his son, 
Joseph Frank Payne, M.D., Fellow of 
Magdalen College, Oxford. With an In- 
troduction by the Rev. R. H. Quick, M.A., 
Trin. Coll., Caml:)., Author of ' Essays on 
Educational Reformers.' The lectures and 
pamphlets included in this volume relate 
chiefly to tlie theory and science of edu^ 
cation, and form the greater part of Mr. 
Payne's actually published papers on edu- 
cational subjects. 

Pedagogy. — This word has hardly 
taken root in our language. It has ex- 
isted there at least since the time of An- 
thony Wood in the seventeenth century. 
And yet even now it is looked ujDon as 
something of an intruding foreigner. The 
contemptuous use of ' pedagogue ' has 
perhaps been unfavourable to its accept- 
ance; perhaps too the loord meets with 
grudging recognition because the thing 
expressed by it is not held in much honour 
among us English. What then is the 
thing expressed ? Let us say that it is a 
study whose end is to ascertain how the 
faculties of the young develop, and the 
best methods of harmonising educational 
arrangements with their development. 
Thus its interest is twofold, speculative 
and practical. This interest, however, is 
but little realised among us here in Eng- 
land, just because the two functions, the 
speculative and the practical, have been 
divorced from each other. The writers, 
such as Milton, Locke, and Herbert 
Spencer, have been too absolutely hostile 
to the existing order of things to gain a 
hearing from the teachers. The teachers 
have been too much of practical trainers, 
too little of thoughtful educators, to con- 
cern themselves with pedagogic theories. 
The books of celebrities, such as those just 
named, have been read because of the in- 
terest attaching to anythingthat proceeded 
from their pens, and not because of the 
educational stimulus that might be derived 
from their doctrines. But books on peda- 
gogy, even when supported by names such 
as these, receive none too much attention, 
as may be learnt from the prefaces pre- 
fixed to Milton's and Locke's treatises in 
the Pitt Press editions. Herbert Spencer's 
work, it must be admitted, has been very 
widely read and discussed, yet in this case 
the separation between the educational 
theorist and the practical educator is only 



too forcibly illustrated. Spencer estimates 
tlie relative merits of the manifold subjects 
that claim a^ place in our educational course. 
And the suggestiveuess of his estimate in 
the abstract cannot be overrated. But 
one most important consideration is alto- 
gether left out of sight. Instruction is in 
the main carried on in schools ; the most 
educative subjects under the class system 
tliat is inseparable from school life are 
those which best lend themselves to the 
catechetical (may we not dignify it by the 
name Socratic 1) method. But Spencer re- 
garding the whole subject from a too purely 
pliilosophic and absolute point of view, 
has entirely omitted this factor from his 
account. The learner's aptitudes and his 
needs, and the intrinsic value of the sub- 
ject, have been treated in a most masterly- 
manner ; but the conditions under which 
tlie learner is to study these subjects have 
hardly been regarded at all. Thus the 
defender of linguistic studies, as against 
those advocated by Spencer, has had left 
him by his mighty assailant one very strong 
fortress. He may plead that the question 
whether the instruction is to be imparted 
to learners individually, or to learners 
gathered together in large classes, is pre- 
liminary and fundamental. Readers of 
Milton and Locke will remember that the 
school system, whose claims, it is true, 
have very much increased in importance 
as the population has grown, is with them, 
too, either actually attacked or nearly dis- 
regarded. If, however, the educational 
theorist has been too little in touch with 
the practical educator, the latter has been 
far too little regardful of pedagogy — of the 
teaching of the educational thinker. The 
evidence for this statement is not far to 
seek. Books dealing with the theory and 
practice of education, books on pedagogy, 
by no means meet with as much public 
favour in this country as might be expected. 
One reason for this state of things is no 
doubt to be found in the fact that so many 
teachers in England have merely been 
drifted by force of circumstances into the 
occupation. Where men on the Continent 
choose, teaching as a 'profession^ we in Eng- 
land accept it as a convenient avocation 
that requires no preliminary outlay. Hence 
in France (to say nothing of Germany) a 
book like Compayre's Histoire Critique 
des Doctrines de V /education passes through 
many editions, while similar books in Eng- 
land, if they find the light of day at all, 

s 



258 



PEDAGOGY PERCEPTION, OBSERVATION 



certainly meet \yitli nothing like general 
appi'eciation. The teachers elseAvhere form 
a profession, and treat the subjects con- 
nected with that profession as a sei'ious 
study; the teachers here form a hetero- 
geneous assemblage, with oi' without cre- 
dentials for the work in which they are 
engaged, frequently so guiltless of all edu- 
cational theories as to be ignorant that 
they are ignorant. No wonder, then, that 
pedagogy is with us at a discount. This 
is unquestionably a most grievous national 
loss. ' Opinion is knowledge in the making. ' 
Without something like seientitic discus- 
sion on educational subjects, without pe- 
dagogy, we shall never obtain a body of 
organised opinion on education. But true 
theory and sound practice are too nearly 
related ever to be separated with safety. 
Thus our practice ignores much of what 
has been laid down as fundamental by wri- 
ters on education. The difference between 
the child and the youth, so strongly em- 
phasised by writers like Rousseau and 
Pestalozzi, is ignored all through our edu- 
cational system, from the public elementary 
schools to the great public schools (see 
Quick's concluding remarks on Rousseau's 
L mile). For want, again, of such organised 
opinion, it has been in vain that Matthew 
Arnold has year after year pleaded for 
systematising Middle Class Education, and 
correlating it with the public elementary 
school system. [See article on Schools 
in Humphry Ward's Reign of Queen Vic- 
toria.) How indeed can our institutions 
be conducted on broad and healthy prin- 
ciples as long as so little considei-ation is 
devoted to the doctrines and theories of 
which they are the practical embodiments 1 

Pedagogy, Bihliography of. See Ap- 
pendix. 

Pedantry. — Pedantry is an awkward 
ostentation of needless learning, or an ob- 
stinate addiction to the forms of some 
private life, and not regarding general 
things enough. It was aremark of Browne's, 
' 'tis a practice that savours much of pe- 
dantry, a reserve of puerility which we have 
not shaken off from school.' Swift was of 
opinion that pedantry is the overrating 
of any kind of knowledge we pretend 
to. For which reason Swift looked upon 
fiddlers, dancing masters, heralds, masters 
of ceremonies, &c., to be greater pedants 
than Lipsius or the elder Scaliger. Ac- 
cording to Addison, a pedant is a man 
who has been brought up among books. 



and is able to talk of nothing else, and is 
a very indiffei-ent companion ; but he added 
that the title should be enlarged, for ' in 
short, a mere courtier, a mere soldier, a 
mere scholar, a mere anything, is an in- 
sipid pedantic character, and equally ridi- 
culous.' Bishop Burnet [History of his- 
own Times, bk. ii.) speaks likewise of the 
pedantry of which the preaching of the 
clei'gy of the orthodox school was overrun 
before the rise of that intellectxxal and 
genial body of men, the latitudinarian 
divines. 

Penitence, Remorse. — The state of 
mind indicated by these terms forms the 
characteristic pain of conscience or the 
self -judging moral faculty (see Moral 
Sexse), just as the sense of well-doing 
or merit constitutes its proper pleasure- 
Remorse spi'ings out of an inner act of 
self-reflection. It is the condemnation by 
the present self of the past self, and is 
thus a sign of, and indeed an important 
element in, moral progress. As might be 
e.xpected from its conditions, remorse does 
not show itself in the first years of life. 
Hence the fact, which is apt to seem so 
baffling to the parent or teacher, that one 
cannot produce the state of mind by mere 
force of exhortation. Refusal to confess 
regret for a fault may arise from inability 
to fix the thoughts on the wrong action 
so as to see its true quality, from the per- 
sistence of the bad feeling which prompted 
it, or, lastly, from obstinacy. As repent- 
ance is thus a state of feeling which cannot 
be externally induced, it is well not to try 
to force it by mere talking, but rather to 
put the child in such circumstances as are 
likely to foster reflection. The manifes- 
tation of pain and disappointment by a 
parent or teacher whom the child really 
loves will often effect more in this direc- 
tion than hours of admonition. 

Penmanship. See Writixg. 

Perception, Observation. — By the act 
of perception is meant the work of the 
mind in unifying the impressions received 
through the senses into a knowledge of ob- 
jects. Perception is the tii'st stage in that 
intellectual elaboration of sense-materials 
which culminates in abstract thought. To 
perceive, i.e. distinguish and recognise 
objects, implies normal and trained senses. 
When sense-impressions are indistinct the 
knowledge of things will be inexact. But 
it implies more than this, viz. the inter- 
pretation of the impressions received at 



PERIPATETIC PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEINRICH 



259 



the moment by the aid of past experiences. 
Thus, a child that sees its ball as a real 
object is translating visual impressions 
into imagined tactile experiences (feeling, 
lifting, rolling the ball). Hence percep- 
tion is acquired. An infant does not see 
things as things, and cannot distinguish 
by the eye a flat drawing from a solid 
body. The ordinary circumstances and 
needs of life compel every child to con- 
nect and interpret its impressions up to a 
certain point. But such spontaneous acts 
of perception are apt to be rough and de- 
fective. The ends of exact knowledge 
require a more careful and systematic in- 
spection of objects. This is marked off 
as Observation, and the branch of intel- 
lectual discipline that aims at securing it 
is known as the training of the Observing 
Faculty. To observe any common object, 
as a flint or a tree-trunk, so as to note all 
its peculiarities of form, colour, &c., im- 
plies a strong, wide interest in objects. 
This the child has in a measure, and when 
the observing faculty has been drawn out 
from the first, the pleasure springing from 
the use of the organs of sense and from the 
gaining of new knowledge may be counted 
on as a sufiicient motive. A habit of ob- 
servation presupposes both presence and 
openness of mind ; in other words, free- 
dom from mental preoccupation and re- 
verie, and a willingness to see things just 
as they are, and not as we fancy them or 
would like them to be. The highest kind 
of observation combines exactness or mi- 
nuteness, comprehensiveness, and rapidity. 
The close connection between exact obser- 
vation and scientific induction renders it 
important to exercise the observing faculty 
by object-lessons as a preparation for 
science-teaching. Observation forms, how- 
ever, the necessary preliminary to all 
studies, e.g. geography, mathematics, lan- 
guage (cf . article Senses). See H. Spencer, 
Princijiles of Psychology, vol. ii. pt. vi. 
chap, ix., &c. ; Taine, on Intelligence, pt. 
ii. bk. ii. chap. ii. ; Sully, Teacher^s Hand- 
hook, chap. viii. ; Thring, Theory and Prac- 
tice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. vii. ; Beneke, 
Erziehungs- und U7iterric?Uslehre,§16, and 
following; Compayre, Coicrs de Ped., pt. i. 
lee. iv. ; and Buisson's Dictionnaire de 
Ped., art. ' Observation.' 

Peripatetic (■n-epiTraTrjTLKO?, from 
TrcoiTrareoj, to walk about). — A follower of 
the method of Aristotle, who taught and 
discussed with his pupils as he walked 



about amongst them in the halls and 
promenades of the Lyceum. 

Perseverance.— This is that quality of 
will by which an end is steadfastly pursued 
to the disregard of all extraneous solicita- 
tions. It is closely connected with mental 
concentration on a subject of thought (see 
Attention) ; and it may be said indeed 
to be a firm concentration of the mind on 
an object of desire. The moral value of 
this quality as one of the highest manifes- 
tations of will, and its great practical 
utility in life, render it incumbent on the 
moral educator to develop it to the utmost. 
It is, moreover, a moral quality which the 
discipline of school is peculiarly well fitted 
to foster and streng-then. The learner 
should be led to see how success in study 
depends on perseverance, and how often, 
as the fable of the hare and the tortoise 
tells us, patient and unremitting effort 
defeats mere superiority of natural talent. 
Persian Education, according to Hero- 
dotus (book i. 136), consisted in teaching 
youth to ride, to shoot, and speak the 
truth. (See Schools of Antiquity.) 

Pestalozzi, Johan Heinrich (1746- 
1827), the son of a doctor of Zurich, 
and born in that town, was (with the 
exception of Froebel) the greatest educa- 
tional reformer since the days of the Re- 
vival of Learning. His single influence 
has done more to humanise and render 
wise and sound the public elementary 
education, not only of Switzerland, but of 
all Europe, than that of any other man 
who has ever Kved. Not that his reforms 
have ever been in any sense fully carried 
out ; but that by him men's minds have 
been drawn to and fastened on the need of 
education for the people, and have been 
considerably enlightened as to what that 
education should be. The modern enthu- 
siasm for what is called technical education 
is moreover, in a large measure, due to his 
teaching; and as time goes on, his views, 
mingling with those of his great follower 
Froebel, are year by year more and more 
changing and moulding the education of 
the earlier years of childhood. 

For a detailed account of his life we 
must refer our readers to the excellent 
Histoire de Pestalozzi, by Roger de 
Guimps. Here, after mentioning a few 
of the most marked events, we shall restrict 
ourselves to a statement of his principles 
and practice. Pestalozzi commences his 
agricultural experiment at Neuhof near 

s 2 



260 



PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEINRICH 



Birr in 1768 — which ends in utter failure 
in 1780. Marries Anna Schultess in 1769. 
Experiment in educating pauper children 
at Neuhof, 1775-1780. Experiment in 
educating destitute children in the ruined 
Ursuline convent at Stanz during the 
first six months of 1799. Teaches in the 
schools of Burgdorf (Berthoud), July 1799 
to June 1804. Goes to Munchenbuchsee, 
near Hofwyl, in June 1804, to work in 
conjunction with Fellenburg. Opens the 
Institute at Yverdun, at the southern end 
of Lake Neuchatel, October 1804. The 
Institute is closed 1825. Returns to 
Neuhof, and dies there in February, 1827. 
Pestalozzi's most valuable works are as 
follows : First volume (the best) of Leonard 
and Gertrude, 1781 ; Letter to Gesner 
describing the experiment at Stanz, 1799 ; 
Hoio Gertrude teaches her Children, 1801 ; 
Book for Mothers, 1803; My Sioan-Song, 
1826; a complete (or almost complete) 
edition of Pestalozzi's works, in eighteen 
volumes, has been published by Seyffarth 
at Brandenburg, the last volume of which 
appeared in 1873. Taking as our guide 
the fifteen letters written to Gesner in 
1801, and entitled Hoio Gertrude teaches 
her Children, the following are Pestalozzi's 
leading principles: (1) Intuition, or know- 
ledge attained directly through the senses, 
is the groundwork of all knowledge. (2) 
Language ought to be closely united with 
intuition, and taught in connection with 
objects by means of exercises in expressing 
what has been intuitively learnt. (3) The 
time of learning details is not the time for 
reasoning and criticising. (4) In every 
branch of education we should commence 
with the simplest elements, and thence 
continue step by step following the deve- 
lopment of the child, i.e. by a psychologi- 
cally connected series of lessons. (5) We 
ought to dwell long enough on each step 
for the child to obtain complete mastery 
of it, so that he can deal with it at his 
Avill. (6) Teaching should follow the path 
of development, not that of dogmatic in- 
struction. (7) The individuality of the 
child should be sacred in the eyes of the 
teacher. (8) The principal end of elemen- 
tary or prirpary instruction is not to make 
a child acquire information and accom- 
plishments, but to develop and increase 
the powers of his intellect. (9) To know- 
ledge must be added power; to acquaint- 
ance with facts, the ability to make use 
of them. ( 1 0) The relation between master 



andpupil, especially in matters of discipline, 
ought to be founded on and ruled by love. 
(11) Instruction ought to subserve the 
higlaer aim of education. Pestalozzi re- 
marks that for ages we have employed 
writing, reading, and arithmetic as the 
elements of education; they should be 
language, 7iumher, and form. A child 
should first be exercised in seeing clearly ; 
and should then learn to thoroughly appre- 
ciate form by its simplest elements, the 
straight line in various positions, angles, 
&c.; to measure with the eye distances 
and inclinations ; and then to draw, i.e. to 
copy on his slate the lines, angles, figures, 
cfec. These first exercises in linear drawing 
will lead up to writing. In these exercises 
Pestalozzi made great use of squares, which 
could be put together or divided up in 
numberless ways. For measuring, and as 
a preparation for geometry, he again em- 
ployed small squares, and rectangles on 
surfaces. In arithmetic, he used 'tables 
of unities,' in which every unity was re- 
presented by a dot or a stroke ; and thus 
made the eye help in doing addition, sub- 
traction, &c., whilst the children were 
exercised in numbers, not as names, but 
as collections of dots or units. Then 
followed 'tables of fractions' — squares di- 
vided into a variety of equal parts by 
horizontal lines ; then ' tables of fractions 
of fractions' — the same squares with ver- 
tical divisions added. By means of these 
the ordinary operations of vulgar fractions 
can be performed before symbols are em- 
ployed. Later on, he treats of intuition, 
as he calls the perception resulting from 
direct personal experiment, both physical 
and moral. All descriptions, he holds, 
all explanations and definitions, have no 
efiect on the mind of the child unless they 
rest on ideas already gained by intu.ition. 
In teaching the child to read, i.e. to arti- 
culate the sounds corresponding to various 
arrangements of letters, or to recognise 
written or printed words, we seem to 
think that we open for it the gate of all 
knowledge. In this way we may make 
men of books, men of words, men of letters, 
but not wise men. Instead of arousing 
and exercising in a child's heart the feel- 
ings of faith, piety, and virtue, we make 
it at once learn a catechism, a collection 
of abstract doctrines entirely incomprehen- 
sible to it — words, words again, and not 
things. In all branches of education we 
should first teach the child to see things 



PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEIKRICH 



261 



clearly, then to state what he sees, and 
then, lastly, to frame definitions. To this 
brief and bald account of a remarkable 
series of letters may be added some ex- 
tracts from the first part of the Sioan- 
Song, written in 1826. 'The idea of 
elementary (or primary) education to which 
I have consecrated my life,' he says, 'con- 
sists in re-establishing the course of nature. 
It should concern itself with developing 
the heart, the mind, and the practical 
skill of man. It requires a fair proportion 
amongst the forces of human nature ; and 
this fair proportion requires the natural 
development of every force. Now every 
force is developed according to laws pecu- 
liar to itself, and by the simple means of 
exercise. Man develops the fundamental 
elements of his moral life, i.e. his love and 
faith, by the exercise of love and faith; 
those of his intellectual life, i.e. his thought, 
by the exercise of thought; those of his 
practical or industrial life, i.e. the power 
of his organs and his muscles, by the 
exercise of this power. Man is urged by 
the very nature of the forces (or faculties) 
in him to employ them, exercise them, 
give them all the development, all the per- 
fection, of which they are capable. These 
faculties exist at first only in germ ; and 
the desire to exercise them augments with 
every successful efibrt, and decreases with 
every failure — especially when the failure 
entails suffering. The first stage of edu- 
cation should strive so to regulate the 
exercise of the faculties that every effort 
in every department shall be successful. 
The essential condition for the develop- 
ment of a child's moral nature is tranquil- 
lity. Excitement, excess of care or of 
indulgence, are wholly hurtful. The start- 
ing point of thought is intuition, i.e. the 
immediate impression wliich the world 
makes on our senses, inner and outer. So 
the power of thinking is formed and de- 
veloped at first by the impressions of the 
moral world on our moral sense, and by 
those of the physical world on our physical 
senses. These impressions, perceived by 
the understanding of the child, give him 
his first ideas, and at the same time the 
desire to express them — at first by gesture, 
and then by s^Deech. In order to speak, 
one must have ideas, then organs of speech 
exercised and supple. One can speak 
clearly and exactly only of what one has 
tried, seen, heard, felt, tasted, or touched, 
in a clear and exact way. To teach a 



child to speak, it is therefore first of all 
necessary to make him try, see, hear, ifec, 
many things — those which please will be 
the best, so that his attention may be 
given readily. He must be made to ob- 
serve them in an orderly way ; and each 
one of them till he understands it tho- 
roughly. At the same time he must con- 
stantly be exercised in putting his im- 
pressions into language. That the child 
may learn to compare and discriminate, 
his faculty or power of thinking should 
be exercised on two special elements of 
humanknowledge — number andybr»i. The 
art, practical skill, ability, by which a man 
can make real outside him what he has 
conceived inside him, I call his industrial 
life. This has two elements — the inner 
one is the power of thought, the outer is 
practical ability. To be wholly produc- 
tive of good it requires harmonious joint 
action in the development of heart, mind, 
and body. This practical ability must 
have its gymnastic, just as the moi"al and 
intellectual faculties have. . . . When the 
power of using words does not spring from 
the real experience of life, it does not 
develop tliB forces of the intellect — it pro- 
duces only a superficial chattering. . . . The 
education of to-day presents the child at 
one time with a crowd of ready-made 
judgments, which he may hold in his me- 
mory, but which leave his power of think- 
ing inactive, and even tend to paralyse it ; 
— at another, under the name of logic, it 
presents him, in a manner more subtle 
than clear, with a system of the eternal 
rules which direct human thought. But 
these are only a closed book to the child 
who does not already possess the power of 
thinking. The exercises in number and 
form must not be used mechanically, but 
in a well-arranged and well-graduated 
course; so that the child may surrender 
himself to them with pleasure and with 
success ; so that his power of thinking may 
be always actively employed in them, that 
his judgments may be his own work ; and 
lastly, that the whole of what is done may 
be always in close touch with the actual 
life of the child. . . . Elementary education 
renders the child active from the very 
commencement ; makes him produce by his 
own powers results really his own ; pre- 
serves his originality ; and gives us a man 
less likely to servilely follow the crowd. . . 
The education of to-day, by its means and 
methods, rather takes us excursions into 



262 PESTALOZZI, JOHAN HEINRICH PETTY, SIR WILLIAM 



what is strange and unknown, tlian develops 
that which is in us, and -which we need as 
independent beings.' Space prevents our 
quoting more fully. We shall now sum- 
marise and fill in what still remains to be 
said. Pestalozzi holds that every child 
possesses faculties which can be, and should 
be, developed in accordance with the nature 
of each. That every faculty is developed 
by its exercise, and only by its exercise. 
Nature prompts and encourages this exer- 
cise. The medium in which the faculties 
can alone be properly exercised is one of 
tranquillity, not excitement. In the de- 
velopment of the faculties, a proper and 
due relation between them should be pre- 
served. He divides the activities of these 
faculties into three sections: intellectual, 
moral, and industrial or jyractical. In 
each section the teacher must base his 
work on the ascertained development of 
the faculties. The exercises must be 
carefully graduated, and gradually expan- 
sive, each stage being thoroughly under- 
stood before the next is attempted. The 
child's development is helped only by what 
he thoroughly understands, and by what 
he does for himself. He must be guided, 
not driven. In the training of his intellect 
the child must be brought into personal 
contact with concrete things, and must 
himself ascertain their nature by experi- 
ment. To enable him to express the know- 
ledge thus acquired, he must be guided 
in the acquirement and use of clear and 
definite languao-e. He must never be 
required to speak about what he does not 
personally know. Language, then, must 
be one of the first subjects of early educa- 
tion. With language must be joined 
numher and ybr/?i — number leading up to 
arithmetic ; form to drawing, writing, and 
geometry. In the main, however, drawing 
belongs to \h.% industrial section. Nearly 
all the branches of the intellectual section, 
especially mathematics — which owe so 
much to Pestalozzi's colleague Schmid — ■ 
were carefully worked out by Pestalozzi 
and his colleagues. In geography the 
practical method is especially noticeable. 
Prof. YuUiemin tells us that the children 
at Yverdun were taken to a district, and 
after a careful examination of it, were 
made to picture it in a map, and to 
describe it in words ; and that their errors 
were corrected by subsequent visits. Geo- 
logy, botany, and natural history were all 
brouafht in under this head. Some efforts 



were also made to provide elementary 
training in animal physiology. The history 
teaching was based on that of the village, 
and thence extended to the canton and 
the native land. In the moral division 
everything is based on love, and trustful- 
ness or faith. Without these tranquillity 
is impossible; and hence the moral division 
can never be left out of early education, 
for which tranquillity is an absolute ne- 
cessity. Love and trustfulness grow best 
at home ; and so the ideal home life is the 
model for this division. The power of 
beauty, both concrete and abstract, is fully 
recognised; and hence an appreciation of 
physical nature, of music, noble action, 
and art generally, is insisted upon. (With 
regard to the lirst, Pestalozzi's teaching 
strongly resembles that of Wordsworth.) 
Catechisms and dogmatic teaching gene- 
rally are discarded. Development is only 
obtained by action, not by words. In the 
industrial division the household work of 
home life again best affords the first exer- 
cises in practical skill. With this should 
be joined practice in some manual trade, 
such as weaving ; while gymnastics, games, 
military drill, and agriculture, will afford 
suitable training out of doors. Practical 
skill, moreover, presupposes intellectual 
training, and cannot be properly successful 
without it. This point is insisted upon. 
General education must precede and form 
the basis of special or technical education. 
In conclusion — whether we agree wholly 
or only in part with Pestalozzi's views — 
we must remember that the mental train- 
ing of children was not the principal ob- 
ject to which this wonderful man devoted 
his life with such ardent, unflagging, loving 
activity. What he strove above all to 
reform and regenerate was moral and re- 
ligious education — not for an individual, 
nor for a class, but for the whole nation 
and the whole world; what he longed 
above all to develop was the heart — its 
love, its trustfulness, and its sense of 
beauty. What above all he sought with- 
out ceasing to form were men, reverent- 
minded, oi-iginal, self-dependent, moral — 
fitted for free government, devoted to their 
home duties, their neighbours, and their 
country. 

Petites Ecoles. See Jaxsenists. 

Petty, Sir William (1623-1666), the 
founder of the Lansdowne family, ad- 
dressed a letter to his ' honoured friend. 
Master Samuel Hartlib,' on the Plan of a 



PETTY, SIR WILLIAM PHILOLOGY 



263 



Trade or Industrial School, whicli letter 
was printed at London in 1647. He pro- 
posed ' that there he instituted Ergastula 
Literaria, literary work-liouses,wliere chil- 
dren may be taught as well to do some- 
thing towards their living as to read and 
write.' ' That the business of education 
be not (as now) committed to tlie worst 
and unworthiest of men ; but that it be 
seriously studied and practised Vjy the best 
and ablest persons.' ' Since few children,' 
Jie says, ' have need of reading before they 
know or can be acquainted with the things 
they read of, or of writing before their 
thoughts are worth the recording, . . . 
much less of learning languages when there 
be books enough for their present use in 
their own mother tongue ; our opinion is 
that those things, being withal somewhat 
above their capacity (as being to be at- 
tained by judgment which is weakest in 
children), be deferred awhile, and others 
more needful for them, such as are in the 
order of nature before those aforemen- 
tioned, ... be studied before them. We 
wish therefore that the educands be taught 
to observe all sensible objects and actions, 
.. . . that they use such exercises, whether 
in work or for recreation, as tend to health, 
agility, and strength of their bodies ; . . . 
that in no case the art of dra"\ving and 
designing be omitted, . . . since the use 
thereof for expressing the conceptions of 
the mind seems to be little inferior to that 
of writing, and in many cases performeth 
what by words is impossible. That the 
elements of arithmetic and geometry be 
by all studied ; being not only of great and 
frequent use in all human affairs, but also 
sure guides and helps to reason, and espe- 
cial remedies for a volatile and unsteady 
mind. . . . That all children, though of 
the highest rank, should be taught some 
gentile manufacture in their minority.' 
Then follows a long list of 'mechanical 
arts and manufactures,' for the proper 
practical teaching of wliich, and for ex- 
perimenting in and improving them, there 
should be workshops presided over by prac- 
tical men, botanical and zoological gardens, 
a library, an astronomical observatory, 
' galleries of the rarest paintings and sta- 
tues,' and in fact everything needful to 
render the college ' an epitome or abstract 
of the whole world.' Want of space pre- 
vents our quoting more from this excellent 
tract. But we must not omit mention of 
the striking passage in which the author 



dwells on the jjraMical value of his tech- 
nical institute, and forcibly points out that 
' children do most naturally deliglit in 
things, and are most capable of learning 
them, and how they love toys, making 
ships with paper, setting even nutshells 
a swimming, handling the tools of work- 
men, as soon as they turn their backs, and 
trying to work themselves,' and so on — a 
plain hint from nature as to how educa- 
tion should begin. 

PMlanthropic Society. See P^efor- 
MATORY Schools. 

Philolog'y is the science of language. 
The term is sometimes used of all investi- 
gations connected with written or spoken 
language ; but it is now applied in Eng- 
land especially to that science which is 
based on inductions drawn from comparison 
of the phenomena of different languages, 
and which from thence traces the origin of 
words, and their changes in form, meaning, 
and relation. Of this science Comparative 
Philology is the more correct title. The 
founder of scientific or Comparative Philo- 
logy was Franz Bopp (1791-1867), who, 
first in 1816, and afterwards more fully in 
his Comparative ■ G'rammar, demonstrated 
the common origin of the inflexions in the 
Indo-European family of languages (Sans- 
krit, Persian, Greek, Latin, German, Celtic, 
(fee). Bopp considered that all I.-E. words 
were derived from monosyllabic roots, ver- 
bal or pronominal, which once had an in- 
dependent existence, and tliat each noun 
or verb was formed by the ' agglutination ' 
of two roots to one another. Phonetic lavjs, 
or the laws governing the change of sounds, 
were, he held, liable to numerous excep- 
tions. The formulation by Grimm of the 
law regulating the shifting of mute con- 
sonants in High and Low German, as 
contrasted with Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, 
led Pott to devote as much attention to 
phonetic laws as Bopp had given to in- 
flexions. Still following Bopp in the main, 
Schleicher (1821-68) attempted to recon- 
struct the original Indo-European forms ; 
while Curtius, in his Principles of Greek 
Etymology (1858) and Greek Verb (1877), 
laid a solid foundation for Greek philo- 
logy. But now there set in a reaction, 
headed by Brugmann in Germany and by 
Sayce in England. The ' Xew School' 
insisted that the principles of linguistic 
research should be chiefly deduced, not 
from obsolete written languages, but from 
! popular dialects now spoken ; the starting 



264 



PHILOLOGY 



point must be sounds, not letters. In tliis 
view there seems considerable truth. There 
is great danger of confusing the study of 
language — tliat is, of words — witli the 
study of written symbols, which are often 
-s'ery unsafe repi-esentations of Avords ; 
thus, Dr, Murray's Dictionary distin- 
guishes lifty-four vocalic sounds and com- 
binations in current English, to denote 
which we have only live letters and com- 
binations. A careful study of phonetics 
auti the physiological aspects of sound- 
production is necessary, in order to under- 
stand the origin of changes in sounds, and 
to estimate tlie probability of changes as- 
sumed. The two other main principles of 
the New School are that all plionetic laws 
are invariable, and tliat apparent excep- 
tions ai-e due to aiialogy. From the former 
of these propositions it follows that vowels 
must be as much subject to plionetic laws 
as consonants. Yoltaire deiined etymology 
as ' a science in whicli the vowels went for 
nothing, and tlie consonants for very little.' 
Curtius seems not wholly free from this 
charge ; for in his Oreek EtymoliH/i/ 
much more space is devoted to ' spoi-adic ' 
than to ' regular change of sounds,' while 
in his book under the latter title the 
vowels find no place at all. The New 
School has proved beyond doubt that the 
changes of vowels are as regular as those 
of consonants. The doctrine that pho- 
netic laws are invariable has been attacked 
as an assertion incapable of proof. The 
trutli seems to be that phonetic laws are 
invai'iable, unless interfered with by some 
other phonetic law or by analogy. Thus 
it is a plionetic laAv that verbaradjectives 
in -TO? through change of accent lose the e 
of the pi-esent, as ^ei'yw, ^i-ktos ; yet o-\-e7r- 
To^iai has o-KeTn-d? ; here the law has been 
interfered with by another phonetic law, 
viz. that o-KTrr is unpronounceable. Again, 
Fr. ecreingse has become ' cray-fish"' ir- 
regulaily ; here the phonetic law has been 
disturbed by analogy, or the desire of as- 
similating the unknown new word e'crevisse 
to the known word 'fish.' So the late oiSa/xei' 
for rSyiiei' is evidently formed on the analogy 
of olta. The influence of such analogy and 
desire for unifoi-mity is assumed by the 
New School wherever changes cannot be 
explained by phonetic laws." But, though 
we may in such cases generally assume the 
influence of some analogy, it is often 
impossible to do more than guess what 
particular analoo-v has had influence in a 



particular case. Still, the progress of kjiow- 
ledge has tended to banish more and more 
the element of chance from linguistic 
change. Besides analogy, whose influence 
on meaning has been greater than on form, 
the two chief factors in phonetic change 
have been laziness, or desire of easier pro- 
nunciation, which has changed, e.g., eAei;- 
jxocrvvt} into 'alms'; and emphasis, for the 
sake of clearness, which has changed, e.g., 
Fr. imprenalyle to Eng.' ' impregnable.' 

The origin of language is still disputed ; 
but it is pi'obably due partly to imitation 
of natural sounds, e.g. cuckoo ; partly to 
interjections, e.g. ' ah ! ' ; partly to inven- 
tion, of which there are instances eveoi 
now in the Katir and other dialects. It 
is certain, however, that primitive words 
denoted particular and concrete ideas. 

According to relationship, the languages- 
of the world fall into about twelve main 
groups, the cluef of which are the Indo- 
European, the Semitic (Hebrew, Phanii- 
cian, Syrian, Arabian, Assyrian), and Tu- 
ranian (INIongol, Hungarian, Turkish, etc.);, 
there is no trustworthy evidence at present 
that these groups had a commoii origin. 

According to structui'e, languages may 
be divided into (1) isolating, consisting of 
roots only, e.g. Chinese ; (2) agglutinative,. 
in whicli roots are placed side by side tO' 
form a word, e.g. Finnic ; (3) inflexional,, 
as Indo-European and Semitic. Bopp held 
that all inflexional languages had passed 
through the first two stages, and that their 
words wei-e foi-med by the union of two 
once independent roots. Ludwig, Sayce, 
and others, however, now deny this ; they 
regai'd I.-E. roots as being only the results, 
of our analysis, and as never having had 
an independent existence ; while inflexions 
did not necessaiily once exist in the fonn 
of roots, but were often originally meaning,- 
less, and aftei-wards ' adapted ' to conve}- 
different meanings. On the whole this, 
theoi-y seems the most satisfactory ; the 
chief argument for the agglutination 
theory, viz. the identification of Greek -/xt, 
-cri, -Tt with persona] pronouns, is now 
generally discredited. 

The Indo-European (Aryan or Indo- 
Germanic) group, to which Comparative 
Philology has been especially applied, com- 
prises eight main families of language, (1) 
Aryan (Sanskrit and Persian), (2) Arme- 
nian, (3) Albanian, (4) Greek, (o) Italian,, 
including Latin (with its daughter lan- 
guages French, Italian, Spanish, Portu- 



PHILOLOGY 



265 



guese, &c.), Oscan,TJnibrian, etc., (6) Celtic 
(Irish, Gaelic, Welsli), (7) Teutonic (Go- 
thic, English, German, Scandinavian), 
(8) Letto-Slavonic (Lithuanian, Russian, 
Bulgarian, &c.). Some philologists include 
Etruscan also. All these languages go 
back to one parent speech, whose speakers 
probably lived near the Baltic (see Sayce, 
Address to British Association. Sept. 1, 
1887 ; Schrader, Sj)rac]t,vergleichung und 
Urgeschichte, 1883). The order of their 
separation cannot yet be determined ; but 
Latin seems to have a close affinity with 
Celtic (they alone have genitive in -i, 
future in -6-, passive in -r). Mommsen's 
theory that there was once a Graeco-Italian 
period, in which the Greeks and Italians 
lived together apart from the rest of the 
I.-E. family, is now generally discredited ; 
for apart from what is borrowed and what 
both derive from I.-E., Greek and Latin 
stand almost entirely apart both in forms 
and vocabulary ; their terms for religion, 
politics, social life, war, &c., are nearly all, 
where not I.-E., utterly distinct (see Net- 
tleship, on ' Early Italian Civilisation,' in 
Essays on Latin Literature, 1885). An 
Italo- Celtic period is more probable. 

The I.-E. sounds were : (1) Sj)irants, s, 
z, y, V. (2) jExjjlosives, labial p, b (?ph), 
bh, dejital t, d (? th), dh, palatal k, g 
(? kh), gh, velar q, g (?qh), gh, the last 
series admitting a ' w ' sound after them, 
and occurring especially before e. Pala- 
tal k, g, gh ^^ Gk. and Lat. k, k ; y, g ; 
;(, h, g. The velar gutturals appear in 
Greek as tt, t, k ; /?, 8, y ; <^, B, x; in 
Latin as qu, c ; v, gu, g ; f, b, gu, v, h, g. 
Grimm's well-known law of the change of 
the explosives in Teutonic has been modi- 
fied "by Verner's discovery that the medial 
changes vary according to the accent — e.g. 
^paTi7p:=Goth. hrotluir, O.H.G. hruodar, 
but Trarryp =: Goth. fadar, O.H.G. fatar. 
The influence of accent, which in I.-E. was 
probably one of pitch, is being proved of 
more and more importance. (3) Liquids 
r, 1. When e of unaccented er between 
two consonants dropped out, r and 1 had 
to perform the functions of vowels or so- 
nants ; when used as sonants (vowels) r and 
1 = Gk. ap, pa, aX, \a, e.g. eSpaKC for ^drke, 
from SepKOfxaL, Lat. or, ol — e.g.Jors for f rtis, 
fero. (4) Nasals, m (labial), n (dental), li 
(palatal), n (velar), all also used as sonants, 
e.g. I.-E. tntbs = Gk. raros, Lat. tentus. 
(5) Vowels, a, e, i, o, u, both short and 
long ; a neutral vowel a (represented by 



a of TraTrjp) ; \ and u. as consonants. The 
presence of e and o in I.-E. has been ex- 
haustively demonstrated by De Saussure. 

The inflexions of I.-E. were highly 
elaborate. Of the noun there were prob- 
ably eight cases : nominative, vocative, 
accusative, genitive, dative, locative, abla- 
tive, and instrumental ; also three numbers,, 
singular, dual, and plural, the dual being 
older than the plural. The verb had an 
active and middle voice, but no passive ; 
four moods — indicative, imperative, opta- 
tive, and subjunctive (perhaps also an in- 
junctive mood) ; and five tenses — present 
and perfect (reduplicated), imperfect and 
aorist (augmented), and the future. 

I.-E. syntax has so far been little 
studied ; we know, however, that the verb 
generally came at the end of the sentence, 
and the attribute before the word it quali- 
fied. {See Bergaigne, Memoires de la Societe 
de Linguistique, ii. 5 ; Delbriick, Hyntak- 
tische Forsclaingen, vol. v.) 

The I.-E. vocabulary had very few 
words for abstract notions. Its sema- 
tology, or the scientific study of the changes 
of meaning it underwent, has not yet been 
satisfactorily treated. Indeed sematology 
in general has been much neglected. Hence 
the order of development of meanings is 
frequently wrongly given even in our best 
dictionaries ; e.g. the Latin minerva (mind) 
is wrongly explained as a metonymic use 
from the name of the goddess; whereas 
the latter is but a personification of the 
abstract noun seen in ' invita minerva,' in 
' prominervat,' and in Marsian ablative 
'minurbid' (decree). {See'^ettle&hv^, Latin 
Lexicography. For a scientific treatment 
of sematic change, see Littre's French and 
Murray's English Historical Dictionary) 

Hee Peile, Primer of Comparative 
Philology, Is. ; Max Miiller, Lectures on 
Language, 1861, 16s.; Sayce, Comparative 
Philology, 1874, 10s. 6d ; Science of Lan- 
guage, 1879 3 Sweet, Handbook of Pho- 
netics, 4s. %d. Lndo-European: Brugmann, 
Elements of Comparative Grammar, vol. 
i., 1886, tr., 18s. (the best book on I.-E. 
phonetics) ; Der heutige Stand der Sprach- 
wissenschaft, 1884, 2s. 6c/. (defence of New 
School) ; F. de Saussure, Voyelles Indo- 
Europyeennes, 1879 ; Delbriick, Introduc- 
tion to Study of Language, 1881, tr., 5s. 
Greek and Latin : King and Cookson, 
Sounds and Lnflexions in Greek and Latin^ 
1888, 1S.S. (all the earlier English manuals 
are quite out of date) ; Curtius, Greek 



266 



PHILOSOPHY 



Etymology^ 1879, tr., 865.: Greek Verb, tr., 
1877, 12^.; Elucidations of Greek Gram- 
«irtr(Grreek inflexions), 1863,6s.; Wharton, 
Etyma Grceca, 1884, 10s. ^d.; Brugmann's 
Greek and Stolz's Latin Grammar in Iwan 
'M.vXier'&Handhucher, 1885 (good summary 
of results), 5s. %d. ; Meyer, Griechische 
Grammatik (best Greek grammar), 1886, 
14s.; V. Henry, E Analogie enGrec, 1883, 
ab. 8s. ; Grammaire coinparee du Grec et du 
Latin, 1888, 6s. 3f?.; Wordsworth, Early 
Latin, 1874, 18s.; Roby, Latin Grammar, 
1871, vol. i. 9s. ; Conway, Verner^s Laio 
in Ltaly, 1887, 5s. English, <kc. : Earle, 
Philology of English Tongue, Is. 6(^.; 
Skeat, English Etymology, 1887, 9s.; 
Sweet, History of English Sounds, 1888, 
14s.; Douse, Gothic of TJlfilas, 1886, 6s. ; 
Diez, Grammar of Rotnance Languages ; 
Bracket, Historical French Grammar, 
1869, 3s. Qd. ; Etymological French Dic- 
tionary, Introduction, 1868, 7s. 'od. 

Philosophy. — The term ' philosophy ' 
(Greek, (piXoaofia) was first used by the 
Greeks to indicate the love of knowledge 
■of any kind. Later on, mainly by the 
labours of Aristotle, the most systematic 
thinker of antiquity, it acquired a special 
reference to a certain portion or kind of 
knowledge. It was marked off from the 
•special sciences as the investigation of the 
ultimate notions, such as cause, substance, 
reality, which underlie the special sciences 
b)ut are not investigated by these. The 
work of philosophy is to co-ordinate the 
results obtained by the special sciences, 
as physics, chemistry, biology, &c., so as to 
provide a general theory or explanation of 
the universe, so far as this is obtainable. 
This work of philosophy in using and sup- 
plementing the results of scientific teach- 
ing, by giving us a final account of the 
nature and origin of real things, is specially 
marked off as metaphysic. Closely con- 
nected with this is aiaother and more I'e- 
cently recognised department of philo- 
■sophic search, viz. theory of knowledge. 
This considers critically the qviestion how 
•the human mind can have certain know- 
ledge at all, and seeks to define the criteria 
ormarksof tru.e knowledge as distinguished 
from the false semblance of it. In addi- 
tion to metaphysic and theory of know- 
ledge, philosophy is commonly taken to in- 
clude psychology, or the science of mind; 
logic, or the science which deals with and 
seeks to regulate the processes of thought 
or reasoning ; ethics, which aims at defin- 



ing the ultimate ends of conduct ; and 
aesthetics, which investigates the nature 
and laws of beauty (see articles Psycho- 
logy, Logic, and Ethics). From this short 
account of the scope of philosophy we may 
be able to determine its proper place as a 
subject of study. The educational im- 
portance of philosophy depends on the fact 
that it disciplines the mind in thinking 
about things in the most general way, 
tends to widen the intellectual horizon, 
and preserve the specialist from narrow- 
ness of views, and favours a thoughtful 
and critical attitude of mind. To this it 
may be added that though the high pro- 
blems of philosophy seem remote from all 
practical interests, they answer to intel- 
lectual impulses and longings which are 
as old as man, and which display them- 
selves very distinctly in the history both 
of the race and of the individual. As a 
group of studies of a particularly abstract 
and difficult nature, philosophy belongs to 
the last or university period of scholarship. 
In the history of the university system on 
the Continent and in Great Britain philo- 
sophy has occupied a prominent and hon- 
oured place in that general course of studies 
which is now marked ofi' from the more 
distinctly professional courses as the ' fa- 
culty of arts,' or by the Germans, as the 
' faculty of philosophy.' It now holds the 
firmest place perhaps in Germany and Scot- 
land. In Oxford it is studied too much 
merely as abranch of classical literature, and 
though the institution of the moral sciences 
tripos at Cambridge has distinctly raised 
its status at the other ancient university, 
there must be set off against this gain the 
more recent changes in the modern Uni- 
versity of London, by which philosophy 
has ceased to be a necessary element in the 
arts curriculum. From this it is evident 
that owing to the multiplication of educa- 
tional subjects, and the grooving demands 
for special and technical knowledge, philo- 
sophy will have to fight hard in order to 
maintain her ancient place of dignity. 
The estimation in which she is held can, 
however, only permanently fall when the 
estimate of a liberal education itself de- 
clines. It has a particular utiKty for the 
educator, partly because the study of it 
will lift the specialist teacher above the 
narrow limits of his subject, and enable 
him to deal with it in a larger, more 
thoughtful, and more truly educational 
manner ; partly because in its special 



PHRENOLOGY 



267 



branches — psychology, logic, and ethics — 
it supplies the basis of a theory of educa- 
tion. Finally, it may be observed that 
though philosophy, as we have seen, finds 
its proper place in the university, as dis- 
tinguished from the school curriculum, the 
question is being warmly discussed, espe- 
cially in Germany, whether some portions 
of philosophical study, more especially 
formal logic, and the elements of psycho- 
logy and of ethics, ought not to be taken 
up in the secondary schools as a prepara- 
tion for university studies. 

(On the scope of philosophy see Sir W. 
Hamilton, Lectures on Metaphysics, lect. 
iii., and art. ' Philosophy ' in the Encyclo- 
pcedia Brit. 9th ed. ; on its place in edu- 
cation see Hamilton, Lectures on Met. i. 
and ii., and an article, 'Philosophy as a 
Subject of Study,' by Professor G. Groom 
Robertson, in the Fortnightly Revieio, vol. 
X. (1868) ; and on its fitness to be a sub- 
ject of school-teaching, consult the art. 
^ Philosophische Propadeutik,' in Schmidt's 
Encyclopddie. ) 

Phrenolog'y (Gr. <^py]v, mind, Aoyo?, dis- 
course) is the name which was given by 
Poster in 1815 to that science which afi'ects 
to be a philosophy of mind based upon the 
physiology of the brain. The four car- 
dinal principles of the new science, as it 
has been expounded by its best advocates, 
are that the mental powers of man can be 
analysed into a definite number of inde- 
pendent faculties ; that these faculties are 
innate, and each has its seat in a definite 
region of the brain ; that the brain is the 
organ of the mind ; and that the size of 
each of these regions is the measure of the 
power of manifesting the faculty associated 
with it. Phrenology thus assumes a two- 
fold aspect, namely, a system of mental 
philosojohy, and a method whereby the dis- 
position and character of the individual 
may be ascertained. The attempt to read 
the mind and character of a man by an 
examination of the external features of 
the head was not for the first time made 
when the science of phrenology was first 
propounded. Attempts indeed have been 
made from the earliest times. Gall, the 
leader of the phrenological movement, set- 
tled in Paris in 1807, where he made many 
influential converts. He next visited Great 
Britain, and with the assistance of Spurz- 
heim and George Combe, the spread of the 
new gospel under him was rapid. Amongst 
the many influential disciples were Elliot- 



son, Mackenzie, Laycock, and Archbishop 
Whately. In 1832 no fewer than twenty- 
nine phrenological societies were esta- 
blished in Great Britain, besides many 
phrenological journals. The theory had, 
however, many formidable opponents. 
Thomas Browne and Jefirey severely cri- 
ticised it in the pages of the Edinburgh 
Revieiv, while Wilson ridiculed it in Black- 
vjood. The popularity of the movement 
has now greatly waned, and few societies 
have survived ; indeed in Edinburgh, where 
the movement had taken its firmest hold, 
the large museum has had to be closed, 
and the funds devoted to other objects 
under the direction of the Court of Session. 
The theory is still cultivated by a few en- 
thusiasts, such as will be attached to any 
cause, and some professional teachers who 
follow phrenology as a vocation. At the 
same time it cannot be denied that the 
theory has an admixture of assumption 
and truth. The method followed by its 
founders was to select the place of a faculty, 
then to examine the heads and casts of 
persons with that peculiarity in common, 
and then find out the distinctive features 
of the characteristic trait. Gall thereby 
fixed upon twenty-six organs for his model 
head, while others raise the number to 
forty-three. Spurzheim divided the com- 
ponent faculties of the mind into (1) feel- 
ings with propensities, i.e. internal im- 
pulses, inviting only to certain action, and 
with sentiments, i.e. impulses which prompt 
to emotion as well as to action; and (2) 
intellectual faculties, perceptive and re- 
flective. Several of the faculties so as- 
signed to the mind are redundant in some 
particulars and deficient in others. Thus 
we have both form and size. Metaphy- 
sicians tell us that a knowledge of exten- 
sion includes the two, form being but the 
comparative extension of two several ob- 
jects. Similarly, again, the organs of com- 
bativeness and clestructiveness coincide so 
nearly that the absence of the one would 
scarcely be missed if the other were in 
vigour. They are also deficient in their 
organs. Thus they pro^^-de for a love for 
children, but not for parents ; for a love of 
wealth, but not of animals ; for the love of 
truth, but not of mendacity ; yet the latter 
organ in each of these cases has as much 
claim to originality as the former. Many 
of them, again, ai'e so heterogeneous in their 
nature that they may indicate faculties or 
dispositions diametrically opposite, while 



•JOS 



TMIVSrOAL l'^,l>li(*Ari()N 



oihtM'H m-o UwxuHhod with i'om[H>i»sa(.ii\,n' 
ov^aiis Nvliiuli b.MilaiKit* th(^ j^ooil or (.luun il, 
ami ilwis roiidtM' botli iin*lUH-tivt\ 'Vhua Mio 
orjjjaii of stHir<>t.iviM\tv^s iuiUivitc^M m. (liuvf mx 
woll as a iiovt>list. Tho I'umlaiutMitivl dov 
triiio with rosptvt to tlio lit ilitiy o( an orpvu 
is that its si/.o dotonniiu^s tlio po\vt>r of (li(> 
alU>^"0(l t'aoulty or pi^iiu^iisity l»oloi\s>;'mij; t.o 
it. But it oau hardly bo admit (tul that, 
sizo alout> is a triu^ oritorion, for it is n. 
wt^ll asotn-taiiuHl faot that X\\o vij^our ol' 
any faoulty juay ho iiun'oasod l>y tHhu'a 
tion or o\tn\nso, oi'ovoii of iU>sirt\ \vithi>ut 
niiy i'orrt>spomlinu; iui-n^aso in its si/,t\ 
llonoo tlit^ jihrtMioloi'V is doprivod of (Mio 
of its host, niarics io tout iiio int(>lKH'tiinl 
slr<Mis;th of tl>o patitM\t. It is indtHnl sui- 
}>risiun' how litthi solid pi"i\n'rtvss rosidttnl 
ivowx thisoouti'ovorsy ; iiuUHHl,fiirtJun*th;ui 
a somowhat stii>iidatiM!>" n^s(>(in'h xnlo tho 
anatomy of tlu> hrain, inching was dout^. 
Most of tho auatomioal (h^tails ooutniuod 
in tho wnn'ks oii phroiioKijjy rohito to con 
tmvtxraial luattors oi soooiidary import 
anoo, and jM-t>supposo tho truth of tho 
thoory, but <^\imi in oouuoot>ii>u with thoui 
thoy jj;ivt> us no statistioal dotails of any 
\ahu'. 

Physical Education. -It is uow woll 
i-tHH\i;nisod that io ho ' a i^'ood aiiinial' is 
iu\tu)f thtvtirst rt>(|uisitos ti>s\UHH*ss in lifo, 
and tlmt for this purposo propor iood and 
<<\tnviso aro of primo iunH>rtanot\ W'hoii 
wo rtnuondtor that' ont^ fourth of thi> whiiKi 
bUiod of tho body is oontainod in tho sub- 
st^vni'O <>f its n»usoU''S, i\\o impoitanoo of 
duo oxoroiso of thorn booonitvs t>vidont. 
Musoidar t^xoroiso is in»portant in its in 
tluouot* tM» tht^ gouoral lioalth and on tho 
brain. Tho umsolos iuoi'oaso iu sij;o aiul 
strtuxgih by steady ai\d systonuvtio oxov- 
oiso. The aotii>n of tho lungs is ii\oivasod, 
\noit^ puw air boing i(\spiivd, and uu^ro 
iu\puritios oxpirod, whilo tho ai^tual girth 
of tho olvost and si2;t> of tho lungs \)ooonios 
iiu-ivnsod. l»y its moans a tlat-ohostod 
oomlition may bo ourod, and oousumptivo 
tondonoit\s obvijvtod. Tho aotiou of tho 
skin is inonwsod. tho oireulatiou is inv- 
pw\od anil i-tnivltM-od n\(uv oipiablo, tho 
pmihu'tion of boat is inoroasod, and oold 
foot a»\d ohilblains btH'ouio a thii\g of tho 
past, Tho nuisoKvs oauivot aot of thorn- 
solves; their moxomouts tin> eontrollod 
aud vt\gulatod by uor\os which havo thoir 
ultinuito origin in tlu> biuiu. Thoiv is a 
niotor part of tho brain oonvspoudiug to 
tho musilos which is in intimate coiumu- 



nii'a.tit>n with tho int(^ll(H'tua,l |>arts of tho 
brain, and which cai\ oidy attain its fidl 
vigour wlum tht^ wlioli^ nuisculai' .systciui 
is in a w(>ll ihnH>lopoil ami tunUthy con- 
dition, hiach nt^rvous ol^ntl•c n>nuiros 
(^xtt'iMial stimuli to dov(>lop its potiMitial 
pinv(n". Th(^ motor part of tho liiuin ro- 
«pui'os muscular i^xorciso, tho sonstu'y part 
rtHjuinvs oxovciso of tho special senses, and 
tlu< intellectual part (wliich is probably 
in^l(^pemlent of tlu^ other two parts, 
thi>ugh it co-iu'dinativs and regulates tiunr 
action) n^piirt^s (^xercise of tlu> intMuory 
atul reasoning ,pow»>rs. It is luily when 
thest^ iUroo kinds of exorcise are duly 
proju>rtiom»d, ami oiwU fully extH-utiHl, 
that tlu^ higlu^st attfiiuablo developnuMit. 
of tJH^ brain is stHHirtnl. 

h'.vci'ssirt' iiiitsrn/ttr t\ft'rclst- vt>ry seUlom 
iHHUirs in chililren. It is only in I'luupe- 
titi\ t^ running lU- rowing (orsimilai* suddtMi 
and viohnit oxortiinis) that dangtn* arises. 
Palpitation and occasiin\ally dilatation of 
the heart u»a.y b^^ productnl, sometiinos 
also spitting of bloinl. (\nupt>tit ivt> exer- 
cises shouhl be carefully n\gulated and 
graduated in tho }>rovious training, anil 
no boy should be allowed to join in thoni 
unless ho h.as passinl a searching medical 
oxaniinatioij. Then> is no necossjiry an- 
tagonism between mtnital culture and ath- 
leticism. Tho 'proverbial stui'idity of tho 
;ithU>te' simply nutans that the mojttal 
f.'icult ios h.ave become rusty from want of 
use. J>ut where one person sutlers from 
oxoossive exorcise, multitvules sutler frou\ 
iilleness. Ihilcifut CAnvinf- is especially 
couunon in girls, and iu coi\seipieuce tho 
genoml health is eonsidm-ably inn^airod, 
the digestion is enfeebled, tho circulation 
becomes uneipuvl, ami ner\ ous irritability 
and sleoplessi\oss often follow. The ten- 
dency to lung diseases, especially consump- 
tion, is gwatly iixcroasod. The figure is 
lamentably atlected, the shouldei's tend to 
droop, the chest beco\nes tlat, the gait 
stooping, and the spine nmy become late- 
nilly twisted, owing to the tlabby condition 
of the nvuseles supporting it. The impri- 
sonn^tuxt of the tiguro in tight corsets is a 
couunon cause of deticient exercise of the 
trunk muscU^s in girls. In taking exer- 
cise tho following rules are vaUuvble. The 
clothing vshould always consist of tlaunel 
m^xt tlu^ skin, jind shouKl be loose enough 
to allow fn>e play of the liu\bs and ex- 
pa,nsion of tlie clu^st. Theiv is iu> dangvr 
trom excessive pei'spimtion, but oidy after- 



PHYSICS 



269 



wards : honco sitting in a drauglit or keep- 
ing on wet clothes (when flannel has not 
l)e(!n worn) should be carefully avoided. 
The exercise should bo systematic and 
regular, not sudden and violent. li^very 
j)art of the body should be exercised, and 
the exercise should be taken as far as pos- 
siljle in the ojjon air, and not directly after 
meals. The value of girls' calisth(!nics is 
gi-eatly reduced by tluur bcdng commonly 
taken indoors. 

Physics.- This term may be defined 
in many ways, but the following eqiiiva- 
l(Mit models of expr(!ssing its meaning will 
assist : - (1) It is the science which treats 
of the phenomena presented by bodies. 
{'2) It treats of matter, energy, and motion. 
(3) Hence it includes the discussion of 
gravitation and molecular attraction, and 
other general properties of solid bodies, 
li((uids, and gases. (4) The following sub- 
jects are therefore branches of this science : 
Mechanics, hydrostatics, including pneu- 
matics, heat, sound, light, magnetism, and 
eh^ctricity. (5) The scicnice of natui-e has 
tliree divisions according to the point of 
vi(!W under wliicli th(! bodies of the uni- 
vej'se are studi(!d. Th(!se bodies may b(; 
examined with r'clation to thcii' (jenardl 
jjroperties, with relation to their consti- 
tuent pai-ts and peculiar properties, and 
with relation to their a})pearances and ex- 
tc/nial fjualities. rihysics (in its moder-ii 
acceptation replacing the term Natural 
Pliilosophy) has for its object the general 
])i()perti(!s of bodies, their mutual actions 
oil each otlier, tlieir causes, effects, pheno- 
mena, and hiws. Chc/miatry studies the 
]»(H;uliar properties of bodies, their ele- 
Mumtary principles and cond)inations; and 
Natural History, in its widcsst sense, ob- 
.sei'ves their external characters and ap- 
])(?ai'ances, classifies, and arranges them, 
it will be seen that the lines of division 
of these three divisions of science are not 
always distinct ; hence, in text-books on 
physics we frequently have a chapter on 
chemical physics, and in works on chem- 
istry a chapter on physical chemistry. 
But for the purposes of school teaching 
it is not necessary that the facts dealt 
with should be kept rigidly and strictly 
to tlieir own section ; and liowever different 
the case may be with advanced j)rofessors 
of the sciences, teachers and scholars who 
ai-e intending chiefly to deal witli one sec- 
tion may make excursions into the; others 
Avithout fear of exciting jealousy and re- 



sentment. Let us now first ask, Wliat 
is the aim of physics when used in school- 
teaching, and then consider differences in 
the methods of dealing with the subjects 
at different stages of education. The ob- 
jects to be aimed at aj-e as follows : To 
teach the children (l)To ol)se7'V(i objects 
and operations. (2) To <;i?e,wr<Y>« accurately 
what is S(;eii and done. (3) To reason on 
simple pluinoTiKMia. Now, there should 
b(^ tln'(!e cours(!S, or thrcio periods, in 
which these thi'(!e objects in succession 
ljav(; th(! chief consideration. In the first 
course of sciencci-Iessons given to the 
youngest children we should tell litth; or 
nothing: we should tell only the names 
of tilings used, and as few of those as 
possible. The object being to excite a 
love of observation and a longing for 
scientific knowledge, the lessons will prin- 
cipally consist in exhibiting differ-ences, 
and getting them S(!en and pointed out. 
In the first stage the t(iacher will be satis- 
fi(;d with evidences of observation, but in 
the second stage he will be bent on re- 
ceiving the answers to all (Questions in 
sci(uitiiic and graTrimatical language. Fi- 
nally, h(5 will put off to the last stage, or 
leave to be fornuid at a later time, the 
more geiK^ral laws and the theories of 
science. The reason for this will on a 
little thought be (ividcuit. These theories 
and laws will form the crowning stones 
of the pyramid, and must be placed last, 
a broad base with many stones having 
been laid fir-st. We must begin with the 
common and familiar properties of things 
— a glass of water or a bottle of air, — 
and from the beginning we should urge 
the young student to perform the experi- 
jiKHits with his own hands. 

Wlicm we have procecided far enough 
to split physics into its elementary sub- 
jects, the branch claiming att(!ntion first 
is mechanics and dynamics. At pnisent 
we ai'e troubled by a difference of custom 
in the use of tluisc; terms. The older classi- 
fication is as follows : 

Mecfianics, iiicliidirif;- StaticK, llic scieiK^e of 

loreos acting? on bodies 
at rcHt ; ami DyiiaiiiicH, 
tlie science of forces wliicli 
produce motion. 

The more modern mode of division 

uses the term ' dynamics ' as the science 

of force gore rally : 

I. Kinematics, (lie science of pure mo- 

tion indeiieudently of 
force. 



270 



PHYSICS PHYSIOLOGY (ANIMAL) 



II. Dynamics, including (a) Kinetics, the science 
of force producing mo- 
tion. 

(b) Statics as above, and 
including mechanics, the 
science of machines iu 
equilibrium. 

Now, when we look on these sciences 
in their relation to the teaching of physics 
generally, we are di'iven to conclude that 
there are educational advantages in taking- 
statics and the theory of simple machines 
before the more general dynamics. 

An argument adduced in favour of the 
treatment of dynamics before statics is, 
that the second law of motion simplifies 
the exposition of the parallelogram of 
forces ; and another, that the study of 
work should properly precede the study of 
the common machines. But in education we 
frequently lose more than we gain by at- 
tempting to deal with the most general 
ideas before we have established a sufficient 
number of elementary notions to make the 
comprehension of the generalised notion 
an easy matter. Again, dynamics is dif- 
ficult to teach experimentally without con- 
siderable expense and some skill in experi- 
menting ; whereas the theorems of statics 
are capable of being easily verified by inex- 
pensive apparatus, consisting chiefly of 
ordinary weights, rods, and strings, and 
requiring no great delicacy of manipula- 
tion. Finally, the subject of dynamics 
teems with fundamental difficulties which 
are not met with in statics ; for example, 
the measure of a variable velocity, the 
difficult proofs of the fundamental for- 
mulfe for even uniform acceleration, the 
great difficulty of explaining the funda- 
mental ideas concerning mass and force, 
the imperfectly-treated second law of mo- 
tion, the immense labour of change of 
units, as from the pound to the gramme, 
from the weight of one pound to the dyne, 
from the food-pound to the erg, and so on. 
On these grounds the teaching of statics 
should begin first. After this the order 
will be as follows : the measurement of 
velocity and acceleration, force, mass mo- 
mentum, and energy. 

A very useful piece of school-work 
will be done by grouping portions of all 
the branches of physics about the concept 
Energy in the way described in the article 
on Mathematics. 

The term enei'gy, and the great prin- 
ciple of the conservation or persistence of 
energy, the establishment of which will 



live in the history of science as the great 
achievement of the central part of the 
nineteenth century, have a scope far be- 
yond the purely mathematical treatment 
of dynamics and the allied branches of 
physical science. The concept and the 
principle have already profoundly modi- 
fied the views of the physicist as to the 
natural laws with which he is concerned, 
and are, destined to form the starting- 
point and firm foundation for all his con- 
quests in the future. While the concep- 
tion of energy has naturally arisen out 
of the higher mathematical treatment of 
dynamics, it has necessitated a very ma- 
terial recasting of that treatment in its- 
most elementary as well as in its more 
advanced stages, if it is to bear any fruit- 
ful relation to physical science in general. 

Of the other branches of physics that 
of heat presents many simple expei'iments 
which may be repeated in a school labora- 
tory, and electricity is the branch which 
has most points of connection with the 
other branches. {See Electricity.) 

Physiology (Animal) ((^vVts, nature; 
Xoyos, a discourse) deals with animal or- 
gans and their functions. As taught in 
schools, it takes man as the most perfect- 
animal, and treats of human structure,, 
organs, and functions, the illustrative dis- 
sections being made on any mammal, pre- 
ferably on a rabbit or a guinea-pig. The 
study of the body commences %vith the 
structure of the internal, or endo- skeleton^ 
and for the thorough comprehension of 
this it is necessary to have a complete 
skeleton, properly jointed, so as to make 
clear the connections of the various parts, 
and the mechanical adjustments which 
facilitate and limit the movements of the 
trunk and limbs. The points of insertion 
of the great muscles — -which, with the 
bones to which they are attached, form 
levers of the three kinds in the body — can 
be marked on the skeleton, but it is not 
necessary for an ordinary science student 
to concern himself -wdth the details of the 
muscular structure of the human frame ; 
he may content himself with a sound 
knowledge of the large muscles of the 
limbs, of the larynx, and of the chest. In 
addition to the skeleton, the teacher should 
have a complete set of human bones, sepa- 
rated from each other, and the student 
should learn to recognise and name each 
bone apart from its position in the skeleton. 
Next comes the study of the great organs 



PHYSIOLOGY (ANIMAL) 



271 



of the body, those concerned in digestion, 
absorption, circulation, respiration, and 
secretion. A clear comprehension of the 
relative positions of these organs is indis- 
pensable, and to this end two illustrative 
dissections are made by wise teachers : L 
A guinea-pig, spread on a board on its back, 
with its limbs attached severally to four 
nails driven into the corners of the board, 
has the skin from the throat to the pubes 
slit down the middle and laid back; with 
a pair of sharp scissors or bone-forceps the 
ribs are severed from the breast-bone a.nd 
carefully removed; the muscles covering 
the abdominal cavity are slit down the 
middle and reflected. Thus the two great 
cavities of the thorax and abdomen, sepa- 
rated by the diaphragm, are laid open to 
inspection. Then the intestines can be 
lifted out, the membrane which holds 
them in place being sufficiently cut through 
to permit of their extension, and thus the 
deeper organs of the abdomen can be 
exposed. 2. A guinea-pig is laid on its 
side, the skin reflected, the ribs severed 
from the vertebral column, and the whole 
bony and muscular coating turned from 
the centre of the back across towards the 
chest, the diaphragm being carefully dis- 
sected ofi*; a complete side view of the 
organs in situ is thus again obtained. 
After this has been done, the organs are 
separately studied. (All animals required 
for dissection should be killed with chlo- 
roform; the animal should be placed in 
a jar; a piece of cotton-wool, steeped in 
chloroform, should be dropped in, and an 
airtight cover securely fastened down.) 
The tissues of the body should next engage 
the attention of the student, and he should 
learn to recognise under the microscope 
osseous, adipose, fibrous, cartilaginous, 
muscular, nervous, vascular, and epithe- 
lial tissues ; his attention should be care- 
fully drawn to the differences between 
voluntary and involuntary muscular fibres, 
and to the various kinds of epithelium. 
He is then ready to appreciate the signifi- 
cance of the histological peculiarities of 
the organs to which his study is next 
directed. Each organ should be studied 
(a) in its minute structure, (b) in its 
function. A lesson on food-stuffs should 
precede the study of digestion, and the 
teacher can show such simple processes as 
the turning of starch into sugar — contrast- 
ing the non-dialysable starch with the 
dialysable sugar — and the emulsion of fats. 



The circulation of the blood is best shown 
by placing a living frog in a bag with one 
hind leg left out, and carefully stretching 
the toes of the foot over a hole in a piece 
of thin wood, so that the web is over the 
aperture; pains must be taken to secure 
the foot without hurting the frog, and 
the frog must be supported so that the 
foot can rest on the stand of a microscope, 
A quarter-inch objective will give sufficient 
magnification to show the corpuscles rolling 
along the capillaries of the web. A slieep's 
or bullock's heart, with a few inches of 
the great vessels attached, serves conve- 
niently as illustration of the mammalian 
heart, the chambers being laid open, while 
a large vein from any mammal's leg can 
be used for the demonstration of the valves. 
A practical study of the sense-organs pre- 
sents considerable difficulties. A bullock's 
or sheep's eye makes a good demonstration, 
cut transversely; another should be dis- 
sected out, coat by coat; a good double 
convex-lens should be used to illustrate 
the formation of images on the retina. 
The external and middle ear can be de- 
monstrated, but the dissection of the in- 
ternal ear is beyond the powers of the 
ordinary student; notes sounded from 
vibrating strings and stretched membranes 
may, however, facilitate the conception of 
the many-stringed lyre of the human ear. 
The tissues of the eye, tlie tongue, the skin, 
and the nasal chambers, must be studied 
under the microscope. For the explanation 
of the nervous system it is necessary to 
remove the skull and part of the vertebral 
column of a rabbit, so that the connection 
between the cerebral mass, the spinal cord, 
and the sensory and motor nerves may be 
demonstrated ; a dissection of the fore- or 
hind-leg serves to show the distribution of 
nerves to muscles. The sympathetic sys- 
1 tem is illustrated by the ganglia and fibres 
I lying on each side of the backbone. A 
I brain, preserved in spirit, is absolutely 
{ necessary for comprehension of its various 
j parts, and sections of the spinal cord 
j should be carefully studied under the mi- 
\ croscope. Specimens, in spirit, of the 
; bi"ain and cord of a fish, a frog, a bird, a 
rabbit, and a man, are useful as showing 
j the change in relative position and in size 
of the cerebral hemispheres, as the animal 
rises in the evolutional scale. There is, 
, perhaps, no science the teaching of which 
j is of more vital importance than that of 
i physiology, with its bearing on hygiene 



272 



PK^'rirRKs- 



-ri.ATO 



m\d sjinifcy o( lil'o oomhu-t. Half Uio dis- 
voasoa juiioug" ricvli ami poor nlikt^ n^sult 
tVoin gross ignoranoo of tlio body jind its 
iui(^ds, and a sound, tliougli oloniontary, 
kuowlodgo of physiology would provtMit 
many a. sliattoring of roustitutii)n and 
ruining of liftv 

l'roft>ssor llu\U\v and \^y. Vo>^lcv, in n. 
recont. r(>por(. on tlio (»\a.niiiiations in phy- 
siology of Mio SiuoniH> and Art. 1 )i>par(nuM\i, 
istato that a hM•g^^ nuiubor of l\w i-t^joetions 
woro duo to tho i-ainlidatos bring ignorant 
<vf tho siniph^st facts a.nil jirim-iplt^s of 
riiysios anil (."'honiistry, and point out t hat 
it is in»possibU> for aitiy ono to understand 
physiology who is wholly ignorant of 
these two scnonees; 'but/ add the exa- 
ininoi'S, 'the teachers do not seen\ to re- 
tntgnise this ; they think they are teaching 
physii>logy wh(ni they make their pupils 
l(>aa'n certain physiological stattnnents in- 
\()l\ing physics or cheuiistry, without at- 
tempt ing to make then\ undtn-stand those 
iitatemeuts. Thus in several pap(>rs there 
is evidence that the writ t>r (U>es not in thci 
least know thedilUM-ence between, and the 
inflations betwt>en, carbon and carbonic 
acid ; and yi^t. he attempts to answer a 
tpiestiou on respirat iim. We do not wish 
to suggest that camlidates in physiology 
should pnniously satisfy the exauiiners in 
physics and chemistry ; there are many 
\alid objections against such a n\gulation. 
But teachers who send up candidates in 
phvsit^logy should vinderstaiid that, fron\ 
the \cry nature of the case, physiology 
cannot be studied in the absence of all 
knowledge of }»hysics and chemistry, and 
that it is their duty to see that this 
knowledge is in sonie way or other sup- 
plitnl.' 

Pictures. — There are two main uses 
for pictures in scIuhUs: one to exercise and 
(lev(>lop the aesthetic sentiment, or the 
t'eeling for beauty- -with which object the 
walls of the class rooms, halls, and corri- 
dors should be hung with pictures (which 
can be done for a suxall outl.Mv by applying 
to the Art in iSchoola AttiUHuation, Queen 
Sijuatv, W.O.) ; the other to convey infor- 
mation to the u\ind, to tix it then\ and to 
extn-vnse the faculty of constructive imagi- 
nntion. AVith regard to the latter use it 
n»ay be pointed out that it has long been 
accepted as aa\ axiom that the best expla- 
nation of a thing is the sight and study of 
the thing itself; and the itext best is a 
photograph or exact uneud>cllished picture 



of the thing. This nu")de of explaining 
and conveying information has been largely 
used from ipiito early times, but is still 
capable of considerably greater develop- 
ment — (vspecially in the departments of 
get\gra.phy and history. .But btvsides con- 
veying information, pictures may be used, 
aiul indeed are almost iiulispensable, for 
the cultivation of one of the most valuable 
of the ii»telh>ctual faculties — the construc- 
tive imaginatiiMi ; both when the mental 
imagi^s constructed are exact or nearly 
exact copies of souie original which exists 
or has existed (as in geography and his- 
tory), and when the constructions are new 
combinations of material already acquired 
(as in science and in art, both litei'ary 
and pictorial) ; in which latter case — 
when the combinations are new — pictures 
servo the purpose of suggestive models. 
The use of pictures as aiils to the memori/ 
is tot> widi>ly recognised to need more than 
uuM\tion. There is one iiiisuso of them, 
however, which cannot be too often pro- 
tested against ; and that is in lessons of 
ol>s6rrafio)i. In such cases pictures cjvn 
never be properly used except when pic- 
tur(>s themselves are the tilings to be 
observed. To study a picture instead of 
the thing itself iliflers hardly at all from 
studying a written account of the thing. 
Plato (l-O ;U7 B.C.) — An ancient 
C«reek philosopher, and the most distin- 
guislunl of the pupils of Socrates. In his 
fortieth year he began in the groves of tlie 
Academy at Athens to teach his celebrated 
systei\i of philosophy, which, in contra- 
! distinction to the schools of Ivealism and 
INlaterialism, is known as Idealism. Ideas 
i (ea^*/), accoriling to Plato, are the eternal 
j divine types or forms, constituting the 
essences of things according to their several 
i species, geT\era, fa\nilies, and classes. These 
I ideas are the substance of all knowledge, 
and the human intellect attains to £he 
I knowledge of them by ' DiaJtrticii,' thixt is, 
j systen\atic examination and argument, by 
which the non-essential are distinguislied 
from the essential elements. Plato, how- 
e\er, had a far higher aira than to lay 
down a correct science of the intellect. 
His objei't was to establish a sound theory 
of hun\an life, and in his AV7>»6/ic he 
describes in detail his ideal of a perfect 
human conin\unitt. That tn>atise, whicli 
starts with showing virtue to be the iii'st 
necessity of a sound social life, describes 
at ii"i"eat length how men nmst be taught 



PLATO- 



PLAY 



273 



find ti'ained to perform tlieir several parts 
ill such a coimnunity. While iu Plato's 
Jieptcblic there is much that was exclu- 
sively adapted to Greek notions, there ai-e 
at the same time, botli in that and in most 
of his otlier works, many inspiring passages 
and profound observations bearing on the 
general question of education. 

Plato's educational tlieory cannot be 
understood apart from his peculiar views 
of man and virtue. The supreme idea, 
according to him, was the idea of the good 
(to ayaOov), and tlie highest virtue or lui- 
man perfection consisted in acquiring the 
knowledge of the good and bringing one's 
life into conformity with it. Human 
nature is tripartite, embracing mind (in- 
tellect or reason), seated in the head; the 
will, seated iu the heart or breast; and the 
passions, or lower animal nature, seated 
in the stomach. Each division has its 
special virtue; that of the mind being- 
wisdom; that of the will manliness, courage, 
or valour ; and that of the passions mode- 
ration or sobriety. In Plato's ideal State 
men divided themselves into classes corre- 
sponding to these virtues. The lowest 
were those who supplied man's physical 
wants, the labourers. Above them stood 
the guardians of the law and of the safety 
of the State, the police, the warriors, &c., 
the representatives of courage and manli- 
ness. Highest of all stood the philosophers 
and rulers of society, by virtue of their 
approaching nearest to tlie knowledge and 
practice of wisdom. Such are in brief the 
most essential features of Plato's ideal 
State, and by these liis theory of education 
is naturally determined. From the first 
to the tenth year education, according to 
Plato's view, should be chiefly physical, 
giving the child a sound body by gym- 
nastic training, while his higher faculties 
are developed by the oral narration of 
suitable stories, myths, legends, fables, 
&c. From the tenth to the twentieth 
year the youth is taught reading and 
writing, poetry, music, and mathematics, 
and is put through a course of military 
drill and discipline. Most men have not 
the faculty to advance beyond this stage 
to any higher knowledge, but there is a 
minority who are capable of more advanced 
attainments in true philosophy. After 
studying to their thirtieth year the less 
capable of the minority will be fitted for 
administrative functions iu the State, while 
the most gifted should study dialectics or 



philosophy five years longer, in preparation 
for superior offices. For fifteen years the 
latter should then be employed as com- 
manders or managers in dittbrent depart- 
ments of government. Finally, at the age 
of fifty Plato deemed the citizen-philo- 
sopher fitted at length for the contempla- 
tion and study of the highest good, an 
occupation which he would at times have 
to interrupt, in order to discharge the 
active duties of the highest and most 
responsible positions in the State. After 
the death of Dionysius, Plato made two 
journeys to Sicily, and attempted practi- 
cally to realise his ideal State at Syracuse, 
but his efforts proved fruitless. If, accord- 
ing to modern notions, Plato's scheme 
appears fantastic and impracticable, his 
fundamental views on human education 
and perfection bear great resemblance to 
Christian doctrine, and his writings abound 
in profound truths, observations, and re- 
flections beariiTg, on the development of 
the faculties of human nature. 

Play. — Play is commonly defined as 
activity carried on for the sake of the 
pleasure which attends it, and not of any 
ulterior object. As a variety of action, 
play is marked off from work and all 
serious occupation by its spontaneity, its 
freedom, and its want of the serious atti- 
tude which accompanies the latter. Play 
includes the exercise of limb and of mental 
faculty, so far as this is spontaneous, and 
not consciously subordinated to the ends' 
of efficiency and growth. As Schiller and 
Mr. Spencer have shown, play is closely 
allied to art-activity. From this definition 
it is evident that much of children's ac- 
tivity is playful. This applies to their 
spontaneous bodily movements, as well as 
to their well-recognised varieties of play 
or games. It has been pointed out by 
Mr. Spencer that much of children's play 
is imitative of the actions of adults, and 
may be viewed as an anticipation of the 
functions of mature life. The region of 
play is an important field of observation 
for one who wishes to study the charac- 
teristics of childhood. It has moreover 
its educational uses. This applies to all 
games that exercise the muscular organs 
and the senses, and those that call into 
action the mental faculties. The well- 
known class of social games, again, which 
involve a measure of organisation and a 
comuion submission to rules, are of un- 
doubted value as an aid to moral educa- 



274 PLAYFAIR REGISTRATION BILL POLITICAL ECONOMY 



tion. The educator has something to do 
both in the way of restraining and in 
guiding the phxy-impulses of children. 
An absorbing passion for games and any 
degree of interest in them incompatible 
with necessary work must be strenuously 
opposed. On the other hand, the play- 
impulse may be directed into new and 
healthier channels, and so its value as a 
source of pleasui'e increased. Any such 
control, since it tends to destroy the spon- 
taneity which is of the essence of play, 
should be attempted with much caution 
and judgment. The question how far it 
is possible to regulate the play-impulse for 
educational purposes has been much dis- 
cussed in connection with the Kinder- 
garten system of Froebel. (On play, toys, 
and games, see Locke, Tlio lights, § 1 30, and 
Mr. Quick's note ; Maria Edgeworth, Prac- 
tical Education, chap. i. ; Beneke, Erzieli- 
ungs- und VnterriclitsleJire, §§ 23, 24; 
Waitz, Allg. Pddag. §10 ; Ptisterer, Pdda- 
gogische Psychologic, § 15. See also the 
article 'Spiel' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) 

Playfair Registration Bill. See Re- 
gistration OF Teachers. 

Playground. See Architecture of 
Schools. 

Pleasure and Pain. — This is the fun- 
damental contrast which runs through all 
our emotional experiences. Our pleasures 
and pains are either bodily, as those con- 
nected with hunger and its satisfaction, 
or mental, as those of intellectual activity. 
Pleasure is the proper attendant of all nor- 
mal activities which further life, whereas 
pain, in most cases at least, is a sign of 
over-activity, or of the need of activity. 
The educator seeks to invest study with 
pleasure, partly because we ought all to 
pi'omote pleasure rather than its opposite, 
and partly because we can only be sure 
that intellectual activity is healthy, and 
consequently efficient, when it is pleasura- 
ble. {See article Cheerfulness.) While, 
however, pleasure has thus in general to 
be sought by the educator, he "must not 
shrink, when occasion requires it, from 
familiarising the young mind with painful 
experiences. This may be necessary for 
intellectual progress, for we are not as yet 
able to cai'ry out Locke's agreeable idea of 
transforming study into delightful play. 
And it is still more needed for moral 
progress. The stinuilus of pain is required 
to call forth all the energy of the will, a 
fact illustrated in all wise and ethcient 



punishment. Not only so, it is a part of 
the work of the moral educator to exer- 
cise the will in facing and enduring pain. 
{See Courage.) {See Locke, Thouglits, § 73 
and following ; Sully, Teaclier's Handbook, 
ch. xvi.) 

Plbtz. See Modern Languages. 

Poetry. See English. 

Political Economy is the science which 
treats of the production, distribution, ex- 
change, and consumption of wealth. From 
the teacher's point of view this definition 
shows the natural divisions of the subject, 
about in the order in which they should be 
handled. Consumption is but slightly 
treated by most economists, thus leaving 
almost the whole available resources of 
the teacher to be devoted to the other 
three. The leading thought, around which 
all economic exposition should be grouped, 
may be discovered on analysis of the com- 
plex idea of wealth. The human being 
has many wants. Some of these are satis- 
fied without any exertion of his own, such 
as the want of air and sunshine. Others 
there are for whose satisfaction he must 
toil ; and the means of satisfying such 
wants may, when obtained, be described 
as Wealth. Here, then, we have the key- 
thought for a deductive exposition of 
economics, ' Want and its Supply.' The 
tracing out of this leading thought must 
of course vary much with the age and ca- 
pacity of the pupils. For very young pupils 
the early lessons in economics are almost 
identical Avith object-lessons. The facts 
that when it rains Ave want a house to 
shelter us, that Avhen it is cold Ave tvant a 
fire to warm us, are readily apprehended 
by quite young children ; and Avhen so 
apprehended the skilful teacher Avill have 
little trouble in getting the pupil to notice 
for himself hoAV many men must have 
helped one another in constructing the 
house, or in bringing us the lump of coal 
now blazing in the grate. The whole skill 
of the teacher should be exerted, especially 
with young pupils, to provide copious, 
striking, and picturesque illustrations of 
this great fundamental necessity of social 
life, that men must help one another. 
This ha\'ing been fully realised, a classifi- 
cation may be entered upon of the degrees 
of this help and of the circumstances of 
its rendering. When many men help one 
another in doing exactly the same thing, 
as in pulling at one rope, Ave have Simple 
Co-operation. When Ave aid one another 



POLITICAL ECONOMY 



275 



an doing quite diiferent things, as bakers 
and butchers do, we arrive at Complex Co- 
operation ; and when we have different 
people doing different parts of the same 
ithing, as when different men make dif- 
ferent parts of a watch, their mutual help 
has reached its highest development, and 
goes by the name of Division of Labour. 
The advantages and disadvantages of this 
division of labour can now be examined, 
.and as soon as its advantages are seen to 
enormously outweigh its drawbacks, the 
foundation can be laid for the futui'e full 
investigation of Free Trade. For even 
thus early it may be shown that the bur- 
den of proof lies heavily on those who, 
allowing that division of labour is a good 
as between man and man, city and city, 
•county and county, would yet deny its 
•benefit as between country and country. 
Pupils who are of age and knowledge 
■enough are generally much interested to 
find themselves at this early stage of their 
-economic studies in possession of material 
enough for framing at all events a first 
-opinion on one of the greatest contro- 
versies of the day. But next it may be 
pointed out that men labouring and helping 
each other in that labour can do but little 
unless other men have already laboured 
before them. Labour requires tools to 
work with and materials to work upon : 
in other words, it requires Cajntal, whose 
nature, kinds, and uses should be now 
■explained. The devices adopted for ob- 
taining capital enough for large under- 
takings may now be explained, and will 
naturally lead the way to a comparison 
of joint-stock and individual management, 
a question which may be treated as widely 
as may seem desirable, since the idea of 
joint-ownership of the means of produc- 
tion, as in a company, may be extended in 
such a way as to include something of a 
first statement of the meaning and aims 
of Socialism. And the materials on which 
man labours may now be traced to their 
origin in the earth we inhabit. We have 
placed the pupil in a position to estimate 
the exhaustiveness of the enumeration of 
Labour, Capital, and Land as the requisites 
■of prodxiction. This investigation over, a 
return to first principles becomes neces- 
sary, and the leading idea of vKint must 
now be used comparatively and histori- 
cally — the man of to-day differing from 
the man of long ago, and the civilised man 
■of to-day differing from the savage of to- 



day in the number and complexity of his 
wants. Hence, economically. Civilisation 
will mean wanting many things and getting 
them, and Progress will imply wanting 
more and more things and getting them. 
And since, in order to obtain anything we 
require, labour, capital, and land, progress 
must imply increase of labour, of capital, 
and of produce from land. Here we are 
face to face with the investigation of the 
greatest of economic laws, and the law of the 
increase of labour, the law of the increase of 
capital, and the law of the increase of land- 
produce (or law of Diminishing Return) 
should not be left until thoroughly mas- 
tered. The last in particular, great central 
law as it is, the very keystone of the eco- 
nomic arch, is too often passed over by eco- 
nomic teachers in a way which leaves with 
the pupil no realisation of its enormous 
importance. These laws having been care- 
fully investigated separately should then 
be combined and their united results ex- 
amined ; which accomplished, the treat- 
ment accorded to Production, or the first 
bi-anch of economics, may be considered 
complete. A similar method of treatment 
should be accorded to the remaining divi- 
sions of economics, the teacher throughout 
aiming to tell the pupil as little as may be 
of economic laws and principles, display- 
ing his information to his pupils only by 
means of his copious examples and com- 
mand of illustrative facts, and endeavour- 
ing always to lead his pupil along some 
such path as an original discoverer might 
have been supposed to travel. One or two 
cautions it seems very necessary to offer to 
young teachers of economics. In the first 
place, the subject is exposed in a peculiar 
degree to the danger of a ' fatal facility.' 
The subject-matter of economic science is 
the everyday life of all of us, and not only 
does every man think himself fully quali- 
fied to pass opinion upon it with or with- 
out preparation, but all pupils are apt to 
assent at first to almost any proposition in 
economics put before them by the teacher, 
under the impression that it is quite obvi- 
ous and has always been familiar. Hence 
the existence of much of that ' after-dinner' 
economy which does so much to bring the 
science into disrepute ; and hence, also, 
endless confusion of thought in the stu- 
dent, unless the habit of too ready assent 
is rigorously eradicated by the teacher. 
A good means to this end, but one re- 
quiring judicious use, is to obtain now and 

T 2 



276 



'POLL' DEGREE PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF 



then the pupil's assent to some economic 
blunder, and then expose that blunder 
by the process of reductio ad ahsurdum. 
Another caution is that the language used 
cannot possibly be too simple. The econo- 
mics that cannot be put into plain lan- 
guage, with short words, is bad as science. 
An elaborate terminology should be rather 
the mental shorthand of the trained econo- 
mist than the tool of the explorer, whose 
character the junior student should be en- 
couraged to assume. 

* Poll ' Degree. See Degbees. 

Port-Royalists. See Jansenists. 

Portugal, TTniversity of. See Univer- 
sities. 

Praise and Blame. — These constitute 
one of the most natural and proper means 
of influencing children's actions, and mould- 
ing their moral character. The child is in 
general very sensitive to the good opinion 
of others. . As Locke puts it, ' they find a 
pleasure in being esteem'd and valu'd, es- 
pecially by their parents and those whom 
they depend on.' An infant shows the 
germ of this love of approbation wdien it 
turns to its mother for an approving re- 
cognition of some little feat. On the other 
hand, the withholding of such approval, or 
the manifestation of disfavour, is a source 
of pain. This susceptibility in relation to 
others' good opinion, and to what Locke 
calls reputation," is only one phase of chil- 
dren's dependence on others. The edu- 
cator has to make use of this desire for 
others' commendation, especially in the 
early stages of education. Before the child 
can itself judge what is right, and before 
the love of goodness is sufficiently strong, 
praise and blame are a valuable means of 
prompting and guiding its actions. Care 
must, however, be taken not to resort to 
either in excess. Lavish praise bestowed 
on actions which have little moral value 
is injurious. Commendation of what is 
meritorious and in excess of bare duty 
must be distinguished from the colder ap- 
proval which is proper to the fulfilment of 
this last. On the other hand, too frequent 
censure is apt either to lose it's sting by 
familiarity, or to discourage and embitter 
the child. Finally, it should be remem- 
bered that praise and blame have only a 
subordinate and temporary function in 
moral education. It is not well that the 
child lean too much on others' favourable 
opinion, (^ee Vanity.) It should be the 
object of the educator to exercise the child 



in the discrimination of valuable from 
valueless commendation, and gradually to 
lead oS" its thoughts from the approbation 
itself to the moral standard which deter- 
mines it. In other words, the child should 
be led to do what is right for its own sake, 
and to find its highest satisfaction in an 
enlightened self-approval. (^See Locke, 
Thoughts, § 57 and following ; Bain, Edu- 
cation as a Science, p. 79, (fee. ; Sully, 
Teacher's Handbook, p. 384, &c. ; Beneke, 
Erziehungs- unci Unterrichtslehre, § 61.) 

Preceptors, College of. — This institu- 
tion was founded in 1846, mainly through 
the efforts of the late Mr. Stein Turrell, a- 
schoolmaster- of Brighton, and received 
three years later a Royal Charter of In- 
corporation. In this charter the object of 
the College is set forth as being ' to pro- 
mote sound learning and to advance the' 
interests of education, more especially 
among the middle classes, by affording fa- 
cilities to the teacher for the acquiring of 
a sound knowledge of his profession, and 
by providing for the periodical session of 
a competent board of examiners to ascer- 
tain and to give certificates of the acqiiire- 
ments and fitness for their office of persons 
engaged in or desiring to be engaged in 
the education of youth, particularly in the 
private schools of England and Wales,' 
tfec. In order to carry out this, the ori- 
ginal aim of the College, the council has 
instituted three classes of examinations for 
teachers (of either sex), and gives three cor- 
responding diplomas, viz. those of A.C.P., 
L.C.P., F.C.P., i.e. Associate, Licentiate, 
and Fellow of the College of Preceptors, 
the standard for the latter two being that 
of pass and honour degrees respectively ; 
but, in addition, every candidate for a pre- 
ceptor's diploma must pass a satisfactory 
examination in the ' Theory and Practice 
of Education,' and it is this which dis- 
tinguishes the College examinations from 
those of other examining bodies. With a, 
view to encouraging the study of education 
as a science, and in order to afford syste- 
matic instruction in pedagogy, the council 
of the College founded a professorship of 
the Science and Art of Educcttion ; this 
was then (1873) the only one of its kind 
in England, and its first holder was the 
late Professor Payne [q. v.), whose valuable 
educational library is now the property of 
the College. Coui-ses of lectures are now 
held every session on various subjects con- 
nected with the science of education, the 



PRECOCITY PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 277 



.■services of specialists being secured for the | 
purpose ; while, in addition, the members 
meet monthly, and read papers, and discuss 
educational questions, rejDorts of their pro- j 
ceedings being published in the College 
■organ, the Educational Times. But the 
main business of the College is one which 
the founders of the society had evidently ] 
not foreseen, viz. the examination of pupils. 
Every half year examinations are held at 
various local centres throughout the coun- 
try, and certificates of three classes (the 
classes being themselves further subdi- 
vided) are awarded to the successful can- 
didates. These certificates at one time 
were much looked down on, as being gained 
with extreme ease ; but the examination 
has been gainmg every year in public fa- 
vour, and there is no doubt that the cer- 
tificates now carry considerable weight, the 
first class being about equivalent to Lon- 
don University Matriculation, or Oxford 
or Cambridge Senior Local, the second to 
the Junior Local, &c. Moreover, it must be 
remembered that the College was the pio- 
neer in the matter of examination of schools 
by an external corporation, as they were 
some years before both the University 
Local and the Society of Arts examina- 
tions. Some idea of the magnitude of their 
operations may be obtained when it is said 
that (in 1887) about 15,500 pupils were 
examined ; while it is claimed that ' more 
than 4,000 schools, both public and pri- 
vate, in all parts of the country are now 
brought under the influence of the College 
examinations.' Remembering that the go- 
vernment of the College is in the hands of 
a council wliich includes many of the most 
■eminent teachers and educationists of the 
time, and that the College examiners are 
for the most part men of eminence in their 
own departments of learning, and that its 
■operations are Avith girls' as well as boys' 
schools, it must be admitted that this in- 
stitution has been a powerful agent in as- 
sisting the advance which has taken place 
in education and educational matters 
during the last few decades. 

Precocity. — By a precocious child we 
understand one who.se mental powers are 
•developed in advance of his age. Preco- 
city is thus tantamount to rapid develop- 
ment. It may show itself in some .special 
direction, as in the case of the Ijorn mu- 
sician, artist, or poet, or as exceptional 
advancement in intellectual power as a 
whole, as in more than one instance of 



famous juvenile scholarship. As already 
suggested, intellectual greatness has fre 
quently fore.shadowed itself by precocity. 
A large proportion of famous men were 
remarkable in youth, if not in childhood. 
At the same time precocity is no guarantee 
of lasting intellectual power. A rapid 
development seems to mean in many cases 
a quickly arrested development. Hence 
the low opinion held of precocity by clas- 
sical as well as by modern writers. Enough 
has been said to show the special educa- 
tional difficulties in dealing with the pre- 
cocious child. As something exceptional, 
he cannot easily be fitted into rules and 
methods intended for the average mind. 
The educator must recognise intellectual 
forwardness, and not attempt to force 
superior abilities into a too narrow and 
cramping mould. At the same time he 
must be alive to the dangers of a rapid 
mental and cerebral development, and dis- 
tinctly discourage a clever boy or girl from 
such a rate of advance beyond the standard 
of its years as would be detrimental to 
the proper growth of the physical powers 
(see Overpressure), and so to a healthy 
and prolonged process of mental improve- 
ment (cf. article Originality). (,S'ee article . 
' Friihreife' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) 

Prelections (Extra - Academical). — 
The following are the principal endowed 
lectures in Great Britain, which, whether 
in connection with a university or not, are 
in their nature essentially extra-academi- 
cal. They have a legitimate claim to a 
distinctive place in these pages, because 
their aims and purposes, however diverse 
in other respects, are at least identical in 
their intention to favour the spread and 
development of education. A large pro- 
portion of them are intended and calcu- 
lated to aid in the formation of precise 
and definite opinions in religion, whether 
in the direction of a dogmatic theology, or 
of an equally pronounced latitudinarianism 
which regards all religions as evolved phe- 
nomena, and their origin and development 
as legitimate objects of historical investi- 
gation and of philosophical and critical 
exposition. But in secular learning, also, 
the lectures, in their scope and aggregate, 
are wellnigh encyclopfedic. 

The B air d Lectures owe their foundation 
to the late Mr. James Baird, of Gartsherrie, 
a munificent benefactor to the Church of 
Scotland, who died in June 1876, having, 
at the meeting of the General Assembly of 



578 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) 



the Church of Scotland in 1872, declared 
his intention to institute a lectureship, to 
be called ' the Baird Lecture,' for the illus- 
tration and the defence of tlie vital truths 
of Christianity, as well as ' for the promo- 
tion of Christian knowledge and Chris- 
tian work generally, and for tlie exposure 
and refutation of all error and unbelief.' 
In the deed of trust thereafter executed 
by Mr. Baird his trustees were directed 
' to hold an annual sum of 220/. out of the 
revenue of the funds under their charge 
for the purpose of said lectureship.' The 
Baird lecturer must be a minister of the 
Church of Scotland, or of any of the 
Scottish Presbyterian Chui'ches, of not less 
than five years' standing in the cure of a 
parish or the pastorate of a congregation, 
a ' man of piety, ability, and learning, and 
who is approved and reputed sound in all 
the essentials of Christian truth.' The 
appointment of the lecturer is directed to 
take place annually in the month of April, 
' at a meeting of the trustees to be called 
for the purpose, and held in Glasgow.' It 
is the duty of the lecturer to ' deliver a 
course of not less than six lectures on any 
subject of theology. Christian evidences, 
Christian work. Christian missions. Church 
government, and Church organisations, or 
on such subject relative thereto as the 
trustees shall from year to year fix in con- 
cert Avith the lecturer. The lectures 
shall be duly advertised to the satisfac- 
tion of the trustees at the cost of the lec- 
turer, and shall be delivered publicly at 
any time during the months of January 
and February in each year in Glasgow, 
and also, if required, in such other one of 
the Scottish university towns as may from 
time to time be appointed by the trustees.' 
The first series of the Baird Lectures was 
delivered by the Rev. Robert Jamieson, 
D.D., minister of St; Paul's Parish Church, 
Glasgow, and moderator of the General 
Assembly, 1872, in which Mr. Baird first 
declared his intention of founding his 
lectureship. 

The Bampton Zectio-es were founded 
by the Rev. John Bampton, M.A., some- 
time of Trinity College, Oxford, canon of 
Salisbury, who died in 1751, leaving a 
will in which he bequeathed his ' lands 
and estates to the chancellor, masters, and 
scholars of the ITniversity of Oxford for 
ever,' for ' the endowment of eight divinity 
lecture sermons, to be established for ever 
in the said xmiversity,' and to be preached 



every year at Great St. Mary's. The 
' eight divinity lecture sermons ' thus en- 
dowed are preached on as many Sunday 
mornings in full Term, ' between the com- 
mencement of the last month in Lent 
Term and the end of the third week in 
Act Term, upon either of the following- 
subjects : to confirm and establish the 
Christian faith, and to confute all heretics, 
and schismatics, upon the divine authority 
of the Holy Scriptures, upon the authority 
of the writings of the primitive fathers as 
to the faith and practice of the primitive 
Church, upon the divinity of our Lord and 
Saviour J esus Christ, upon the divinity of 
the Holy Ghost, upon the Articles of the 
Christian Faith as comprehended in the- 
Apostles' and Nicene Creeds.' The lec- 
turer, who must be at least a Master of 
Ai-ts of Oxford or Cambridge, is chosen 
annually by the heads of colleges on the- 
fourth Tuesday in Easter Term. No one 
can be chosen a second time. Although 
the founder died in 1751 his bequest did 
not take effect until 1780, when the first 
course of the Bampton Lectures was de- 
livered by the Rev. James Bandinel, D.D. ,, 
of Jesus College, and public orator of the- 
university. 

The Barlow Lectures are so named 
after their founder, the late Henry Clark- 
Barlow, M.D., a large proportion of whose- 
life was consecrated to the study of Dante, 
and who was the authoi", inter alia, of a 
laborious work entitled Critical, Histori- 
cal, and Philosophical Contributions to the 
Studi/ of the Divina Commedia. Dr. Bar- 
low, who died in November 1876, left by- 
Avill 1,000/. Consols to University Col- 
lege, London, for the delivery of an an- 
nual course of twelve lectures on the- 
Divina Commedia, which should be open 
to the public of both sexes free of charge. 
He also arranged that every lecturer who- 
should be appointed might hold the lec- 
tureship for three years ; the manifest 
intention being that the three cantica of 
Dante's great poem might form the sub-^ 
ject of the three years' course. The in- 
troductory lecture to the first of these 
courses was delivered at University Col- 
lege by Mr. Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., on 
April 25, 1878. 

The Boyle Lectnres wex-e instituted in 
conformity with instructions contained in 
a codicil, dated July 28, 1691, annexed to- 
tlie will of the Hon. Robert Boyle (seventh- 
son of Richard, the * great Eai-1 of Cork ') 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) 



279 



one of the founders of the Royal Society, 
and a man of attainments so extraordinary 
as to be described as being ' superior to 
titles and almost to praise.' Mr. Boyle's 
object, as expressed in his own words, was 
to provide ' an annual salary for some 
learned divine, or preaching minister, from 
time to time to be elected and resident 
within the city of London, or circuit of 
tlie bills of mortality, who shall be en- 
joined to perform tlie offices following : 
viz., first, to preach eight sermons in the 
year for proving the Christian religion 
against notorious infidels — viz.. Atheists, 
Theists, Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, 
not descending lower to any controversies 
that are among Christians themselves ; 
these lectures to be on the first Monday 
of the respective months of January, Feb- 
ruary, March, April, May, September, 
October, November, in such church as 
my trustees herein named shall from time 
to time appoint. Secondly, to be assist- 
ing to all companies, and encouraging of 
them in any undertaking for propagating 
the Christian religion to foreign parts. 
Thirdly, to be ready to satisfy such real 
scruples as any may have concerning these 
matters, and to answer such objections 
or difficulties as may be started to which 
good answers have not yet been made.' 
The Boyle Lectures are delivered at the 
church of St. Mary-le-Bow, and the first 
course was preached in 1692 by the cele- 
brated Dr. Bentley, who delivered a second 
course in 1694. Mr. Boyle died December 
30, 1691. 

The Cantor Lectures, in connection 
with the Society for the Encouragement 
of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, 
ordinarily known as the Society of Arts, 
receive their designation from their foun- 
der, the late Theodore Edward Cantor, 
M.D., of Her Majesty's Indian Medical 
Service. Dr. Cantor, who by his will, 
dated March .3, 1859, appointed the ad- 
ministrator-general of Fort William to be 
his executor, bequeathed his property, of 
the value of over 10,000/., in equal shares 
to the Wellington College, Wokingham, 
and the Society of Arts, declaring it to be 
his desire that the moneys so given should 
be applied by the governors of the college 
and by the president of the Society of Arts 
in such manner as they might deem most 
conducive to promote the objects of the 
college and the society. Under the terms 
of the Cantor bequest, amounting to 



5,042/., invested in the purchase of Indian 
securities, it became the duty of the 
council to make some special appropria- 
tion of the fund towards the promotion 
of arts, manufactures, and commerce, and 
they determined to apply a portion of the 
interest of the fund for the society's ses- 
sion of 1863-4 in providing, at an esti- 
mated cost of 150/., three courses of lec- 
tures by eminent men on the following 
subjects : — (1) International Commerce ; 
(2) Chemistry applied to Manufactures ; 
and (3) Industrial Art. Accordingly, the 
first course of Cantor Lectures, four in 
number, which were delivered by Mr. 
C W. Hastings, a barrister of the Middle 
Temple, and now M.P. for East Worcester- 
shire, respectively on December 7 and 14, 

1863, and January 25 and February 1, 

1864, had for their subject 'The Operation 
of the Present Laws of Naval Warfare 
on International Commerce ' ; the second 
course of lectures, seven in number, on 
' Fine Arts applied to Industry,' were 
delivered by Mr. AV. Burges on conse- 
cutive Monday evenings, beginning with 
February 8 and concluding on March 21 ; 
and Dr. F. Crace Calvert, F.R.S., F.C.S., 
(fee, delivered a thiixl course, of six lectures, 
on ' Chemistry applied to the Arts,' on 
Thursday evenings, beginning on ]March 31 
and ending on May 5, 1864. From the 
first session of their institution the Cantor 
Lectures have been characterised by the 
same diversity and catholicity of interest 
as are presented in the aggregate pro- 
ceedings, scope, and purposes of the society 
under whose auspices, and in the theatre 
of whose house, John Street, Adelphi, they 
are delivered. 

It will have been seen that the lectures 
of the three several courses of the first 
session of their delivery amounted alto- 
gether to seventeen ; and it remains that 
the average number of lectures, whatever 
their distribution or grouping into courses 
may be, is estimated at alDOut eighteen for 
the entire session — a session which, be- 
ginning in November, runs on to May of 
the follo^ving year. The Cantor Lectures 
are open to members of the Society of 
Arts free of charge, and a member has 
the privilege of introducing one friend to 
each lecture. On receiving the intimation 
of the Cantor Bequest, the council of the 
society placed on record their peculiar 
gratification in being selected to enjoy a 
moiety of the benefactions of a gentleman 



280 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 



who was not known to have ever been on 
their list of members, which they further 
regarded as a pledge of the interest taken 
in their proceedings by their fellow- 
countrymen all the world over. 

The C ongregational Lecttires were in- 
stituted in 1833 — when the first series was 
delivered by the late Rev. Ralph Ward- 
law, D.D. — by the committee of the Con- 
gregational Library, ' to be delivered an- 
nually at the library, or, if necessary, in 
some contiguous place of worship,' and to 
partake ' rather of the character of aca- 
demic prelectionst\\a,-n. of popular addresses,' 
The design was to provide ' courses of lec- 
tures on subjects of interesting importance, 
not included within the ordinary range of 
pulpit instruction. To illustrate the evi- 
dence and importance of the great doc- 
trines of Revelation ; to exhibit the true 
principles of philology in their application 
to such doctrines ; to prove the accordance 
and identity of genuine philosophy with 
the records and discoveries of Scripture ; 
and to trace the errors and corruptions 
which have existed in the Christian 
Church to their proper sources, and, by 
the connection of sound reasoning with 
the honest interpretation of God's Holy 
Word, to point out the methods of refu- 
tation and counteraction, are amongst the 
objects for which the Congregational Lec- 
ture has been established. The arrange- 
ments made with the lecturers,' continues 
the Advertisement of the Committee of the 
Congregational Library, dated November 
19, 1833, 'are designed to secure the pub- 
lication of each separate course without 
risk to the authors ; and, after remune- 
rating them as liberally as the resources 
of the institution will allow, to apply the 
profits of the respective publications in 
•aid of the Library.' 

The Congregational Union Lectures, a 
resumption or continuation of the above 
after an abeyance of several years, were 
established in 1873, when the lecturer was 
the late Henry Rogers. The Advertise- 
inent by the Committee of the Congrega- 
tional Union of England and Wales, dated 
January 1874, declares that ' the Congre- 
gational Union Lecture has been esta- 
blished with a view to the promotion of 
Biblical science and theological and eccle- 
siastical literature. It is intended that 
each lecture shall consist of a- course of 
prelections, delivered at the Memorial 
Hall, but when the convenience of the 



lecturer shall so require the oral delivery 
will be dispensed with. The committee 
hope that the lecture will be maintained 
in unbroken annual series ; but they pro- 
mise to continue it only so long as it 
seems to be efficiently serving the end for 
which it has been established, or as they 
may have the necessary funds at their dis- 
posal.' 

The Croall Lectures are named after 
their founder, the late Mr. John Croall, 
of Southfield, Liberton, Midlothian, who 
died in 1872, and who, being 'deeply in- 
terested in the defence and maintenance 
of the doctrines of the Christian Religion, 
and desirous of increasing the religious 
literature of Scotland,' bequeathed in the 
hands of trustees the sum of 5,000Z. ster- 
ling, ' to found and establish a Lecture- 
ship, to be called " The Croall Lecture- 
ship." ' The trustees, according to Mr. 
Croall's settlement, are certain ministers 
in Edinburgh, the Professors of Divinity 
in the University of Edinburgh, and the 
Moderator, Senior Clerk, and Procurator 
of the Church of Scotland. The lecturers 
' shall be Licentiates of the Presbyterian 
Churches of Scotland,' and occasionally a 
clergyman of any Reformed Church other 
than Presbyterian, ' provided such ap- 
pointment be made by at least two -thirds 
of the trustees.' The Lectures shall be 
delivered biennially in Edinburgh during 
the winter session of the University of 
Edinburgh, ' shall be not less than six in 
number,' and shall be devoted to a con- 
sideration of the Evidences of Natural 
and Revealed Religion and the Doctrines 
of the Christian Religion. The first series 
of the Croall Lectures, on the ' Christian 
Doctrine of Sin,' was delivered in 1876 by 
thelateVeryReverend John TuUoch, D.D. , 
Principal of St. Mary's College in the 
University of St. Andrews, and one of 
Her Majesty's Chaplains for Scotland. 

The Cunningham Lecttires were 
founded in 1862 by William Binny 
Webster, a sometime surgeon in the 
H.E.I.C.S., who made over to the general 
trustees of the Free Church of Scotland 
the sum of 2,000^., in trust for the pur- 
pose of endowing a lectureship in memory 
of the Rev. William Cunningham, D.D., 
Principal of the Free Church College, 
Edinburgh, and Professor of Divinity and 
Church History therein, who died Decem- 
ber 14, 1861, after whose name the lec- 
tures are called. They are for the general 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 



281 



pui'pose of ' advancing the theological 
literature of Scotland/ and the lecturer 
must be a minister or professor of the 
Eree Church of Scotland ; with an occa- 
sional appointment of a minister or pro- 
fessor from other denominations by the 
consent of not fewer than eight members 
of the council. The appointment cannot 
be for less than two years or for more 
than three, and the lecturer is ' at liberty 
to choose his own subject within the range 
of apologetical, doctrinal, controversial, 
exegetical, pastoral, or historical theology, 
including what bears on missions, home 
and foreign, subject to the consent of the 
council.' The lectures, not less than six 
in number, must be delivered at some 
time immediately preceding the expiry of 
the appointment of the lecturer, and 
during the session of New College, Edin- 
burgh, and in the presence of the profes- 
sors and students of that institution. The 
council, which includes the principal of 
New College, ex officio, and two annually 
elected members of the Senatus, the 
moderator of the Free Church General 
Assembly, ex- officio, and five members 
annually chosen by that body, the procu- 
rator or law adviser of the Church, and 
others, have been at liberty, since the 
expiry of five years from the date of the 
foundation of the lectures, ' to make any 
alteration that experience may suggest as 
desirable in the details of this plan, pro- 
vided such alterations shall be approved 
by not fewer than eight members of the 
council.' 

The Duff Lectures, known more pre- 
cisely as the Duff Missionary Lectures, 
were instituted under the provisions of 
the will of the late Rev. Alexander Duff, 
D.D., for many years a prominent mis- 
sionary in India, at first as minister of 
the Established Church of Scotland, and 
afterwards, from 1843, of the Free Church. 
During a visit to Scotland Dr. Duff was 
called by acclamation to be moderator of 
the Free Church General Assembly which 
met in 1851 ; and the distinction was re- 
peated in 1873. On his final return from 
India on account of ill-health in 1863 
Dr. Duff was elected to the first professor- 
ship of Evangelistic Theology — a charac- 
teristically missionary chair — in the New 
College, Edinburgh, v/hich, as well as the 
convenership of the Foreign Missions 
Committee of the Free Church, to which 
he was appointed about the same time. 



he held until his death, February 12, 1878. 
' Desirous in death to secure the comple- 
tion of his missionary propaganda, Dr, 
Duff,' in the M^ords of his biographer, Dr. 
George Smith, ' bequeathed to trustees se- 
lected from all the Evangelical churches 
what personal property he had as the 
foundation of a lectureship on Foreign 
Missions, on the model of the Bampton.' 
In the arrangements he made for the 
establishment of the Duff Missionary 
Lectureship the founder's son, Mr. Wil- 
liam Pirie Duff, com^Dlied with the dying 
instructions of his father, only deviating 
therefrom to the extent of designating 
the lectureship by his father's name. In 
terms of a trust-deed executed by Mr. 
Duff a course of lectures, not fewer than 
six in number, ' On some department of 
Foreign Missions or cogiiate subjects,' is to 
be delivered once in eveiy four years, each 
lecturer to give only one course. They 
are to be delivered in Edinburgh and re- 
peated in Glasgow, or delivered in Glasgow 
and repeated in Edinburgh, or delivered 
and repeated in such other places as the 
trustees may direct. The lectures are 
then to be published, and copies are to 
be presented to certain libraries in this 
country, continental Europe, America, 
India, Africa, and Australia. The trus- 
tees, in accordance with the direction of 
the founder, are men belonging to different 
denominations, and the lecturer must be 
' a minister, professor, or godly layman of 
any Evangelical church.' The first in- 
cumbent of the Dufi" Missionary Lecture- 
ship was the Rev. Thomas Smith, D.D., 
who had been long associated with Dr. Duff 
in mission work in Bengal, and afterwards 
in the home management of the missions of 
the Free Church of Scotland, and who was 
his successor in his college professorship 
of Evangelistic Tlieology. The subject 
chosen by Dr. Smith for treatment in the 
first series of the Dufi' Lectures, which 
were delivered in 1880, was 'Mediaeval 
Missions ' ; and the practical conformity 
of the trustees to the formal catholicity 
of the foundation is approved by the cir- 
cumstance that the lecturer for the cur- 
rent year, 1888, was Sir Monier Monier- 
Williams, D.C.L., the Boden Professor of 
Sanskrit in the University of Oxford, the 
subject of whose discourses was the, to 
him, familiar one of Buddhism. 

The Fernley Lectures are so named 
after their founder, the late John Fernley, 



282 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 



Esq., of Southport, a munificent bene- 
factor to various schemes of Methodist 
activity. These lectures, whicli are of 
annual I'ecurrence, are delivered ' in con- 
nection with the assembling of the Wes- 
leyan-Methodist Conference,' and in the 
cities or towns, therefore, at which the 
conference holds its successive annual 
meetings. They were instituted ' for the 
purpose of explaining and defending the 
theological doctrines or the ecclesiastical 
polity of the Wesleyan-Methodist Con- 
nexion, with special reference and adap- 
tation to the necessities of the times, and 
with a view to the benefit of the candi- 
dates who are about to be ordained by 
the Conference to the ministry, and also 
the laymen who usually attend the Con- 
ference committees.' The first of the 
Fernley Lectures was delivered at Hull, 
by the Rev. George Osborn, D.D., in 
1870. 

The Gifford Lectures, which are in 
connection with St. Andrews University, 
are so named after their founder, Lord 
Giftbrd, a judge of the Court of Session, 
Edinburgh, from 1870 to 1881, when he 
I'etired from the Bench. The income of 
the lecturer is derived from the interest 
of a sum of 13,000^., less expenses of 
advertising and making arrangements for 
the lectures. These are to be devoted to 
an exposition of ' Natural Religion, in the 
widest sense of that term ' ; and the lec- 
turer is to ' be subjected to no test of any 
kind,' and ' may be of any denomination 
whatever, or of no denomination at all.' 
The lecturer holds his appointment for 
two yeax's, but he may be reappointed for 
other two periods of two years each ; but 
no person can hold the lectureship longer 
than six years. The election to the lec- 
tureship has been placed in the hands of 
the Senatus of the University of St. An- 
drews, which has laid down amongst the 
conditions of its occupancy that the lec- 
turer is expected to deliver not fewer 
than twenty-five original lectures, and 
not more than two lectui-es each week. 

The first Giftbrd Lecturer, who was 
appointed on March 14, 1888, with a view 
to the performance of his duties during 
the session of 1888-89, is Mr. Andrew 
Lang, an alumnus and graduate of St. 
Andrews. 

The Gresham Lectures, as well as the 
college in which they are delivered, are 
so called after their founder. Sir Thomas 



Gresham, the ' Royal Merchant ' of Queen 
Elizabeth. By his will, dated July 5, 1 .575, 
Sir Thomas bequeathed certain rents grow- 
ing out of the Royal Exchange — which 
he built — in trust severally to the Cor- 
poration of the City of London, and to 
the masters and wardens of the Mercers' 
Company, for the ' erecting and maintain- 
ing of divers lectures in sundry faculties ' 
— divinity, law, physic, geometry, astro- 
nomy, music, and rhetoric. He also left 
for the professors who should be appoiiited 
under his will his house in Bishopsgate 
Street, with its gardens and other appur- 
tenances, ' for them and every of them 
there to inhabite, study, and daylie to 
read the said sevei'all lectures.' He en- 
joined that the lecturers should be un- 
married at the time of their appointment, 
and also that marriage subsequently con- 
tracted sh ould void their preferment. This 
injunction, after many years of neglect or 
abeyance, was formally set aside by Act 
of Parliament. The bequest of Sir Thomas 
Gresham, who died November 20, 1579, 
did not come into efiect until the death 
of his widow, Dame Anne Gresham, in 
December 1596 ; and the lectures were 
organised and commenced in June 1597. 
The buildings of Gresham College were 
pulled down in 1768, and the General 
Excise Ofiice ei'ected on the site, the pro- 
perty having been acquired by the Crown 
for an annuity of 500^. From that time 
and for many years the lectures were 
read in a room over the Royal Exchange ; 
and finally, in November 1813, they were 
removed to the present building in Basing- 
hall Street, which had been erected by the 
Gresham committee as the headquarters 
of the college. 

The Hihbert Lectures are one of the 
particular expressions of the wish of the 
Hibbert trustees to carry out the will of 
the late Mr. Robert Hibbert, who died in. 
September 1819, after bequeathing a sum 
of money with directions that the income 
should be applied in a manner indicated 
in general terms by him, but with large 
latitude of interpretation to the trustees. 
For many years the trustees appropriated 
their funds almost entirely to the higher 
culture of students for the Christian 
ministry, thus carrying out the instruc- 
tion to adopt such scheme as they ' in 
their uncontrolled discretion from time 
to time ' should deem ' most conducive to 
the spread of Christianity in its most 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 



283 



simple and intelligible forms, and to the 
unfettered exercise of private judgment 
in matters of religion.' In succeeding 
years other applications of the fund were 
suggested to the trustees, some of which 
have been adopted. One of the latest has 
been the institution of a Hibbert Lecture 
on a plan similar to that of the ' Bampton ' 
and ' Congregational ' Lectures. The in- 
stitution of the lectures was the imme- 
diate result of a memorial addressed to 
the trustees ' by a few eminent divines and 
laymen belonging to different churches,' 
but united in a common desire for the 
' really capable and honest treatment of 
unsettled problems in theology,' ' From 
the fact,' say the subscriber's of this me- 
morial, ' that all the chief divinity schools 
of this country are still laid under tradi- 
tional restraint, from which other branches 
of inquiry have long been emancipated, 
the discussion of theological questions is 
habitually affected by ecclesiastical inte- 
rests and party predilections, and fails to 
receive the intellectual respect and con- 
fidence which are readily accorded to 
learning and research in any other field. 
There is no reason why competent know- 
ledge and critical skill, if encouraged to 
exercise themselves in the disinterested 
pursuit of truth, should be less fruitful 
in religious than in social and physical 
ideas ; nor can it be doubtful that an 
audience is ready to welcome any really 
capable and honest ti-eatment of unsettled 
problems in theology. The time, we think, 
is come when a distinct provision for the 
free consideration of such problems by 
scholars qualified to handle them may be 
expected to yield important results. . . . 
Such institutions as the Bampton Lecture 
at the University of Oxford, and the 
younger foundation of the Congregational 
Lecture among one branch of orthodox 
Nonconformists, have done much to direct 
the public mind to certain well-defined 
views of Christianity. We believe that 
a similar institution might prove of high 
service in promoting independence of 
judgment combined with religious rever- 
ence by exhibiting clearly from time to 
time some of the most important results 
of recent study in the great fields of philo- 
sophy, of biblical criticism, and compara- 
tive theology. We venture, therefore, to 
ask you to consider the expediency of 
establishing a " lecture " under the name 
of the " Hibbert Lecture," or any other 



designation that may seem appropriate.' 
The practical answer to this memorial 
was the institution of the Hibbert Lec- 
tures, the first series of which was given 
in April, May, and June 1878, by Pro- 
fessor Max Miiller, in the Chapter House 
of Westminster Abbey. Of late years the 
lectures, which from their earliest esta- 
blishment have been of annual occurrence,. 
have been delivered concurrently, but on 
difierent days of the week, in London and 
Oxford. 

The Hulsean Lectures were instituted 
in conformity with the will of the Rev. 
John Hulse, of Elworth, Cheshire, a some- 
time member of St. John's College, Cam- 
bridge (B.A. 1728), who died at the age- 
of 82 on December 14, 1790. Mr. Hulse 
bequeathed his estates to the University 
of Cambridge, first, to maintain two scho- 
lars at St. John's College ; secondly, tO' 
found a prize for the best dissertation upon 
some subject connected with the direct or 
collateral evidences of the Christian reve- 
lation ; thirdly, to found and support the 
office of Christian advocate, for which, by 
a statute confirmed by the Queen in Coun- 
cil, August 1, 1860, was substituted that 
of the Hulsean professor of divinity ; and 
fourthly, that of Christian preacher, more 
familiarly known by its alternative de- 
signation of Hulsean lecturer, which was 
considerably modified by the statute and 
Order in Council just referred to. By Mr. 
Hulse's will, dated July 21, 1777, it was 
directed that the incumbent of the lec- 
tureship, which was avowedly in pious 
imitation of the example of the Honour- 
able Robert Boyle, should be a ' clergy- 
man in the University of Cambridge, of 
the degree of Master of Arts, and under 
the -age of forty years.' The lecturer was- 
te be elected annually ' on Christmas Day, 
or within seven days after, by the Vice- 
chancellor for the time being, and by the 
Master of Trinity College and the Master 
of St. John's College, or any two of them.' 
In case the Master of Trinity or the Master 
of St. John's should be the Vice-Chan- 
cellor, the Greek professor was to be the 
third trustee. The duty of the lecturer 
was 'to preach twenty sermons in the 
whole year — that is to say, ten sermons 
during the months of April and May and 
the two first weeks in June, and likewise 
ten sermons during the months of Sep- 
tember and October and during the two- 
first weeks in November.' The place of 



284 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA- ACADEMICAL) 



preaching was to be ' Saint Mary's Great 
Church in Cambridge,' and the time ' either 
on the Friday -morning or else on Sunday 
afternoon.' The subject of the said dis- 
<;ourses was to be ' the evidence for re- 
vealed religion ; the truth and excellence 
of Christianity ; prophecies and miracles ; 
direct or collateral proofs of the Christian 
religion, especially the collateral argu- 
ments ; the more difficult texts or obscure 
parts of the Holy Scriptures,' or any one 
or more of these topics, at the discretion 
of the preacher. The subject of the dis- 
courses was not to be ' any particular sects 
or controversies amongst Christians them- 
selves ; except some new and dangerous 
error, either of superstition or enthusiasm, 
as of Popery or Methodism, or the like, 
either in opinion or practice, shall prevail. 
And in all the said twenty sermons such 
practical observations shall be made, and 
such useful conclusions added, as may best 
instruct and edify mankind. The said 
twenty sermons are to be every year 
printed,' at the preacher's expense, ' and 
a new preacher elected (except in the case 
of the extraordinary merit of the preacher, 
when it may sometimes be thought proper 
to continue the same person for five, or at 
the most, for six years together, but for 
no longer term), nor shall he ever after- 
wards be again elected to the same duty.' 
On the petition of the Chancellor, Masters, 
^nd Scholars of the University of Cam- 
bridge it was directed by an order of the 
Court of Chancery, December 21, 1830, 
ihat the number of discourses required to 
be delivered and printed by the lecturer 
within the year should be reduced to 
-eight — the number exacted from the Boyle 
lecturer. By more recent changes the 
■election to the ofiice of Hulsean lecturer 
now takes place on some day in February, 
not later than the 20th ; and the duty of 
the lecturer is to preach during his year of 
ofiice not less than four sermons, the time 
of the delivery of which is to be prescribed 
by the university. If the duties be not 
dischai'ged by the person appointed, his 
salary is to be divided among the six 
senior fellows of St. John's College. The 
•electors are theVice-Chancellor, the Master 
of Trinity, the Master of John's, and the 
four divinity pi'ofessors, the Vice- Chan- 
cellor haAdng a casting vote ; whilst the 
services of the regius professor of Greek 
as a member of the electoral body are pi'O- 
vided for under the same contingency 



which was originally foreseen. Although 
Mr. Hulse died in 1790 it was not until 
1820 that the first series of discourses was 
delivered, the lecturer being the Rev. 
Christopher Benson, who was successively 
of Trinity College and a fellow of Magdalene 
College, Cambridge, and rector of St. Giles- 
in-the-Fields, London, who officiated a 
second time in the same capacity in 1822. 
' One principal reason ' for this delay, ob- 
serves Mr. Benson in the Preface to his 
Hulsean Lectures for 1820, ' among many 
others, I believe to have been this : that 
the proceeds of his estates were not at 
an earlier period sufficient to repay the 
preacher for the expense of printing, much 
less to remunerate him for the anxious 
labour of composing twenty discourses fit 
to be delivered before such an audience 
and aftei'wards submitted to the criticisms 
of the world.' 

The Merchcmts^ Lecture was established 
in the year 1672, during the reign of 
Charles II., by the Presbyterians and In- 
dependents conjointly, at Pinner's Hall, 
Broad Street, London. It was supported 
by contributions from the principal mer- 
chants of the city of London, and its pro- 
fessed design was ' to uphold the doctrines 
of the Reformation against the errors of 
Popery, Sociniauism, and infidelity.' From 
Pinner's Hall it was removed in July 1778 
to New Broad Street Chapel ; and thence, 
in 1844, to the Poultry Chapel ; to the 
Weigh House Chapel in 1869 ; and thence, 
in the spi'ing of 1883, to Finsbury Chapel, 
Moorfields. The lecture is delivered on 
every Tuesday moi"ning, commences at 
noon, and concludes at 1 p.m. There are 
several bequests connected with the lec- 
ture, intended in most cases for the benefit 
of poor ministers of the Independent deno- 
mination. There is no fund for the pay- 
ment of the lecturer or for other expenses, 
the founders of the trusts not anticipating 
that there would be any diificulty in meet- 
I ing the expenses so incurred. 
! The Rede Lectures are so named after 
i their founder, Sir Robert Rede, whose 
i name- varies as Read and Reade, and who 
was Lord Chief Justice of the Court of 
' Common Pleas in the reigns successively 
\ of Henry VII., of whose will he was one 
I of the executors, and Henry VIII. He 
! was educated at Buckingham Hall, after- 
I wards Magdalene College, Cambridge, and 
became a fellow of King's Hall, on the 
i site of which part of Trinity College was 



PRELECTIONS (EXTRA-ACADEMICAL) 



285 



built. He died January 8, 1519, having, 
by an endo"\vment which seems to have 
accrued to the university in 1524, esta- 
blished three public lectures, respectively 
in philosophy, logic, and rhetoric ; Avhich, 
together with a mathematical lecture, 
founded at a very early period in the his- 
tory of the University, were known as 
Barnaby Lectures, from the circumstance 
of the lecturers being annually chosen for 
their several preferments on St. Barnabas's 
Day, June 11. The Rede Lectures were 
consolidated by a statute approved by Her 
Majesty by Order in Council, April 6, 
1858 ; and in 1859 were replaced by an 
annual lecture, which it was directed 
should be delivered in Term time every 
year. The appointment of the lecturer is 
vested in the Vice- Chancellor, who exer- 
cises his power of election during the Lent 
Term in every year, and who determines 
the day on which the lecture, which is or- 
dained to be given in the Senate House, 
should be delivei'ed. A lecture which 
perpetuates in one three several lectures 
on philosophy, logic, and rhetoric is, of 
course, extremely versatile in its subjects, 
embracing the exposition of the latest re- 
sults of research and speculation in various 
branches of science, art, ethics, philology, 
history, and archaeology. The first of the 
Rede Lectures, as reconstructed, was de- 
livered in 1859 by Dr. (now Sir Richard) 
Owen, F.R.S., who took for his subject 
the * Classification and Geographical Dis- 
tribution of the Mammalia.' 

The Sioiney Lectures are so called after 
the name of their founder, the late George 
Swiney, M.D., formerly of Exeter and 
afterwards of London, the history of whose 
intentions in their establishment is to be 
interestingly traced in the varying phrases 
and purposes of his testamentary benefac- 
tions. By his will, dated May 27, 1831, 
Dr. Swiney bequeathed ' 5,000^. stock in 
the Three per Cent. Consolidated Annui- 
ties to the trustees of the British Museum 
and their successors duly elected and ap- 
pointed for ever, in trust for the purpose of 
establishing a lectureship on natural his- 
tory. ' To this will was appended a first codi- 
cil, dated November 1 4, 1 8 35, which revoked 
the bequest, and then established a lecture- 
ship of geology; whilst a further codicil, of 
date April 25, 1843, made 'at my rooms 
in Camden Town, writing with my left 
hand,' sets forth that ' whereas it may 
contribute more to the interests of religion 



and goodness if lectures in astronomy be 
added to the lectures in geology, I desire 
that the lectureship be of geology and of 
astronomy alternately.' The first course 
of the Swiney Lectures was delivered by 
the late Dr. W. B. Carpenter at the Royal 
Institution, Albemarle Street ; and except 
on two or three occasions, upon which the 
lectures have been given at Edinburgh, 
they have ever since been delivered in 
difi'erent places in London, including the 
Museum of Practical Geology, the Royal 
School of Mines, University College, and 
the British Museum (Natural History), 
Cromwell Road, South Kensington. In 
the last-named institiition, as may be 
gathered from the following ' conditions of 
appointment,' it is at present intended by 
the trustees that the Swiney Lectures shall 
be habitually delivered. These ' condi- 
tions of appointment ' set forth that ' can - 
didates must have taken the degree of 
Doctor of Medicine at the University of 
Edinburgh. The stipend of the lecturer 
is 150?. a year. The appointment will be 
for a term of three years. All charges 
incurred for the delivery of the lectures 
are to be defrayed by the lecturer. The 
number of lectures is not to be less than 
twelve in each year, nor more than three 
in the same week, to be delivered between 
the 1st of November and the end of July 
following, at the British Museum (Natural 
History), Cromwell Road, South Kensing- 
ton, and illustrated, when practicable, from 
specimens in that museum. The public to 
be admitted to the lectures without fee. 
No lecture must be repeated. The lec- 
turer will be required at the termination 
of each course, and previously to receiving 
his annual stipend, to deposit a copy or 
full digest of the lectures with the direc- 
tor of the British Museum (Natural His- 
tory). The trustees reserve to themselves 
the power of making any alterations which 
they may think fit in the foregoing condi- 
tions.' 

The Warhurton Lectures, which are 
annually delivered in the chapel of the 
Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, were 
founded by Dr. Warburton, Bishop of 
Gloucester, 1759-79, and a sometime 
preacher of Lincoln's Inn, his appointment 
having been made in April 1746, eight or 
nine years after the publication of the first 
edition of his celebrated treatise on the 
Divine Legation of Moses. By an inden- 
ture bearing date July 21, 1768, Bishop 



286 PRENDERGAST'S METHOD PREPARATION OF LESSONS 



Warbiirton transferred tlie sum of 500^. 
Bank Four per Cent. Annuities Consoli- 
dated to Lord Chief Justices Lord Mans- 
tield and Sir John Eardly Wilmot, and to 
the Hon. Charles Yorke, second son of 
Lord Chancellor Hardwicke — who died 
soon after his own appointment to the 
same dignity, in January 1770 — upon 
trust, for the purpose of founding a lec- 
ture, in the form of a sermon, ' to prove 
tlie truth of revealed religion in general, 
and of the Christian in particular, from 
the completion of the prophecies in the 
Old and New Testaments which relate to 
the Christian Church, especially to the 
apostasy of Papal Rome.' The same deed 
further ordains ' tliat the trustees shall 
appoint the preacher of Lincoln's Inn for 
the time being, or some other able divine 
of the Church of England, to preach this 
lecture ; that the lecture sluiU be preached 
every year in the chapel of Lincoln's Inn 
(if the Society give leave), and on the 
following days — viz. the tirst Sunday after 
Michaelmas Term, the Sunday next before 
and the Sunday next after Hilary Term ; 
that the lecturer shall not preach the said 
lecture longer than for the term of four 
years, and shall not again be nominated 
to preach the same ; and when the term 
of four years is expired, that the said lec- 
turer shall print and publish, or cause to 
be printed and published, all the sermons 
or lectures that shall have been so preached 
by him.' The lirst series of Warburton 
Lectures, being Ttoelve Sermons introduc- 
torii to the iStiidi/ of the Prophecies, Avas 
delivered and published in 1772 by Dr. 
Richard Hurd, Avho was at that time 
preacher to the Honourable Society of 
Lincoln's Inn, and who afterwards became 
successively Bishop of Coventry and Licii- 
field (1775-81), and of Worcester (1781- 
1808). Dr. Hurd was the tirst biographer 
of Bishop Warburton, and the first editor 
of his collected works, 1788. 

Prendergast's Method. — The main ob- 
ject of this method is to give learners, 
young and old, the habit of speaking a 
foreign langiiage tluently, idiomatically, 
and with the utmost readiness, witliin the 
range of a limited vocabulary. To know 
a language is to be able to put its words 
to their natural uses ; that is, to employ 
them in sentences. Children pick up their 
native tongue, and residents aliroad ac- 
quire a foreign language, by imitation. 
They hear words used, not singly, but in 



sentences ; and they imitate these sentences 
— not in one stereotyped forui, but with 
numei'ous slight variations. This is the 
principle on which the method is based. 
A set of typical sentences, containing from 
twenty-five to thirty words each, are se- 
lected, exemplifying the most character- 
istic constructions, and containing all the 
words most frequently used for tlie pur- 
pose in hand. These ai-e accompanied by 
a, literal translation and a free idiomatic 
English version of each of them. Each 
foreign sentence is divided into clauses of 
four or five words each, with their cor- 
responding versions attached ; and the 
sentence is mastered clause by clause till 
it can be repeated with utmost readiness 
and perfect accuracy with and without 
the English. Having mastered the typi- 
cal sentences, we turn to their component 
clauses, and ring all the changes on each 
clause, one after the otlier, which are pos- 
sible without changing the infiections ; 
never letting the old clauses drop, but 
working theni in again and again with 
the new. Wlien all the sentences are used 
up we can add more ; and now in ringing 
the changes on the clauses may introduce 
the simpler changes of inflection ; and so 
on till our stock of words and idioms is 
large enough for our purpose. Attention 
is called to the changes in the forms of 
words by reference to a table of inflec- 
tions, bxxt nothing more in the way of 
grammar is required. Instead of gram- 
mar the learner has acquired the habit 
of using naturally a large number of words 
and idiomatic phrases, and of putting them 
in their right places in sentences. He may 
learn the grammar later if he wishes to 
extend and strengthen his grasp of the 
language ; but in any case lie should do 
much reading of authors by means of in- 
terlinear translations, on which again ex- 
ercises in retranslation should be done. 
No better method has ever been invented 
for ' winding up and setting in motion the 
talking machinery ; ' and it might well be 
used for the first stages in learning any 
language, even when something more is 
desired than the mere power of speaking. 
It is a most valuable adjunct to the plan 
of AsciiAM (q.v.) 

Preparation of Lessons. — Lessons may 
be prepared either by the pupil alone, or 
by the pupil under the direction of a tutor. 
Both of these cases ai-e considered in the 
article on Home Lessoxs. The art of pi*e- 



PREVIOUS EXAMINATION PRIVATE-VENTURE SCHOOLS 287 



paring lessons does not come by nature, 
and consequently a good teacher makes 
sure that when a lesson is set every pupil 
knows one method at least of preparing it. 

Previous Examination. See Degrees. 

Primary Education. 8ee Law (Edu- 
cational), Royal Commissions, and 
School Boards. 

Primary Schools. See Classification. 

Primer. — The original meaning of this 
Avord appears to have been a ' book of 
prime ' (or ' hours '), where prime denotes 
the first canonical hour (Skeat) ; we find 
* prymer ' coupled with ' paternoster ' in 
Piers Plowman, and with ' my great masse 
book ' in Fabyan's Will. The word, how- 
ever, has gradually had its signification 
•extended so as to cover any work dealing 
with the elements of any subject, so that 
a primer of German literature, of che- 
mistry, or of pianoforte-playing, would 
mean a work dealing with each of those 
subjects in a manner to be understood by 
a, learner who had no previous acquaint- 
ance with any of them, the essential of a 
Primer (as we now use the word) being 
that it deals with the subject of which it 
treats ah initio. A typical example of this 
class of book is the Public School Latin 
Primer, a work edited with the sanction 
of the chief English head-masters, and 
designed to be used as a first book of in- 
struction in Latin accidence and syntax 
throughout the public schools. 

Private Tutor. See Tutor. 

Private -Venture Schools. — These are 
schools kept by private individuals for the 
sake of private profit. In days gone by 
a large number of such schools were of a 
very unsatisfactory character, the teaching 
being mainly done by those whose only 
fitness consisted in their desire to gain 
a livelihood. But, though unsatisfactory 
schools have not yet entirely disappeared, 
matters have very much improved since 
the public began to take a greater interest 
in education, and to understand more 
clearly in what a sound education consists. 
Very few private- venture schools can now 
be successful for any length of time which 
•do not in a measure satisfy many of the 
requirements of skilled teaching. Never- 
theless, in all grades above the elemen- 
tary, and even to some extent in that grade 
also, it is still quite possible for schools 
which are never really successful to main- 
tain their existence, though the teaching 
i)hey afford may be wholly inadequate. In 



the elementary grade it is quite within the 
power of the Local School Attendance 
Committee to declare that the results of 
the instruction given at a particular school 
do not satisfy the requirements of the Edu- 
cation Acts (1870, 1876, 1880), which 
would practically close the school or result 
in its reformation. But it is possible to 
escape the notice of the committee ; and 
above this grade there is no authoritative 
body to declare whether a school is effi- 
cient or not. It is to be hoped that before 
very long England will follow the example 
of the other great European nations, and 
recognise the vital importance of education 
in every grade by requiring all who under- 
take the work of teaching to satisfy some 
public test of fitness to teach ; or that she 
will at least place those who do not satisfy 
such a test under distinct civic disabilities, 
such, for instance, as disabling them from 
recovering fees in a court of law. Beyond 
this it would not be wise to interfere with 
private enterprise, especially since such 
advance as we have made in the science 
and art of education has been almost en- 
tirely due to the genius and free inventive- 
ness of private teachers ; and since there 
must always be large numbers of children 
for whom the comparative quiet, homeli- 
ness, and greater personal attention of a 
small private school must — for at least 
part of their career — be much better suited 
than the bustle and expense of a large 
public institution. 

It will be of interest to note the regu- 
lations of other countries with regard to 
the liberty of teaching. Austria. — -The 
State reserves to itself the right of general 
surveillance over all educational establish- 
ments, but any one can engage in the work 
of education provided he or she possesses 
a certificate or warrant of professional fit- 
ness. Bavaria. — Home education is en- 
tirely free from regulations. But no one 
can open a private school except with the 
leave of the municipality, and on condition 
of being a Bavarian citizen, and of fur- 
nishing proof of moral and professional 
fitness. Private establishments are placed 
under the surveillance of competent au- 
thorities. Belgium, which has of late years 
retrograded considerably in educational 
matters, leaves education wholly unre- 
stricted, and makes no requirement as to 
professional knowledge or skill. France. 
Here all education is under the direc- 
tion or surveillance of the State, and over 



288 PRIZES PROVINCIAL COLLEGES (NON THEOLOGICAL) 



and above municipal regulations as to the 
sanitary arrangements, &c., of a school, 
every teacher is required to produce proofs 
of civil, moral, and professional fitness. In 
Greece and in Italy the regulations are 
almost exactly the same as in France. This 
is also the case in the Netherlands. In 
Prussia parents and guardians are required 
to see that their children and wards are 
given the same instruction as that in the 
public schools. Every one has the right 
to give lessons or establish a school, on 
giving the State authorities proof of moral, 
theoretical, and practical fitness. All edu- 
cational institutions, public or private, are 
under the surveillance of authorities no- 
minated by the State. The regulations for 
Saxony do not difier much from those of 
Prussia, except that teachers in private 
schools must have diplomas in addition to 
having passed at least one of the exami- 
nations instituted by law for teachers. In 
Spain teaching is unrestricted by regula- 
tions, except that the sanitary condition 
and morality of all schools are subject to 
State inspection. In Switzerland the re- 
gulations vary considerably in the different 
cantons. For elementary or primary edu- 
cation, which is universally under State 
direction, the general type of regulations 
is very like that of Prussia ; but in most 
cantons education above the primary is 
almost without regulations, except in so 
far as concerns the education undertaken 
by the canton itself, and in that case the 
regulations, as a rule, are very similar to 
those for primary education. In the United 
States free trade in schools and teaching 
is without restrictions. In our larger colo- 
nies, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the 
regulations, at any rate as far as primary 
instruction is concerned, tend more and 
more in general type to resemble those of 
Prussia. In Canada this is also true with 
regard to higher education, in so far as it 
is undertaken by the State. But this ten- 
dency has not up to the present in the case 
of any of these colonies become an accom- 
plished fact. {See also Day Schools.) 

Prizes. See Rewards. 

Proctors. — Officers of the Universities 
of Oxford and Cambridge whose duty it 
is to attend to the discipline and behavi- 
our of all persons in statu pupillari, and 
to search houses of ill-fame. In the even- 
ing they go their rounds, accompanied by 
their ' bull-dogs ' (attendants who pursue 
delinquents), and demand the name and 



college of any undergraduate or bachelor 
who is found without cap and gown, or 
whose conduct is unsatisfactory in any 
way. The offender is generally required 
to call upon the proctor the following 
morning, and is fined or otherwise pun- 
ished according to his offence. 

Procurators. See Rector. 

Professors. — The title of 'professor'' 
is given by courtesy to the regular lec- 
turers at universities and colleges of re- 
cognised university rank. The professors 
at Oxford and Cambridge, of whoin there 
are abou.t forty at each university, are 
usually required to be in residence about 
six months of the academical year, and 
during that time to deliver a certain num- 
ber of lectures open to all members of the 
univei'sity. They are expected to assist 
students attending their lectures, and each 
one to promote the study of his own sub- 
ject. Many of the professorships at Oxford 
and Cambridge, however, are mere sine- 
cures, the real work of teaching being left 
to the tutors (g.v.) or 'coaches.' In the Scot- 
tish and Irish universities, and in the Lon- 
don and provincial colleges (q.v.), the office 
of professor is of much greater importance. 

Promotion. See Classification. 

Pronuiiciation of Latin. See Latin 
(Pronunciation of). 

Prosody. See Grammar. 

Protoplasm. See Biology. 

Provincial Colleges (Non-Theologi- 
cal). — The foundation of Owens College, 
Manchester, in 1851, led the way to a 
movement which, aided by the stimulus of 
University Extension {q.v.), has during 
the last fifteen years spread to most of the 
non-university towns of first-rate import- 
ance in England, Scotland, and Wales. 
The following is a list of such institutions, 
with date of foundation : — Owens Col- 
lege, Manchester, 1851 ; Durham Uni- 
versity College of Physical Science, New- 
castle-on-Tyne, 1871 ; University College 
of Wales, Aberystwith, 1872 ; Yorkshire 
College, Leeds, 1874 ; University College, 
Bristol, 1876; Firth College, Sheffield, 
1879 ; Mason College, Birmingham, 1880; 
University College, Nottingham, 1881 ; 
University College, Liverpool, 1882 ; 
University College, Dundee, 1883; Uni- . 
versity College of South Wales and Mon- 
mouthshire, Cardiff, 1883 ; University 
College of North Wales, Bangor, 1884. 
The scheme of these colleges is to provide 
a higher education of university character 



PROYINCIAL COLLEGES (NON-THEOLOaiCAL) 



for non-resident students of both sexes. 
Institutions of essentially the same cha- 
racter in the metropolis are : University 
College (founded in 1828 as the 'Univer- 
sity of London'), and King's College. The 
recently founded Holloway College at Eg- 
ham (opened 1886) is a college for resi- 
dent women-students only. Several of 
the provincial colleges commenced their 
careers as colleges of physical science, e.g. 
the Yorkshire College, and the ]\Iason 
College, Birmingham ; but they now all 
(except Newcastle) include chairs of Greek, 
Latin, English, French, and German, and 
some of them chairs of History, Philo- 
sophy, and Fine Arts also. They may be 
said in general to be equipped with a fa- 
culty of Ai'ts as well as a faculty of Science. 
All except the Mason College have a prin- 
cipal, who acts as chairman of the senate 
or academic board, composed of the pro- 
fessors, and represents the college gene- 
rally. The government is vested in a 
council, and also a board of governors or 
trustees. The curriculum may be gene- 
rally divided under two heads : (1) Re- 
gular or systematic training in the day 
classes, (2) popular instruction in the even- 
ing classes. Some of the colleges are tak- 
ing steps to provide systematic evening 
instruction, and co-operating with school 
boards for the training of elementary 
teachers in preparation for the Govern- 
ment (teacher's) certificate. The regular 
day-students usually study for a degree 
at London University (women-students 
have also, since 1884, the privilege of 
entering for examination at Oxford with- 
out the condition of residence), or else are 
engaged in preparation for technical or 
industrial pursuits. The colleges are also 
largely attended by non-regular students 
(mostly women) who have no professional 
object in view, but welcome the oppor- 
tunity of studying under the direction of 
a professor. The average proportion of 
men and women students may be roughly 
stated at two-thirds men and one-third 
women. The colleges have for the most 
part secured for their teaching staff men of 
the highest academical standing. This the 
first experiment of importance in viixed 
education in this country may be pro- 
nounced an unqualified success; the experi- 
ence of the governors has been that here, 
as in America, no difficulties have arisen, 
and the presence of women in the classes 
is universally pronounced to have a bene- 



ficial effect upon discipline and a refining 
influence upon the men. Many of these 
institutions show signs of a vigorous col- 
lege life in unions and other college clubs, 
in all of which the women take an active 
part. Most of these colleges have been 
endowed by the private liberality either of 
a single person (e.g. Birmingham, Dundee), 
or of a number of persons acting together 
(e.g. Liverpool). ISTottingham depends 
partly upon a benefaction, partly upon a 
rate levied by the Town Council. The 
Welsh colleges are in receipt of a Govern- 
ment grant (4,000^. per annum each). The 
question of the extension of Government 
support to all these institutions is one of 
vital interest to them ; though in some 
cases handsomely endowed, they nearly all 
feel the pressure of pecuniary difficulties, 
or else are cramped in their development 
by lack of money. The master of Balliol 
has recently deserved well of the colleges by 
promoting the movement for inducing the 
Government to make agrant of the 50,000^. 
per annum which is necessary to place the 
higher education in our provincial towns 
upon a satisfactory footing. Another ques- 
tion of great importance for the future is 
that of the development of these institu- 
tions into provincial universities, i.e. bodies 
with the power of granting degrees. It is 
a question hedged round with many diffi- 
culties. On the one hand the present posi- 
tion of affairs is no doubt unsatisfactory : 
in the examinations of the University of 
London, for which students have to enter 
in order to get degrees, the professors of 
these colleges have no official voice or part. 
The result is a divorce between the teach- 
ing and examining functions. The work 
of the professors has to be entirely accom- 
modated to the rigid demands of an ex- 
ternal examination. This is stimulating 
to neither the teachers nor the taught. It 
is for the higher interests of the students 
that the professor should not degenerate 
into the mere ' coach.' And this is best 
secured by the Scotch or German system, 
in which the professors have a share in 
fixing the standard of examination and 
testing the candidates' work. It has cer- 
tainly not been found that there is any 
tendency in new universities in England 
to allow the standard of examination to 
sink. The Victoria University (founded 
in 1880, and now including as constituent 
colleges Owens College, Manchester, Uni- 
versity College, Liverpool, and the York- 

u 



290 



PSYCHOLOGY PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



shire College) grants its degrees on terms 
certainly not less severe than any univer- 
sity in the country. Again, the establish- 
ment of pro^•incial viniversities, in lending 
dignity and importance to the colleges, 
would do much to correct the provinciality 
of English provincial towns, and, like the 
nineteen universities of Germany, carry 
culture into all parts of the country. On 
the other hand, there are many serious 
difficulties in carrying out such a scheme. 
The work of a university involves great 
expenditure of time and money, and it 
would obviously be an extravagant ar- 
rangement if a separate set of examina- 
tions were conducted at each college. Pos- 
sibly some way will be found of reconcil- 
ing the real need for a closer relation be- 
tween college and university than exists 
at present, with considerations of economy. 
The whole question is intimately connected 
with the future development of London 
University, which is now considering the 
possibility of giving the professors of the 
provincial colleges a voice in the direction 
of its examination system. 

Psychology. — Mental science, or psy- 
chology, is the science which has for its 
special subject-matter the various activities 
which make up our mental life. As deal- 
ing with the phenomena of the inner 
Avorld of mind or 'consciousness,' it stands 
in contrast to the physical sciences, which 
have to do with those of the external 
material world. At the same time, psy- 
chology holds a close connection with one 
branch of physical science, viz. Physiology 
{q-v.). We have to study mental pheno- 
mena not only in themselves as we observe 
"them directly in our own minds, or indi- 
rectly by means of their outward manifes- 
tations in the minds of others, but also in 
connection with their physiological accom- 
paniments and conditions, that is to say, 
the activities of the brain and nervous 
■system as a whole. From this brief defi- 
nition of the scope .of the science it will 
be seen that it is the chief source of the 
principles or laws which make up the 
science or theory of education (see Theory 
OF Education). Since the educator has 
to work on mind as his material, he re- 
quires to understand its inherent properties 
and the laws by which it is governed. 
'The successful training and developing of 
the mind in any direction depends on our 
satisfying the necessary conditions of men- 
tal growth. Thus the exercise and im- 



provement of a child's memory can only 
take place by a fulfilment of the natural 
laws of memory (interest and association). 
Hence a knowledge of these laws is indis- 
pensable to one who would carry on the 
work of training minds intelligently, and 
with the assurance of following a right 
method. The science of psychology deals 
with mind in each of its three principal 
phases. Knowing or Litellect, Feeling or 
Emotion, and Activity or Will. And the 
special laws of each of these three great 
departments of mental life furnish the 
basis of a corresponding branch of educa- 
tion, viz. (1) Intellectual Education, (2) 
the culture of the feelings, or -^J^sthetic 
Education, and (3) the development of the 
will and character, or Moral Education. 
(See Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. i. ; 
Herbart, Briefe ilber die Anwendung der 
Psychologie auf die Pddagogik.) 

Public Schools. — The term public 
school is difficult to define. In England 
it has a meaning difiei'ent from what it 
has in America. The American public 
school is a school supported by the com- 
munity and open to all the world. When 
it is said that Public Schools are the back- 
bone of the American system of education 
it is implied that there exist all over 
America a number of scliools afibrding a 
liberal education either fi"ee or very inex- 
pensive, accessible to all classes. An 
English public school implies something 
exclusive and privileged. A public school 
man is difierent from other men. The 
question as to whether a particular school 
is a public school or not depends, not 
upon its size or its efficiency, but upon its 
social x'ank. The American public schools 
are day schools ; the English public school, 
in the strict sense, is essentially a boarding 
school. Our public schools are few in 
number, confined to particular districts, 
costly, and very diverse in individual 
character, yet it is said that they represent, 
more completely than any other English 
institution, the chief peculiarities of our 
national life. It is the public school that 
forms the typical Englishman ; it is the 
ordinary English boy of tlie upper classes 
who gives his character to the public 
school. We have to inquire first, what 
are the English public schools; secondly, 
how did they come to be what they are; 
thirdly, what are their principal charac- 
teristics, and what relation do they bear 
to the educational system of England? 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



291 



"When the English Government undertook 
some twenty-five years ago to inquire into 
the condition of our secondary education, 
nine schools Avere singled out from the 
rest as pi-e-eminent. These were Win- 
chester, Eton, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
Harrow, Rugby, Merchant Taylors', 'St. 
Paul's, and Shrewsbury. Captain de Car- 
teret Bisson, in Our /So/tools a7id Colleges, 
disputes the right of the last three, and 
reckons our public schools at six. These 
six between them do not educate much 
moi-e than 4,000 boys, and yet they are so 
typical of all schools which may have a 
claim to the title of public, that we may 
■conveniently contine our consideration to 
them, without disrespect to many new 
foundations of the highest distinction. Of 
these, Winchester dates from the four- 
teenth century, Eton from the fifteenth, 
Westminster, Harrow, and Rugby from 
the sixteenth — these three having all been 
founded within eleven years of each other 
— and Charterhouse from the seventeenth 
■centuries. 

Winchester, the oldest of the schools, 
'has probably kept its character most un- 
changed. It has never been a fashionable 
'Or a court school. It has maintained, 
xmimpaired, its close connection with 
NeAv College at Oxford. Nothing can 
show more clearly the strength and unity 
•of English traditions than the fact that 
five hundred years after the establish- 
ment of the two foundations of William of 
Wykeham, they should stand in the face 
of England holding the highest place, one 
ns a college and the other as a school. 
Eton, the next on our list, is confessedly 
the first of public schools, but it was not 
always so. 

During the first eighty years of the 
■seventeenth century, Westminster un- 
doubtedly held the position of pre-emi- 
nence. Dr. Busby (q.v.), who read the 
prayer for the king on the morning of 
Charles I.'s execution, and who refused to 
take off"his cap in the presence of Charles II., 
Avas the first schoolmaster of his time in 
England. But Westminster was faithful 
to the Stuarts^ Eton supported the cause 
of the Whigs. Its supremacy, beginning 
in the reign of William III., continued in 
that of Anne, reached its height under the 
Hanoverian kings. George III. took a 
strong personal interest in the school. 
Eton boys walked on the terrace of Wind- 
sor Castle in court dress, and the king 



often stopped to ask their naines and to 
speak to them. William IV., with boiste- 
rous good humour, continued the favour 
of his dynasty. He took the part of the 
boys in their rebellion against the masters, 
and he used to invite the boys to enter- 
tainments, at which the masters stood by 
and got nothing. During this period 
Eton becaiiie a political jDower in England. 
The upper school at Eton is decorated with 
the busts of statesmen who swayed the 
destinies of England, and who were the 
more closely connected together fi-om hav- 
ing been educated at the same school. 
Chatham, North, Fox, Grenville, and Gray 
are among the ornaments of that historical 
room. Eton and Christ Church had the 
monopoly of education for public life, and 
the claim of the school to this distinction 
received its fullest recognition when Lord 
Wellesley, after a career spent in the 
most important offices of the State, desired 
that he might be laid to his last rest in 
the bosom of that mother fi-om whom he 
had learnt everything which had made 
him famous, successful, and a patriot. 
Better known, perhaps, is the boast of his 
brother, the Duke of Wellington, that the 
battle of Waterloo was won in the playing- 
fields of Eton. 

Charterhouse, established in London, 
has held since its foundation a position 
very similar to that of Winchester, not of 
great importance in politics or fashion, but 
highly influential and respected. These 
four schools were probably founded for the 
purposes which they have since succeeded 
in carrying out. Eton was always a school 
for the governing classes. Winchester 
and Charterhouse have received the un- 
interrupted support of the gentry and 
clergy of England. The history of Harrow 
and Rugby has been different. They have 
been lifted by circumstances into a position 
for which they were not originally intended. 
They were founded as local schools, one in 
the neighbourhood of London, the other 
in the heart of the Midlands, for the in- 
struction first of the village lads, and then 
of such strangers as came to be taught. 
But they have reached, owing to special 
circumstances, a position equal to any of 
their rivals. Harrow emerged from ob- 
scurity in the middle of the eighteenth 
century, owing, as it is said, her success 
to head masters who were sent to her from 
Eton. Rugby is known throughout the 
world as the school of Arnold (q.v.), who 

d2 



292 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



wrmIiciuI in;i,H[,f'f from 1 8'J7 in 1 Hil . Ev<in 
Ixjforo Ih'h tiiiKi ill liiid Ji,1,l.ji,ii)(!(l a ]\\^h rank 
amon^mt EiififliHli r(;1kk)I,s, but/ lit), followcnl 
by a b'lu! of (lisl.iii^vn"sb(H] RucfidHMor.s, hii't 
it in. B(!h()lar8bi[) and ondrpjy of tlion^lit at 
thoirlioiul. Kii^dtyaiul HaJliol iirci to Kuir- 
b'sh orlucatioii ai'lific l.lm Uofonri |{ill,wliat 
F;ton and Christ Chnrc.li won? Ixiforo it, 
'riiis Hkotcli will show liow diflnmnt tho 
l^dnoHiH of onr public S(;1ioo!h lia,s ))rMin, and 
wliat varioiiH (loursos tlxiy liavo pnrsnod to 
arriv(i at tlui kjuiki (ioncln.sion. 

Wo will now bri((lly i.nwv, tlio ]n"story 
of tlio (uludation tlmy aim at. Tluiir our- 
rionlmn \h (vsMdiitially (ilassicial ; indeed, a 
piibli(! scliool man nxMiiiH in (ronnnon ])ar- 
lano(» f)no who has been educated m;i,inly 
on (Jreek and Latin. TIk^ Iavo oldest 
stihools, Wijic.hest(n' and lOton, foundiMl 
before the llefonnation, naturally b(ip;an 
with monkisli leaniinjjj. There w.-is a f^reat 
deal of ^nunmarand a^reii,t dealof church- 
fifoinjjf. 'I\]ie ])upila were cliildren, and were 
treated as such. Westnn'nster was founded 
after, and in conscMiuenee of, tlu^ iiefoi-ma- 
tion, ivnd the breiircOi with tlie old leiirnin<:^ 
neeesisitated new arnin^'c^ments. 

'Die autlior of tlie Pi'otestant eurricu- 
iuni of ])ublie edn(^ation was ./oZ/va Hl'icnii, 
the friend of Ho^'er Aseha/m, the henxl 
master of the ^reat .school of Htrasburi^ 
dui'infi; a larjuje ])()rtion of the sixteenth 
century. A <M)m])l<vt(< accoiuit of Sturm's 
nuithods and or<j;n,nisation is pi-eserved, and 
wo maybe sure that its main outlines wore 
adopt(Hl at Westminster and at Eton. 
Latin jviwnmar juid T-atin style were made 
the principal subjecita of edu(!ii,tion ; tho 
school was laun(!hed upon the full Hood of 
hujuanism. The oonnecticm between a 
soliolar in the narrow sense -that is, a man 
not of (n-udition, but of llnished tM,ste and 
polislunl slyle and the <j;(Mii.lenian wasnow 
fully esl;ablished. Stui'Ui was so d(W]K)ti(! 
in tlie arran^'euKMits of his school, that he 
notoidy hvid down whsit boys were to learn 
at eacrh (ijiot^h of their cai-eer, but he for- 
bade tluvm to learn anythint;; else. It was 
a.s <:;reat a fatdt to b(>cjin m, subject ]>rema- 
tun^ly !iiS to nen'IcHit it in its due time. 
Manyof Sturm's arrantj;ements!i,r(^ familiar 
to public; school uhm) now livinn;, but in the 
followinfj;(Mintiiry they underwent a, furtlun* 
chantijo. This was due to the .lesm'ts, who 
obtained their reputation partly by their 
devolion to the study of Creek, and pai-tly 
by the j>!iins iJiey took to understand tho 
individual character of their pupils, Tho 



Jesuits have y)robably done mon; luiriti to 
sound edu(!ation than any prominent body 
of men who over undcjrtook thf) task. They 
h;ul two objects in view, to /fain tho favour 
of the rich and powerful, and to prevent 
tho human, mind from thinkinf,'. Ifuman- 
istio education skilfully eiriploycid was an 
julmiral)le instrument to this end. J t Mat- 
tered the prid(i of parents, whilst it cheated 
tho ambition of scholars. ''.I'lie pre-emi- 
nence j^iveii in educitiou to orif,nnal Latin 
verses is typical of the whole system of 
tho Jesuits. No exorcise (!ould bo more' 
pretty and attracitivf), or bear more clearly 
the outwa.rd semblance of culture and 
hiarnini^', yet no (5m|)loynient could more 
ellectually dehuhi th<! mind by an unsub- 
s<<aMtia,l ])ha,nt()m of sc^rious thought. The 
sturdy humanism of Sturm l)ecamo cor- 
ru])ted by the f^raccvfid frivolity of the 
Jesuits, and in this condition public school 
educa,tion remained, until the efforts of a 
few obscuro reformers, the genius and 
enorgy of Arnold, and the fj;rowth of the 
new spirit in I'jnfjjland fonied it into other 
chaiuiels. 

Arnold is ty])ica,l of the new public 
school; but we must distinfi;uish l)etw(ien 
Arnold and the Arnoldia,n legend. Like 
other ijfreat refornuii'S, his na,)ne Jias become 
a nu(;leus round which the reputations of 
all other reformers, j^^ood as well as bad, 
ha,ve coa,les(!ed. The most ])rominent fact 
about Arnold is that he was tlu! (irst Eng- 
lishman of cpiite iirst-rat(< a.bility who de- 
voted himself to school education. The 
traditions of Sturm and the Jesuits shri- 
velled up before tho manly touch of a 
teacher who was fit to be J'rime JVIinister. 
After his career no one could despise the 
])rofession of a schoolmaster. What did 
Arnold n,ctually effect ? He ta,ught boys 
to govern themselves. He substituted for 
a systenj in which the monitors were 
allowed any li(;ence, on condition that they 
denied it to every one else, one in. which 
the responsibility of the ruler was rated 
even more highly than the obligation of 
the ruled, lie also taught boys to think 
for th(^mS(lves, to pierce beyond the veil 
of words into the substance of things, to 
see realities, to toucOi and ta,ste and handle 
the matter of which they had before only 
talked. Thus he produced a vigorous cha- 
racter ami a numly mind. Ilugby boys 
on passing to the university thought and 
acted for themselves. They might be par- 
doned if, in the first flush of enthusiasm, 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



293 



they acted pi-iggishly and thought wildly. 
But Arnold's teaching contained within it 
germs of much which he had never con- 
templated, and of which he would have 
disapproved. It contained the germs of 
the modern civilised life in schools of which 
Rugby knew nothing in 1840. Far indeed 
is the cry from that dim and crowded 
dining-room, where boys sitting at a bare 
table wiped their knives on the iron band 
which surrounded it, and ate their meat 
and pudding oif the same plate, to the 
luxurious arrangements of a modern pre- 
paratory school. It contained the germ 
of modern -side education. Arnold did not 
know that he was passing from Melanch- 
thon to Comenius, and that the study of 
things once set rolling would soon displace 
the study of words. It contained the 
germs of a new confidence and friendship 
between boy and master, quite as different 
from the sly sentimentality of the Jesuits 
as it was from the pompous neglect of the 
old-fashioned courtly don. It contained, 
alas ! in germ the subjection of the master 
to the boy in standard, tastes, and habits, 
which threatens to be the ruin of our 
public schools. It crystallised also the 
idea which otherwise might have disap- 
peared, that a head master must be of 
necessity a clergyman, and that no school 
could be properly conducted unless its chief 
sums up in the pulpit every Sunday after- 
noon what are supposed to be the spiritual 
results of the week's emotions. It stamped 
also with permanence, by a natural misun- 
derstanding, that conviction of a head 
master's autocracy which prevents the for- 
mation in England of a profession of edu- 
cation. The history of English public 
schools since Arnold is merely the carry- 
ing out, under varying circumstances, of 
the teaching of his example, and the de- 
velopment, sometimes to disastrous ends, 
of abuses to which that example may seem 
to lend currency. 

A few words only are needed in con- 
clusion as to the present and future of our 
public boarding schools. Nothing has 
altered their character more than their 
growth in numbers, which has been the 
result of popularity. In Arnold's time, 
no public school except Eton exceeded 
300 boys. Arnold and his contemporary 
head masters might boast with truth that 
they knew every boy in their school by 
sight, his habits, his capacity, his friends. 
A school thus governed by one man, and 



penetrated by his influence, differed, not 
only in degree but in kind, from a school 
which has of necessity become a confede- 
ration. In a public school of Arnold's 
date, games were still amusements. For- 
merly neglected and ignored by pedagogues, 
they became the nurse of every manly 
virtue when a more sympathetic eye was 
turned upon them. Tom Broivn's iichool- 
days represents the heroism of the forties; 
the high- water mark when boyish enter- 
j)riseand independence reached their height 
under the influence of manly recognition. 
During the last quarter of a century, 
games have become a serious business, 
instead of the wholesome distraction of 
public school life. They are organised as 
elaborately as the work. Masters are 
appointed to teach them like any other 
branch of study; they form the basis of 
admiration and imitation between boy and 
boy, and the foundation of respect and 
obedience between boy and master. It is 
difficult to keep large numbers of boys, 
with only five years' ditt'erence in their 
ages, quiet and wholesome without a large 
development of games. They have been 
admitted to their full share in the school 
curriculum. A public boarding school is 
no longer a place where amidst much 
liberty and idleness there reigns a high 
respect for character and intellect, and 
where the ablest boys are left ample room 
to fashion each other and themselves. It 
is a place where the whole life is tabulated 
and arranged, where leisure, meditation, 
and individual study are discouraged, and 
where boys are driven in a ceaseless round 
from school to play-room, from play-room 
to school, regarding each as of equal im- 
portance, and bringing into the most deli- 
cate operations of intellectual growth the 
spirit of coarse competition which domi- 
nates in athletics. It is difficult to say 
what changes public boarding schools are 
destined to undergo, or whetlier, in an age 
in which education is so much extended, a 
system so expensive and so exclusive can 
continue to flourish. The last few years 
have witnessed the growth of large public 
day schools, and any development of na- 
tional education would be certain to in- 
crease their number. Although the Ar- 
noldian system is little applicable to them 
on its best side, yet they are of necessity 
free from most of the abuses to which that 
system has given rise. An idea may grow 
up that the home is, after all, the best 



294 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS MISSIONS PUNCTUATION 



place for cliililren, and that childi'en are the 
l)Ost safeguard of a pure and hap}\y home. 
Should English soeiety in its now develop- 
ment prefer a kind of edueatiou whieh is 
tlie normal type of all countries but our 
own, and which improved oommunioation 
makes it easier to adopt, we si tall still 
have public scluxils of which we may be 
proud, they will continue to represent our 
best national qualities, but they will be 
very different from the public boarding 
schools of the past. 

Public Schools Missions.— Several of 
the public schools now support one or 
more clergy, laymen, and organisations at 
work in the poorest part of London and 
elsewhere. Uppinghaiu was one of the 
first to promote the mission movement. 
Various books (e.g. The Bitter Cry of Out- 
cast London) and illustrated papers had 
drawn attention to the state of the out- 
casts. The missions are somewhat sin\ilar 
to those of the Universitit>s. They are not 
all in London. Thus, Winchester has one 
at Portsmouth, and Rugby has a mission 
(the Rugby Fox Memorial) to Indian boys 
at Masulipatam, and Haileybury a lectui'er 
at Agra. The following public schools had 
missions in 1888 : (i) Eton (Hackney 
Wick, E.) ; (2) Harrow (Latimer Road, 
W.) ; (3) Charterhouse (Southwark, S.E.) ; 
(4) Clifton (Bi-istol) ; (f)) Felstead (Brom- 
ley, E.) ; (6) Haileyburv (Agra, India) ; 
(7) Mai-lborough (Totteid^ani, S.E.) ; (8) 
Magdalen College School, Oxford (Umba, 
E. Africa, and Fulhan\); (9) Rossall (New- 
ton Heath, Manchester) ; (10) Tonbridge 
(King's Cross, N.E.) ; (11) Uppingham 
(Poplar, E.) ; (12) Wellington, Berks 
(Walworth, S.E.) ; (13) Winchester (Land- 
port, Portsmouth); (14) Radley ; (Ifi) 
Cheltenham ; (16) Bradtield ; (17) Alden- 
ham ; (18) Malvern. Several masters have 
.testified that the tone of their schools has 
improved since their boys thus learned to 
sympatliise intelligentlv with the strug- 
gles of the poor. Details will be found 
m the Church of Emjhind Year-Book 
(S.P.C.K., 2.^. 6(/.). (See also articles Uni- 
versity Settlem ents, Paupeu Education, 
Ragoed Schools, ikc.) 

Punctuation.— It is important to ar- 
range our words carefully if we desire our 
meaning to be clear. But sometimes the 
words may be excellently arranged, and 
yet it may be ditlicult to decide\vliether 
a word refers to the one before it or the 
one after it, or whether certain words are 



to be taken as forming a phrase or a sen- 
tence by tliemselves apart from the rest. 
We indicate our meaning in sucli cases, 
when spiniking by ma-king a pause between; 
the words which we do not wish our hearers, 
to take together ; or we pause before and 
after a set of words which we do wish to. 
be taken together. In writing we repre- 
sent these pauses by marks, or stops, placing 
them between the words we wish to sepa- 
rate, and before and after the words wo- 
wish to group together. To place these 
stops amongst the words of a sentence is. 
to punetuate it. The stops most frequently 
used are the eoiii»ia (,) and the full-stop (.) ;, 
and besides these there are the semicolon 
(;), the cokni (:), and the drtsh ( — ). The 
fill-stop indicates that we have come to 
the end of our statement so far, and that if 
any other statement follows, it must be 
takeii iis a new and somewhat independent 
one. The comma generally indicates that, 
for some reason of emphasis or clearness,, 
a word is separated from that to which it 
more particularly refers. The intruding 
word or phrase will, by what we have just 
said, have a comma both before it and 
after it, unless it directly describes the 
word on which it intrudes. Compare, for^ 
instance : ' The jury, having retired for 
an liour, brought in a verdict of guilty ; ' 
and ' A king depending on the support o£ 
his subjects, cannot rashly declare Avar.' 
The object in using couimas being to indi- 
cate that the ANords cut off by then\ are to- 
be taken together, it follows tluit when the 
subject of a sentence is made very long by 
reason of its phrases we should place a 
connna after it, especially if it contains, 
some noun which might be mistaken fer- 
tile subject — e.g. ' The danger of leaving 
his rear unprotected by even a handful 
of cavalry, was beginning to show itself 
clearly.' The first of a pair of commas is. 
not expressed when it comes at the begin- 
ning of a sentence, and the second of the 
pair is always mei'ged in any weightier 
stop with which it coincides, and hence 
the bi'acketing or parenthetic nature of 
commas — whieh is the more frequent — 
is often missed. Of course, if a word or 
plu'ase closely refen-ing to some other word 
or phi'ase is placed (for convenience or em- 
phasis) out of its usual position, we should, 
by our general rule ixaark it off from the 
rest of the statement by commas. This 
will most frequently be the case with ad- 
verbial phrases or clauses placed at the 



PUNCTUATION PUNISHMENT 



295 



beginning of a statement. A string of 
words all on the same footing in a sentence, 
whether single or in pairs, are divided up 
by single commas when there are no con- 
junctions employed to link them together ; 
e.g. ' We have lost in him a good, wise, 
true and loving friend. He was indeed 
kind and iirm, gentle and strong, simple 
and wise.' If a word or phrase of mere 
explanation, an intei'jection, or the name 
of the person spoken to, be inserted in a 
sentence, it will of course be marked oft' 
by commas. These are the main uses of 
commas. When a statement is long, and 
contains many clauses placed together to 
throw light on one another, we shall usually 
find that we want a stop more marked 
than a comma, and yet not so marked as 
a full-stop. The stop employed in such 
cases is the semicolon ; or, if in addition 
a slightly Aveightier mark be required, a 
colon. The dash is used to mark that the 
construction of a sentence is suddenly 
broken ; or in a long paragraph to mark 
the return to the main thread of the state- 
ment ; or to draw together and sum up 
all that precedes. 

The following are good examples of 
the use of semicolons and colons : ' Sloth 
makes all things difficult, but industiy all 
things easy ; and he that riseth late must 
trot all day, and shall scarce overtake his 
business at night.' ' If this life is un- 
happy, it is a burden to us which it is 
difficult to bear ; if it is in every respect 
happy, it is dreadful to be deprived of it : 
so that, in either case, the result is the 
same ; for we must exist in anxiety and 
apprehension.' As a rule, however, colons 
are nowadays generally replaced by full- 
stops. 

As examples of the use of the clcosh the 
following will be found suggestive : ' Oh 
that you had only — but why cry over spilt 
milk 1 ' ' The flaws and flecks in his cha- 
racter — for even the best of us have flaws 
and flecks — I do not care to discuss.' ' He 
wept and moaned ; he looked dolorous, 
and shunned his friends ; he put up the 
shutters, and dressed himself in black — 
this was what he called " showing due 
respect." ' 

In addition to the above, there are cer- 
tain other marks used — not exactly stops, 
but somewhat of their nature — which cor- 
respond rather to the tone of a speaker 
than to his pauses. They are the note of 
interrogation (1), which marks a question ; 



the note of exclamation (!), which marks 
surprise or excitement ; inverted co'nimcos 
{" "), which tell us that the words between 
them are borrowed from somewhere else ; 
single inverted commas (' ') sometimes in- 
dicate that the sense, not the wording, is 
quoted. Lastly, there is the 2J(-''renthesis ( ), 
which is used to mark 09" entirely from 
the rest of the sentence some explanatory 
word or phi-ase, the insertion of which 
clearness seems to demand, or which some 
association or feeling prompts. But the 
jKtrenthesis is often replaced by a couple 
of dccshes, as will be seen above in this 
very jDaragraph. 

Punishment is commonly defined as 
pain or sufl^ering inflicted by one in au- 
thority, and as the consequence of some 
oflence or violation of command. The 
power to punish is essentially involved in 
what we call authority. Tlae control of 
the individual by the community is carried 
out by a system of commands backed by 
punishment; whether legal penalties en- 
forced by the magistrate, or social penalties 
e.g. loss of reputation imposed by society 
for extra-legal ofiences. The question of 
the true grounds of punishment has been 
much discussed, some viewing it as retri- 
butive, or a self-protective reaction of the 
community against an injury; others laying 
emphasis on its deterrent function in rela- 
tion to other possible offenders; others, 
again, insisting on its ameliorative or re- 
formatory purpose in relation to the indi- 
vidual that is punished. What has beer 
called paedagogic punishment, that is, as 
inflicted by the parent or other governor 
of the child, is mainly dealt with by 
educational writers on its reformatory 
side, that is, as a means of correcting and 
improving a faulty will in the individual 
punished. Difficult problems surround 
the subject of punishment, such as the 
questions : What cases are meet for punish- 
ment, what are the most suitable kinds of 
punishment, and how can the degree of 
punishment be best proportioned to the 
fault ? These have been dealt with in a 
luminous way by Bentham ; and though 
his principles relate primarily to punish- 
ment by the State, they will be found to 
have an important bearing on the correction 
of the young. 1 The tendency of recent 
writers, due in part to the growth of 
humanitarianism, in part to the influence 

1 For a resume of Bentham's principles, see Bain, 
Education as a Science, p. 106, note. 



296 



PUPIL-TEACHERS 



of authorities like Locke aud Rousseau, has 
been to attribute less value to punishment 
as a means of moral education. As an 
artificial stimulus, needed only because the 
proper motives which impel to right con- 
duct are weak, punishment is to be used 
sparingly, and dispensed with as soon as 
possible. The child is to be led to feel the 
natural results of wrong actions, e.g. the 
displeasure, or loss of the confidence, of its 
parent or teacher, to be a sufficient penalty. 
{See art. Consequences, Discipline of.) 
It is seen, too, in connection with school 
discipline, that while the power to punish 
must exist and be recognised, its frequent 
exercise is apt to be frustrative of the 
teacher's object. An affectionate concern 
for the learner's good, and the endeavour 
to attract, rather than repel, him to school- 
work, and to help him over his difficulties 
which springs out of such a concern, will 
very much reduce in number, if not entirely 
eliminate, the occasions for punishment. 
Cf. articles Corporal Punishment and 
Discipline. {See Locke, Thoughts, § 43 
and following ; Bain, Education as a Sci- 
67106, p. 11 4 and following; Thring, Theory 
and Practice of Teaching, chap. xiii. ; Be- 
neke, Erziehungs- unci Unterrichtslehre, 
§ 77; "VVaitz, Allgem. Pddagogik, § 13, and 
article 'Strafe' in Schmid's Encyclopddie.) 
Pupil-teachers. — The Minutes of the 
Committee of Council which, in 1846, 
under the inspiration of Sir James Kay 
Shuttleworth, then chief secretary, insti- 
tuted the ' certificate of merit' for elemen- 
tary teachers, also inaugurated the pupil- 
teacher system (imitated from Holland), 
as a means of ensui-ing a succession of such 
teachers, and of supplying an adequate 
teaching staff for the rapidly increasing 
elementary schools. The latter was, on 
the surface, the most pressing need. Pre- 
vious to this an elementary school was 
staffed on the monitoricd system, originated 
by Lancaster and Bell, by which some of 
the older and more proficient scholars of 
the school were the (sole) assistants of the 
head teacher. These monitors, as they 
were called, at best were children of only 
thirteen or fourteen years of age, and con- 
stituted an ever-shifting body, as each, after 
a year or two's work in that capacity, was 
removed by his parents and sent to work. 
The real teaching power (beyond mere 
rote-work) of such a staff as this was ob- 
viously of the poorest kind. If, however, 
these children could by adequate pecu- 



niary inducements be attracted from pro- 
ceeding to other spheres of work, in order 
to take up the career of a teacher as a 
means of livelihood, the school-assistant 
staff would be composed of ex-scholars of 
at least thirteen years of age, instead of 
scholars of at most fourteen years of age, 
and thus one weakness, that of the extreme 
youthfulness of the staff, would be partially 
remedied. The enforcement of a term of 
apprenticeship would remedy the other 
weakness. It was to replace the moni- 
torial system by some system on these 
lines that the Minutes of 1846 established 
'pupil-teachers.' By these Minutes the 
Committee of Council offered to every 
pupil-teacher whose parents or guardians 
consented to apprentice him (or her) for a 
term of years (usually five), commencing 
at thirteen years of age, an annual stipend 
of 10^. for the first year of apprenticeship, 
rising by annual increments to 20^. for the 
last year. The pupil-teacher was required 
to be of good character, and to come from 
a respectable home. He was further re- 
quired to pass an examination before her 
Majesty's inspector at admission, and at the 
end of each year of apprenticeship. He 
was to be a teacher, assisting the head 
teacher in the instruction of the scholars 
during school hours, and he was to be a 
pupil, receiving separate instruction from 
him out of school hours for one hour and 
a half daily. As an inducement to the 
head teacher to secure good candidates 
for pupil-teachership, and to instruct his 
pupil-teachers efficiently, the Committee 
of Council offered him an annual gratuity 
of 2)1. to 4zl. for each pupil-teacher who 
passed with credit the examination at the 
end of each year of apprenticeship. 

In its broad features the pupil-teacher 
system remains to this day in the same 
form as it was established by the Minutes 
of 1846. The grants from Government 
on behalf of pupil-teachers are, however, 
now (since Revised Code, 1862) paid to 
the managers of the school, who are free 
to make their own terms with this, as well 
as with every other part of the school staff. 
At first no limit was placed upon the 
number of pupil-teachers which a head 
teacher could employ, nor upon the number 
of scholars who might be placed under his 
charge. But it soon became obvious that 
there were limits to the proportion which 
the amount of unskilled labour of the 
pupil-teachers in a school should under any 



PUPIL-TEACHERS 



297 



circumstances bear to that of the skilled 
labour of the adult teachers, and from time 
to time (since 1862) the Code regulations 
have limited the number of pupil-teachers 
who may be employed for each head teacher 
or adult (certificated) assistant. This now 
stands at three for the principal teacher, 
and one for each certificated assistant. 
Moreover, the age at which apprenticeship 
'Can be commenced has been raised from 
thirteen to fourteen years of age, and the 
number of scholars which (in estimating 
what is the minimum school staff required) 
is considered sufficient for a pupil-teacher 
is now forty in average attendance, and 
for a candidate pupil-teacher, twenty. 

The standard of attainments required 
to be shown by candidates for pupil-teach- 
ership, and by pupil-teachers at the end of 
each year of apprenticeship, has been gra- 
dually raised by successive codes, and now 
stands at a pass in Standard YI. or VII. 
in the three elementary subjects, and two 
■of the class subjects (see art. Code), of 
which English must be one. The require- 
ments for each year of apprenticeship are 
laid down in Schedule V. of the Code, and 
embrace English grammar and composi- 
tion, arithmetic and mathematics (algebra 
and quadratics, Euclid, bk. i., ii.), geography, 
history, teaching, all of which are obliga- 
tory subjects, and ancient and modern lan- 
guages, science, drawing, and music, which 
are optional. The ' Queen's scholarship' 
examination (see Training of Teachers) 
is accepted as equivalent to the examina- 
tion for the end of the last year of appren- 
ticeship. On passing the examination the 
pupil-teacher acquires the right to obtain 
two years' training in a training college, 
at a cost to the country of 75 per cent, of 
the expenditure on his behalf (see Train- 
ing OF Teachers). 

The efficient instruction of the pupil- 
teachers to meet the requirements of these 
annual examinations has long been felt to 
be one of the greatest difficulties inherent 
in the system. The physical strain on 
these young persons, who, either before or 
after a hard day's work in school, have to 
prepare and say their own lessons, has 
been made the subject of repeated anim- 
adversions, and, in the face of the obvious 
overpressure to which they have been sub- 
jected, the Department has considerably 
reduced their hours of labour in school, 
which now stand at not less than three, or 
more than six, upon any one day, nor more 



than twenty-five hours in any one week. 
This has the effect of releasing the pupil- 
teachers from school work for one half day 
in each week, besides Saturday. Their 
own instruction must occupy at least five 
hours per week, of which not more than 
three shall be part of one day. 

But under the most favourable circum- 
stances, the process of instructing pupil- 
teachers must involve a great waste of 
power, which (except in purely rural dis- 
tricts) might be avoided. Under the regu- 
lations detailed above, a head teacher will 
have his three or four pupil-teachers, most 
probably in different years of their appren- 
ticeship, and therefore, though perhaps 
studying the same subject, yet studying 
different stages of it. In another school 
building close at hand, or perhaps in an ad- 
joining department of the same building, 
another head teacher is doing likewise. 
An obvious remedy for this state of things 
suggests itself as applicable in towns, and 
that is the grouping of all the pupil-teachers 
from all the schools within a given radius 
into a central building, where they could 
be organised in classes according to subject 
and year of apprenticeship— in fact, creat- 
ing a pupil-teacher college, to be in session 
for from five to ten hours each week. The 
proposal thus to establish a central system 
of instruction of pupil-teachers was made 
by the London and other School Boards, 
and met with acceptance from the Com- 
mittee of Council, who modified their re- 
gulations so as to admit of a pupil-teacher 
receiving instruction from any certificated 
teacher or other qualified teacher approved 
by them. The schemes of central classes 
which have been carried out by the School 
Boards of London, Liverpool, Birmingham, 
and other towns have been shown in prac- 
tice to possess other advantages besides 
the saving of power and the proper grading 
of the pupil-teachers. The appointment 
of one organising head, or director, of these 
classes, with a staff of teachers (selected 
from among certificated teachers of the 
School Board) who are specially qualified 
to teach each subject, gives a unity of aim 
to the work, and ensures that that work 
shall be of the best, and be equally good 
throughout. By class teaching and class ex- 
aminations the pupil-teachers can measure 
their relative capacity and knowledge, and 
thus a stimulus and a zest are supplied 
which are unknown under the individual 
system. The head teacher of the school 



298 



PURITY IN SCHOOLS 



is not understood to be released from all 
responsibility towards his pujDil-teachers, 
but it is still his duty to instruct them in 
the art of teaching by model and criticism 
lessons, and to exercise tutorial supervi- 
sion over the home lessons prepared for 
the central classes. It has been feared 
by some that the intimate and quasi-pa- 
ternal relationship between head teacher 
and pupil-teacher which is fostered by the 
individual system, and which has great 
value in presence of the youthfulness of 
the pupil-teacher, would be weakened by 
the central system, and there is some 
ground for such fears. But the answer is 
that this tie has been already considerably 
weakened by the mode of selecting can- 
didates for pupil-teachership, which is ne- 
cessitated by the modern conditions under 
which School Boards supply their schools 
with adequate staff. Candidates are no 
longer necessarily or actually taken from 
the more promising scholars of the school, 
nor selected by the head teacher. A school 
in a poor neighbourhood, for instance, 
yields no eligible candidates at all. Then, 
again, it has been felt undesirable to re- 
cruit the ranks of the pupil-teachers en- 
tirely, or even to large extent, from the 
classthat usually attend elementary schools, 
but rather to seek for recruits from among 
the scholars of secondary schools. 

The difficulties surrounding the whole 
working of the pupil-teacher system, the 
meagre intellectual results accruing from 
instruction given by such young and un- 
skilled teachers, the disparity between 
the number of pupil-teachers (28,000) in- 
duced to adopt the profession of teaching, 
to the number with any real aptitude for 
teaching, has led many educationists to ad- 
vocate the entire abolition of the system. 
Purity in Schools. — The question to 
be treated in this article is a difficult and 
delicate one, but it is one of great im- 
portance in connection with education. 
The subject of purity is one that needs 
constant watchfulness on the part of those 
entrusted with the care of the young, and 
it is a cause of thankfulness that they 
have become more alive to the existence 
of dangers connected with it, and the ne- 
cessity of guarding against them. They 
have to steer between two extremes : the 
carelessness which shuts its eyes to evils 
and makes no attempt to counteract them, 
and the overfussiness which never dis- 
misses them from its thoughts, but sus- 



pects them at all times and everywhere. 
The object of this article is rather tO' 
direct the attention to possible dangers,, 
and mention safeguards that have been 
tried, than to pronounce any positive- 
opinions. 

The evil of impurity exists in different 
schools in different forms, which cannot 
be spoken of in an article intended for 
general reading. The following dangers, 
however, are such as may be mentioned, 
and are sometimes overlooked : the mix- 
ing of the young of widely different ages 
in the same school ; the use of unex- 
purgated editions of classical authors ; the 
introduction into a school of the adver- 
tisements of quack-doctors, or of bad pho- 
tographs under apparently innocent titles. 
Precautions may be taken by the pi'oper 
arrangements of closets, lavatoiies, baths, 
above all of dormitories. It is a much 
disputed question whether cubicles or open 
dormitories ai-e the greatest protection 
against evil. It has been suggested as a 
safeguard against the introduction of bad 
printed matter into schools that the out- 
sides of the contents of the letter-bag 
should always pass under the eye of the 
master, so that if any suspicious document 
appears he may require the pupil to open 
it in his presence ; in this way some very 
dangerous attempts against the virtue of 
boys in great public schools have been 
discovered. Expurgated editions of nearly 
all the principal classical authors are pro- 
curable, and are generally used in most of 
the higher schools. It is a vexed question 
to what extent athletics are a safeguard 
and help against the vice of impurity. 

But, after all, if "a low moral tone pre- 
vails in a school the most elaborate pre- 
cautions will be evaded ; the true safe- 
guard is the maintenance of a high moral 
standard on the subject of purity. Vari- 
ous means towards this end have been 
suggested : — 1. A warning addressed by 
a parent to his child before he enters 
school, and from time to time repeated. 
2. A similar warning from a master when 
the boy first comes. 3. Occasional ad- 
dresses from a master to his whole school, 
or to certain sections of it, distributed 
according to age ; this method, however, 
is open to the objection that to boys of 
impure mind it gives occasion for scoff- 
ing comments afterwards. 4. In Church 
schools, warnings at the season of Confir- 
mation, which may often serve to reclaimi 



PURITY IN SCHOOLS QUESTION AND ANSWER 



299 



a boy, but may come too late to preserve 
him from contamination ; in some cases a 
card containing a special promise and 
prayer against tliis particular sin have 
been given at this season. 

A committee of head and assistant 
masters from schools which are repre- 
sented at the Head Masters' Conference, 
or which pi-epare for those schools, has 
been formed under the auspices of the 
Church of England Pnrity Society. The 
committee in 1888 consisted of the follow- 
ing head masters and others : — Rev. G. 
C. Bell (Marlborough) ; Mr. H. M. Draper 
(Lockers Park School, Hemel Hemp- 
stead) ; Rev. J. T. H. Du Boulay (Assist- 
ant Master at Winchester College) ; Rev. 
J. H. Edgar (Temple Grove School, East 
Sheen) ; Hon. and Rev. E. Lyttelton 
(Assistant Master at Eton) ; Rev. J. 
Robertson (Hail ey bury) ; Rev. Dr. Stokoe 
(King's College School, London) ; Rev. R. 
S. Tabor (Cheam) ; Rev. J. E. C. Well- 
don (Harrow) ; Rev. E. C. Wickham 
(Wellington), (Chairman) ; Rev. Dr. Wood 
(Woodbridge) ; Rev. Dr. Blore (late of 
the King's School, Canterbury), (Secre- 
tary). They have issued a printed paper 
which a master may, if he thinks fit, place 
in the hands of a parent before his boy is 
received into the school, calling his atten- 
tion to this particular danger, and the 
advisability of warning his boy against it. 
They have also recommended books giving 
useful hints on the subject of purity, /or 
the use of teachers or parents — viz. School- 
hoy Morality : an Address to Mothers, by 
E. C. P. ; Letter from a Head-Master, 
Purity the true Guard of Manhood ; Your 
Innings, by Rev. George Everard (price 
Is.) ; Moral Education of the Young, by 
Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell ; Paper read at 
the Church Congress, 1884, by (the late) 



Rev. E. 



Thring , 



Morcdity in Pidjlic 



Schools, by the Very Ptev. Dr. Butler, late 
Head-Master of Harrow ; Letter to a Lad, 
Anon. Copies of these and a classified 
list of other books may be obtained from 
the C.E.P.S., 111 Palace Chambers, West- 
minster, S.W. The minimum subscription 
to the Central Society is 5.s. Teachers 
should notice the small periodical The 
Vanguard, Is. ^d. a year post free. Handy 
papers on the subject have been published 
also by the White Cross Society (a list 
may be obtained from Hatchards', 187 
Piccadilly, or from the secretary, Mr. J. 
S. S. Vidal, Museum Close, Oxford), and 
by the Social Purity Alliance (secretary, 
Rev. R. A. Bullen, 33 Vincent Square, 
S.W.). This Alliance admits ladies as 
members and on the committee. Mini- 
mum subscription Is. A further attempt 
is being made by the C.E.P.S. to form a 
committee representing classes of schools 
other than those mentioned. 

In the diocese of Chichester the dio- 
cesan branch of the C.E.P.S. have adopted 
the plan of calling together from time to 
time meetings of masters of all classes 
of schools for papers and discussions on 
purity. In general it may be said that in 
many directions attention is being called 
to this question, and encouraging efforts 
are being made to promote purity in 
schools, and to combat and repress the 
opposite vice. In connection with help- 
ing old pupils, whether boys or gilds, 
especially those leaving villages for em- 
ployment elsewhere, teachers will find it 
useful to communicate with the vaidous 
centralising institutions, such as the Young 
Men's Friendly Society, Girls' F. S., 
Y. M. Christian Association (Exeter Hall, 
Strand, W.C), Central Vigilance Associa- 
tion, and the National Vigilance Associa- 
tion (267 Strand, W.C). 



Q 



ftuadrivium. See Middle^ Ages 
(Schools of). 

Queen's Colleges and Royal Uni- 
versity, Ireland. See Universities. 

Queen's Scholarships. See Certifi- 
cated Teachers. 

Question and Answer. — As has al- 
ready been pointed out in the article on 
* Oral Instruction,' one of the teacher's 



primary objects in putting questions to 
children is to enable him to ascertain what 
they know and the degree of development 
which their various intellectual faculties 
have reached. Until the teacher has learnt 
this he cannot properly proceed either to 
instruct or to train. At the same time 
and by the same means he will ascertain, 
and make evident to the child himself, 



300 



QUESTION AND ANSWER 



what is almost as important, viz. what the 
■child does not know, and what are his 
misconceptions and difficulties. This was 
the general character of Socrates' question- 
ing. When these things have been done, 
the teacher has next to excite the child's 
curiosity and interest, and to set his facul- 
ties to work ; in other words, to induce him 
to make use of what he knows, to take an 
active part in the lesson, and to maintain 
that activity. Here the questions should 
be stimulative, and suggestive of lines and 
modes of thought and inquiry. They 
should also serve to keep the teacher in 
touch with the pupil, and make evident 
whether the latter is following the lesson, 
<ind if so, how far. There are dangers to 
be avoided in beth these kinds of ques- 
tioning. By the former (the Socratic) the 
pupil will learn that many things are not 
so simple as he had thought, and that much 
which he thought he knew he does not 
know. There is great danger that he may 
grow bewildered and disheai'tened in con- 
sequence. Care, therefore, must be taken 
to avoid this. It will be enough if he 
learns somewhat of the value of scrupu- 
lous accuracy, and of the I'ashness of gene- 
ralising witiiout sufficient facts, and dog- 
matising without sufficient consideration. 
In the second case there is danger of creat- 
ing too great surprise and wonderment, of 
raising undue expectations, of running otf 
on side issues, of over-stimulation and over- 
suggestion. We do not want the child to 
depend too much on external stimulus, nor 
should we interfere too far with its self- 
activity. Care again is manifestly needed 
here. It will be readily seen that ques- 
tions should be simply worded, perfectly 
clear and unambiguous in meaning, and 
as briefly expressed as possible, so that 
they may be quickly grasped and easily 
borne in mind. They should never sug- 
gest their own answers. It is rarely wise 
to ask questions which can be answered by 
a mere 'yes' or 'no'; and to make an asser- 
tion and leave the pupil to till up the last 
word, is a bad plan ; nor should the ques- 
tions be such, as a rule, as can be answered 
by a bi'oken, incomplete sentence, or by a 
single disconnected word. Answers of this 
kind should not be accepted. Questions 
should not be too wide and comprehen- 
sive, as ' What happened in the reign of 
Elizabeth ? ' but definite and directed to a 



point ; logically and naturally connected, 
both with the answer just given and with 
previous questions and those which are to 
follow; connected also with the general 
aim of the lesspn. In general the ques- 
tion ' Why 1 ' should be used with caution. 
It is liable in many cases to lead to answers 
very incomplete, or to mere guessing ; in 
fact, it frequently asks for more than a 
teacher can reasonably expect to have 
answered. Questions should be well dis- 
tributed throughout a class, and collective 
answering allowed as sparingly as possible. 
As a rule, when the questions refer to past 
work and to the general theme of the 
lesson they may be answered collectively ; 
but tliey should not be so answered when 
they are used to elucidate a particular point 
or to work out a particular argument. The 
teacher will find it a great help when fram- 
ing his questions to imagine the answers 
which may be fairly given to them to be 
written out consecutively. When so written 
they should form an intelligible, logically 
connected outline of the lesson. If a ques- 
tion fails to get an answer, put the inquiry 
in another way, or break up the question 
into a string of simpler questions leading 
up to the original inquiry. If the class 
remains obstinately dumb, or the answers 
are random and foolish, then the discipline 
is wrong somewhere, or the class has not 
been interested, or the matter in hand is 
entirely beyond them. Often, however, 
a pupil's bad answer is a teacher's oppor- 
tunity — laotfor 'scoring off' the delinquent, 
which is usually unwise — but for proving 
his point by logically working out the 
wrong answer and showing its untenable- 
ness. It is of course unnecessary to state 
that a picpil's questions, as long as they 
are fairly to the point and fairly reason- 
able, should I'eceive due attention ; indeed, 
if no questions are asked by the pupils we 
may be sure that they are not ijiterested. 
But if the questions are premature, or 
random, or foolish, it is better to leave the 
answering of them to the end of the lesson, 
by which time they will have answered 
themselves, or have been seen to be use- 
less, or may be dealt with as disorderly. 
From what has been said it will be mani- 
fest that books written in the form of ques- 
tion and answer are useless. For oral ex- 
aminatioyi questions see Viva Voce ; for 
loritten questions see Examinations. 



RAGGED SCHOOLS 



301 



B 



Raggfed Schools, which in London owe 
their existence chiefly to the exertions of 
the seventli Earl of Shaftesbury, when 
Lord Ashley (see Bioo;raphie*, byE. Hod- 
der, 1886, Cassell & Co., 36s., or 7s. 6d.; 
G. H. Pike, 1884, Partridge & Co., Is. ; 
and John Kirton, 1886, Ward & Lock, 
2.5. 6d.). have for their object the educa- 
tion and benefit of the most indisfent poor 
of all ao;es. The Ragged School Union, 
with wliich the London schools generally 
are affiliated, has its headquarters at 
Exeter Hall (Strand, W.C, John Kirk, 
sec). Fi'om the beginning, in 1844, till 
his death, Lord Shaftesbury was president. 
The objects of the Union are (1) to assist 
individual schools by money grants ; 
(2) to collect and disseminate information 
such as teachers can utilise, and to enlist 
the co-operation of the public ; and (3) by 
means of special visitations, &c., to take 
notice of progress made, and to suggest 
improvements in the management of the 
schools and their mission branches. Re- 
ligious teaching has to be given in all the 
schools assisted, the Authorised Version of 
the Scriptures used, and the instruction 
must be free. 

Ragged schools are generally supposed 
to have had their origin in Scotland ; but 
although not at first known as such, in- 
stitutions exactly corresponding to those 
subsequently recognised as ragged schools 
were founded in London by the quondam 
soldier, Thomas Cranfield (see Life, The 
Useful Christian, R. T. S., Is. 6d.), and 
in Germany by John Falk, of whom some 
account was published at Weimar in 1868, 
while references to the man and his work 
occur in the Life of the German publisher, 
Frederick Perthes. These men were 
merely pioneers, however. Even the work 
commenced bv Robert Raikes (see Bio- 
graphies, by Gregory, Hodder & Stough- 
ton, 1877, '2s. 6d. ; Paxton Hood, The 
Day, the Hook, and the Teacher, Sunday 
School Union, 1880, 2s. 6c?.) at Gloucester 
was very similar in character ; while the 
picture which Cowper gives of street- 
children at Olney shows that such classes 
would have been essentially what has come 
to be known as of the ' ragged ' type. 

John Falk, 1768-1826, who has been 
called the original 'ragged-school master,' 



was both an exemplar in his calling and 
an enthusiast. At the close of the great 
European war, the naturally great num- 
bers of soldiers' orphans in a shocking con- 
dition attracted Falk's attention. Instead 
of allowing them to lapse into crime and ta 
fill the prisons, Falk attempted to give them 
a better kind of discipline, and with such 
success that he could soon say: ' The chil- 
dren of robbers and murderers sing psalms 
and pray ; boys are making locks out of 
the insulting iron which was destined for 
their hands and feet; and are building 
houses which they formerly delighted to- 
break open. . . . Where chains and stocks, 
the lash and the prison, were powerless, 
Love comes off victorious.' This famous 
saying is the key to the ragged school 
method. 

Some years before, Cranfield had com- 
menced work in the slums of South 
London, and the Camberwell Ragged 
School Mission, Toulon Street, S.E., is a, 
continuation of his labours. Later on, 
came the operations at Aberdeen and 
Edinburgh, which interested the Queen 
and Prince Consort. Thomas Guthrie's 
Plea for Bagged Schools drew forth aix 
encomium from Lord Jeffrey, and ap- 
peared in 1847. This was followed ten 
years later by The City : its Sins and its 
Sorrows ; and in 1860 by Seedtime and 
Harvest. A ragged school was opened 
in Rome soon after the political changes 
of 1870. 

The pioneers of forty years ago devoted 
their energies chiefly to the establishment, 
of day-schools ; but at present, conse- 
quent upon the development of the work 
of School Boards, set in motion by the- 
Act of 1870, they are becoming more and 
more a necessary supplementary agency 
to the work undertaken by the State. In- 
creased attention is not only being given 
to religious teaching on the Sabbath, but, 
by means of a number of parental agen- 
cies which are maintained throughout the 
week, endeavours are made to educate the 
whole moral nature of the children. It is 
also sought to maintain a hold on elder 
scholars who are above school age, in ad- 
dition to a large amount of adult work. 
There were in 1888 regularly gathered, 
week by week at least 48,000 children 



302 



RAGGED SCHOOLS RAIKES, ROBERT 



in the 238 ragged Sunday schools of 
London ; and this fact alone shows why 
they can never altogether be superseded 
by Board schools. The Universities Settle- 
ments {q-v.) are extensions of the idea {see 
articles Pauper Education, Waifs, &c.). 
Typical schools, in addition to those 
already mentioned, would be found at 
Sermon Lane, Liverpool Road, Islington ; 
Ogle Mews, Foley Street, Portland Place, 
W. ; George Yard, High Street, White- 
chapel ; King Edward Street, Spitalfields ; 
Christ Church, Watney Street, E. ; St. 
Thomas's, Waterloo Road ; Field Lane, 
Yine Street, Clerkenwell, &c., &c. 

The modern ragged school has deve- 
loped many varied agencies. Thus, the 
iirst Shoeblack Brigade was founded by 
Mr. J. Macgregor ('Rob Roy'), in 1851 ; 
and in London alone in 1888 there were 
between 300 and 400 lads who found em- 
ployment (Central Red Brigade, Saffron 
Hill, Holborn), whose earnings were about 
11,000?. a year. Mr. W. J. Ossman's 
work at Costers' Hall, High Street, Hox- 
ton, which has vastly helped the street- 
vendors ; Mr. George Hatton's striking 
sexwice in the reclamation of thieves, 
Brooke Street, Holborn, and branches in 
St. Giles's ; Mr. Charrington's Hall (Mile 
End Road), for seating 6,000 persons, with 
-coffee-palace, book-saloon, and recreation 
rooms attached ; and Dr. Barnardo's ex- 
tensive operations in the rescue of desti- 
tute children (Stepney Causeway and 
branches), not to mention many others 
■■{see article Waifs and Strays), are all 
•developments of the many-sided ragged- 
•school enterprise. Indeed, the branches 
■which the original tree has put forth are 
very numerous, e.g. industrial classes, 
•evening recreation rooms, school exhibi- 
tions, summer holidays at suitably ap- 
pointed country homes, clubs for the 
encouragement of thrift, libraries, penny 
banks, breakfasts and dinners for children 
in winter, Sunday morning breakfasts for 
the destitute, &c. The history of any 
school in London can be learned at Exeter 
Hall, Strand, where also a complete list 
of the schools can be had. Large towns, 
such as Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, 
<fcc. have unions of their own, and there 
a,re few of the larger provincial towns 
■without one or more ragged schools. 

Ragged schools are still being rapidly 
adapted to the altered circumstances of 
the times. ' The Shaftesbury Fund ' is 



specially intended to promote the rebuild- 
ing or improvement of unsuitable school- 
houses. The buildings were exempted from 
rates about twenty years ago. The gene- 
ral results of ragged-school operations 
were summed up by the late Lord Shaftes- 
bury when he said that the L^nion had 
up to that time been instrumental in sav- 
ing 300,000 children from lapsing into 
courses of crime. 

While it will be impossible to give a 
complete bibliography of the subject, men- 
tion may be made of the annual volumes 
of the Ragged School Union Magazine 
(Kent & Co., 2^. M., 1849-75), in which 
articles on the social, political, and reli- 
gious aspect of ragged-school teaching 
may be found. The Qioarterly Record 
(12 vols., 1876-87) is a continuation of 
the above ; and a new series. In His 
Name, was commenced in 1888 (J. F. 
Shaw ifc Co., one penny monthly). See 
also Report of Conference in 1883 ; also 
Report of the pi-oceedings on Lord Shaftes- 
bury's 80th birthday (R. S. U., Strand, 
W.C.). Pike's Pity for the Perishing 
(Clarke & Co., 1885, 3s. Qd.) describes the 
work at several centres. Saving to the 
Uttermost (Hodder & Stoughton, 1885, 
2s. 6(i.) deals with work in St. Giles's and 
among thieves. See also The Harvests of 
the C'ii!y, by Pearl Fisher, 3s. &d. (J.F. Shaw 
(fe Co.) ; Recollections of John Pounds 
(Williams & Norgate, 1884, 5s.) 

Raikes, Robert (1736 - 1811), the 
founder of Sunday Schools (q.v.), was a 
native of Bristol, and proprietor of the 
Gloucester Journal. Actuated by a desire 
to eradicate ignorance and vice, which he 
found rampant in the immediate vicinity 
of the local gaol of his native city, he de- 
termined to trace the moral malady to its 
primitive source. He discovered that in 
early life the education of those whom he 
found the inmates of gaols had been totally 
neglected; that they had never received any 
mental or religious instruction ; and as a 
natural consequence he was led to infer 
that succeeding generations if trained in 
equal ignorance would probably prove 
equally vicious. Children at a tender age 
were sent to work on week days, and Sun- 
days were devoted wholly to wickedness. 
He determined, if possible, to check this 
state of matters. In 1780 he made his 
first attempt at a Sunday school, and it 
soon awakened considerable attention. For 
nearly thirty years he continued to be 



RAMUS, PETER RAUMER, KARL GEORG VON 



303 



■actively engaged in the promotion of the 
undei'taking, and he lived to witness its 
extension throughout England. A statue 
-\vas erected to his memory on the Thames 
Embankment on the occasion of the cele- 
bration of the Sunday Schools Centenary 
in 1880. 

Ramus, Peter, ^S'ee Reformation. 
Rates (School Board). — Board schools 
are supported partly by Government grants 
{q-v.), partly by school fees paid by the 
ohildi^en, and partly by the local School 
Board rates. Mr. Foi'ster, in introducing 
the Education Act of 1870, expressed the 
opinion that the administration of that 
measure would not impose upon the rate- 
payers a heavier burden than an average 
rate of "id. in the pound. This estimate 
is frequently quoted by adverse critics of 
School Board finance. Mr. Forster, how- 
ever, after some experience of the working 
of the Act, admitted that when he formed 
his estimate of the ?>d. rate he had at the 
same time greatly under-estimated the 
educational destitution of the country, of 
which he had formed no adequate idea 
until after the Act came into operation. 
The average School Board rate in England 
in 1885-86 was 7d ; in 1884-85 it was 
6'6fZ. ; in 1883-84, 6-3c?. ; so that in three 
years the increase was 'Id. At the same 
time, however, the average number of chil- 
dren attending Board schools increased by 
130,132. The total expenditure in 1886-87 
for School Board purposes in England 
amounted to 5,124,66U. Of this total 
2,442,347^., or 47'7 per cent., was raised 
out of the local rates. 

Ratich, Wolfgang (from Ratichius, 
the latinised form of Ratke), (1571-1635), 
is well known for his plan of teaching lan- 
guage, which created so much interest in 
Germany and elsewhere at the time of its 
publication. The following are some of 
the general principles or maxims on which 
Ratke based his practice. They are highly 
suggestive, but must be given here with- 
out comment : 1. Everything after the 
order and course of nature. 2. Only one 
thing at a time. 3. One thing should be 
often repeated. 4. Everything first in the 
mother tongue. 5. Everything without 
compulsion. 6. Nothing should be learnt 
by rote ; if thoroughly understood and 
made familiar a thing will be remembered, 
as far as it is necessary to remember it, 
without rote-learning. 7. Due time should 
be allowed for recreation, and there should 



be breaks between lessons. 8. Mutual 
conformity (of method) in everything, e.g. 
all grammars should be on the same plan, 
and universal grammar should be learnt 
in connection with the modern tongue. 
9. First the thing itself, and afterwards 
what explains the thing — e.g. first the 
material for a rule, and then the rule ; or 
again, first a circle exhibited, and then its 
properties and definitions. 10. Everything 
by experiment and analysis. It has been 
the way with some to laugh at Ratke and 
to call him a charlatan. But Ratke was 
no fool. On the contrary, he was full of 
insight and originality, and possessed some 
of the very highest qualities of a skilful 
teacher. (See Dr. Henry Barnard's Ger- 
man Teachers and Educators.) 
Ratio Studiorum. See Jesuits. 
Raumer, Karl Georg von ib. 1783, 
d. 1865). — An eminent German writer on 
ptedagogy, as well as on geology and geo- 
graphy. While studying in Paris in 1808 
he became acquainted with the writings 
of Pestalozzi, and was so much struck with 
the improved method that reformer was 
introducing in teaching that he aban- 
doned the mineralogical and other scien- 
tific studies he had up to that year been 
pursuing, and proceeded direct from the 
French capital to Iserten, where he acted 
as voluntary assistant in Pestalozzi's es- 
tablishment from October 1808 to April 
1809. He then returned to Germany with 
his enthusiasm somewhat sobered, but ever 
afterwards devoted a large share of atten- 
tion to educational affairs. He was pro- 
fessor of geology, natural history, &c., 
successively at Breslau, Halle, and Erlan- 
gen, at which last place he died. The four 
years from 1823 to 1827 he spent as assis- 
tant to Dittmar at his educational esta- 
blishment at Nuremberg, where he also 
founded an institution for the rescue and 
education of orphan and deserted boys. 
He was the author of numerous writings 
on several departments of the natural sci- 
ences, especially geology, geography, and 
geognosy, but his most important work 
was his Gescliichte der PddagogiJc vom 
Wiederaufbluhen klassischer Studien bis 
auf unsere Zeit, originally published in 
three volumes between 1843 and 1851. 
In 1877 a fifth edition appeared in four 
volumes. This is one of the most valuable 
treatises ever published in the German 
language on the subject it deals with, and 
has been translated into English under 



304 



READER (UNIVERSITY) READING 



the title of History of Pcedagogy from the 
Bevival of Classical Studies down to our 
oton Times. Although somewhat one- 
sided in dealing with theological matters, 
Von Ranmer's treatise in the main shows 
such sound judgment and contains such 
numerous quotations from original docu- 
ments and the older writers that it must 
long remain a standard work on pseda- 
gogy. The section on Die ErzieMcng 
der Mddchen (education of girls) was pub- 
lished separately in 1869, reaching a third 
edition in 1866. The chapters on Dexitsclier 
Unterricht (German instruction) were also 
edited and published as a separate work 
by the author's son, Rudolph von Raumer 
(h. 1815, d. 1875), professor of the German 
language and literature at Erlangen. The 
autobiography of Karl von Raumer (A"". 
V. Raumer's Lehen von ihm selhst erzdhlt) 
was also published after the author's death 
in 1866. Friedrich von Raumer, the cele- 
brated historian (b. 1781, d. 1873), was a 
brother of Karl von Raumer. 

Reader (University). — A university 
reader is practically a professor at Oxford 
and Cambridge. Readerships are out- 
comes of the last Commission. The stipend 
is generally about 300?. a year, the common 
funds being supplied by a kind of college 
income tax. For names and details see 
University Calendars. 

Reading, — Reading ' is the art of pro- 
nouncing words at sight of their visible 
characters ' (Bain) ; the process of ' learn- 
ing to recognise in written signs words 
which are already familiar to the learner 
in spoken language' (Currie). The eye 
and the ear of the pupil must be exercised 
together on the forms and sounds of letters 
and words ; and at an early stage the sense 
of the matter will come in aid of the sheer 
efforts of memory to retain the discrimina- 
tions of eye and ear. Certain general 
preliminary conditions are accepted by 
most theorists : — (1) Before beginning to 
read the child should have considerable 
practice and facility of distinct enuncia- 
tion of the vocabulary of early childhood ; 

(2) the first reading lessons ought to be 
formed from matter and words within the 
child's familiar knowledge and experience ; 

(3) they should be composed of complete 
sentences, precisely as the spoken language 
which the child knows consists of complete 
sentences. But at this point the general 
agreement ceases, and there is a division 
of methods. 



I. The Alphabetic Method. — This me- 
thod is so called ' because it associates- 
the sound of a word with its sign through 
the medium of the series of its letter- 
names, taken either collectively or sylla- 
bically.' The alphabet is first taken up. 
The first act is to distinguish the letters 
by the eye, and especially to discriminate 
such as are nearly alike — a process which 
is effectively helped forward by writing or 
drawing. Concurrently with this proceed- 
ing the child connects with the printed 
characters or letters their names, or vocal 
representations. The practice of giving^ 
the child small tablets, each of which has 
a letter on one side and a figure (of a well- 
known animal or other object whose name 
commences with that letter) on the other, 
is of ancient origin. Quintilian ' recom- 
mends the use of letters in ivory, which 
children take pleasure in handling, seeing, 
and naming' (Compayre's History of Po',- 
dagogy, transl. by Professor W. H. Payne, 
p. 49). St. Jerome similarly writes : 
'Put into the hands of Paula letters in 
wood or in ivory, and teach her the names- 
of them. She will thus learn while play- 
ing. But it will not suffice to have her 
merely memorize the names of the letters, 
and call them in succession as they stand 
in the alphabet. You should often mix 
them, putting the last first, and the first 
in the middle. Induce her to construct 
words by ofiering her a prize, or by giving 
her, as a reward, what ordinarily pleases- 
children of her age. Let her have com- 
panions, so that the commendation she 
may receive may excite in her the feeling^ 
of emulation ' (ibid. p. 67). Ei'asmus men- 
tions that 'the ancients moulded tooth- 
some dainties into the forms of the letters,, 
and thus, as it were, made children swal- 
low the alphabet ' (ibid. p. 90). The same 
view is taken by Locke : ' Give me leave 
here,' he says [Thoughts on Education), 
' to inculcate again what is very apt to be- 
forgotten — viz. that great care is to be 
taken that it be never made as a business- 
to him, nor he look on it as a task. I have 
always had a fancy that learning might- 
be made a play and recreation to children, 
and that they might be brought to desire 
to be taught, if it were proposed to them 
as a thing of honour, credit, delight, andl 
recreation, or as a reward for doing some- 
thing else. . . . Children should not have 
anything like work, or serious, laid on 
them ; neither their minds nor their bodies 



READING 



305 



will bear it. It injures tlieir healths ; and 
their being forced and tied down to their 
books, in an age at enmity with all such 
restraint, has, I doubt not, been the reason 
why a great many have hated books and 
learning all their lives after.' If possible, 
then, the judicious teacher will wile the 
child into learning to read, while it sup- 
poses it is simply playing. ' I know a 
person of great quality,' Locke goes on to 
eay, ' who, by pasting on the six vowels 
(for in our language y is one) on the six 
sides of a die, and the remaining eighteen 
consonants on the sides of three other dice, 
has made this a play for his children, that 
he shall win who, at one cast, throws most 
words on these four dice ; whereby his 
eldest son, yet in coats, has played him- 
self into spelling with great eagerness, and 
without once having been chid for it, or 
forced to it. . . . When by these gentle 
ways he begins to be able to read, some 
easy, pleasant book, suited to his capacity, 
should be put into his hands, wherein the 
entertainment that he finds might draw 
him on, and reward his pains in reading. 
To this purpose I think -i^sop's Fables the 
best, which, being stories apt to delight 
and entertain a child, may yet afford 
useful reflections to a grown man ; and if 
his memory retain them all his life after, 
he will not repent to find them there, 
amongst his manly thoughts and serious 
business. If his ^sop has pictures in it 
it will entertain him much the better, and 
encourage him to read, when it carries the 
increase of knowledge with it ; for such 
visible objects children hear talked of in 
vain, and without any satisfaction, whilst 
they have no ideas of them ; those ideas 
being not to be had from sounds, but from 
the things themselves or their pictures. 
And, therefore, I think, as soon as he be- 
gins to spell, as many pictures of animals 
should be got him as can be found, with 
the printed names of them, which at the 
same time will invite him to read and 
afford him matter of inquiry and know- 
ledge. And, if those about him will talk 
to him often about the stories he has read, 
and hear him tell them, it will, besides 
other advantages, add encouragement and 
delight to his reading when he finds there 
is some use and pleasure in it.' Locke 
does not seem to appreciate the difficulty 
that modern educationists have found in 
bridging the chasm between individual 
letters and letters as joined in syllables. 



He, no doubt, contemplates a much more 
deliberate study than is now permitted to 
children in these days of steam-pressure 
and ' standards.' The combining opera- 
tion at once brings us face to face Avith 
the consideration that the conventional 
names of the individual letters, when re- 
peated in succession, hardly ever give any- 
thing even approaching to the conven- 
tional sound of the particular word or 
syllable : rat, as pronounced, is not recog- 
nisable in r, a, t (ar-a-tee), as spelled. Still, 
a certain association is very rapidly formed, 
and this association is certainly suggestive. 
But the plain fact is, that this method is 
not, and is not designed to be, a pure 
reading method ; it is 'a method for teach- 
ing reading and spelling simultaneously, 
and the reading through the spelling.' Dr. 
Currie points out clearly the real difficulty. 
' That these branches should be taught 
together,' he says {Cominon School Educa- 
tion, par. 278), ' is obvious, since the labour 
requisite for learning the one may all be 
made available for learning the other. The 
objection to this method is, not that it 
combines the two, but that it does so in 
an unnatural and awkward manner ; so 
that, instead of helping, they interfere 
with each another. Spelling rests on a 
habit of the eye, which is best acquired 
as the result of reading ; this method, 
which inverts their proper relation, not 
only deprives the learner of the natural 
facilities which reading gives for spelling, 
but distracts his attention from the one 
thing with which he is supposed to be 
occupied, the reading.' The difficulty was 
recognised in the JPort Royal method. 
' What makes reading more difficult,' says 
Arnauld {General Grammar, chap, vi.), ' is 
that, while each letter has its own proper 
name, it is given a different name when 
it is found associated with other letters. 
For example, if the pupil is made to read 
the syllable/ny, he is made to say ef-ar-y, 
which invariably confuses him. It is best, 
therefore, to teach children to know the 
letters only by the name of their real pro- 
nunciation, to name them only by their 
natural sounds.' He proposes, then, ' to 
have children pronounce only the vowels 
and the diphthongs, and not the conso- 
nants, which they need not pronounce 
except in the different combinations which 
they form with the same vowels or diph- 
thongs, in syllables or words.' This brings 
us to the second method. 



306 



READING 



■ II. The Phonic Method. — This metliod 
differs from the alphabetic in associating 
the sound of the word with the letter 
sounds composing it, instead of with the 
letter names. It claims two conditions, 
however, as necessary for its efficient work- 
ing : (1) 'It does not subject to phonic 
analysis those monosyllabic words which 
the child has occasion to learn first, be- 
cause they are for the most part anomalous 
in their sound'; and (2) 'when it does 
enter upon analysis it groups the words of 
the language according to the vowel or 
diphthong sounds which they embody, that 
the learner may have all the help which re- 
sults from classification' (Currie). Tlu-ee 
objections ha vebeen offered to this method: 
(1) An exhaustive classification leads to a 
great complexity of rules, and, when all is 
done, no inconsiderable part of the lan- 
guage is left outside the rules. This objec- 
tion applies Avith much greater force to 
English, which is phonically very irregular, 
than to such a language as German, whose 
phonic structure is regular. (2) Even with- 
in the regularities of the alphabet the 
aggregate of the sounds of the letters in a 
Avord does not really suggest the sound of 
the word itself ; it makes just a little nearer 
approach to this result than is attained by 
the alphabetic method. ' The pupil is ex- 
pected,' says Dr. Currie (par. 279), 'to 
aiTive at the sound of the word hat, for 
example, through this analysis, he-a-te (the 
two consonants being uttered upon a sound 
here denoted by e, but which is in reality 
something lilce the sound of the e in French, 
or the ^^, in hut). This threefold sound 
may be a nearer approach to the single 
sound of hat than the threefold hee-a-tee 
of the alphabetic method, but it certainly 
does not constitute that sound. In fact 
it cannot.' (3) The third objection 'lies 
against its whole principle. It does not 
follow that, because the words of a lan- 
guage may have their sounds analysed and 
classified, the way to learn to read lies 
through this analysis and classification. 
Whether it does or not depends on the 
mental circumstances of the learner ' 
(Currie, par. 279). 

III. The Phonetic Method. — This 
method meets the irregularities of the 
alphabet by employing for a time a special 
alphabet provided with characters repre- 
senting all the sounds of the language, and 
each possessing a uniform power. After 
a course of discipline in this alphabet the 



child is transferred to the ordinary letters 
by being set to read from a book printed 
in the ordinary letters the same lessons as 
he has already learned in the phonetic 
characters. Against this method has been 
urged the same objection to its principle 
as we have seen urged against the phonic 
method, as well as two special objections : 
(1) It does not overcome, but only delays, 
the difficulty of mastering the irregulari- 
ties ; and (2) if introduced at all it would 
require to be introdu.ced universally. Cer- 
tain modifications have been proposed in 
obviation of these objections, such as special 
markings to difterentiate the vowel sounds, 
and special modes of printing the difficult 
letters. But these would seem only to 
add to the young learner's confusion. 

TV. The ' Look-and-Say ' Method, or, 
Eeadiyig tvithout Spelling. — This method 
directly associates the sound of the word 
Avith its form taken as a Avhole (see article 
Look-and-Say). The learner sees the Avord 
as he hears it — as a Avliole. Continuously, 
as his experience adA^ances, he analyses the 
repeated association of sounds Avith signs, 
unconsciously perhaps at first, pei'haps 
Avithout much pointed attention at any 
time. ' This instinctiA^e phonic induction 
he in\'aribly makes for himself.' And the 
teacher may silently assist this operation 
of induction by grouping resemblances or 
directing special attention to such. ' This 
is phonic comparison, but it is a process 
very different from that contemplated in 
the " Phonic Method '" (Currie, 281). 

In the system of Professor Jacotot this 
method Avas carried to a harsh extreme of 
practice, and Avas required to produce other 
important educational results besides mere 
reading. Jacotot advocated the principle, 
' Learn something thoroughly, and [ refer 
CA^erything else to it.' The pupil therefore 
is at once required to apply this principle, 
and is thus from the very outset compelled 
to obserA'e likeness and unlikeness of words, 
' to exercise his judgment, to analyse, to 
generalise, and, in short, to bring into play 
nearly the Avhole of his intellectual facul- 
ties.' Jacotot puts aside the usual appara- 
tus of alphabets, primer, spelling-book, first 
reader, and so forth, and engages his pupil 
at once on some standard classical Avork, 
Eenelon's THemaque for Erench children. 
Take the opening sentence : ' The grief of 
Calypso for the departure of Ulysses Avould 
admit of no comfort.' The teacher points 
to 'The,' and pronounces it very distinctly, 



READING 



307 



and the pupil repeats it after him. He 
then starts again and adds on the next 
word, ' The grief,' and the pupil repeats 
the two words after him. In like manner 
the third stage of trial includes the third 
word, and the fourth the fourth word, each 
stage having started from the beginning. 
The teacher now pauses, and exercises the 
pupil thoroughly in pointing out now this 
now that word, until he can infallibly dis- 
tinguish them. The book is then opened 
at random, and the teacher points to some 
particular sentence, and requires the pupil 
to state whether he can recognise any one 
of his four words there. Assuming that 
the four words are thoroughly known, the 
teacher proceeds with the remaining words 
in the same way, always starting from the 
first. ' The process of interrogation pur- 
sued at the end of the first four words is 
repeated with each word of the sentence 
until the child learns accurately to distin- 
guish those words which are different, to 
recognise the likeness between those which 
are similar, and to point out any word of 
this sentence in any page of the book that 
may be opened before him.' The teacher, 
having finished the sentence, now breaks 
up the words of more than one syllable 
into their component syllables, requiring 
the pupil to distinguish the syllables just 
as he distinguished the words ; and by- 
and-by the same plan is applied to the 
letters. After a little the teacher ceases 
to pronounce the words first, and requires 
the pupil to attack his sentence with the 
training he has received, helping him only 
ill cases where new words or syllables crop 
up. ' Still, however, he must recommence 
toith the first loord learned, as it is by this 
means only that all his previous acquisi- 
tions are permanently retained. He soon 
begins to have the first three or four 
sentences thus so frequently repeated 
impressed on his memory, and is told 
to spell them, dividing them into their 
component syllables and letters from re- 
collection. After about sixty lines have 
thus been gone through, he cannot fail to 
be acquainted with nearly all, if not all, 
the letters of the alphabet, and with a vast 
variety of their combinations. It is in- 
deed considered that he is now taught to 
read. If any hesitation, indicative of im- 
perfect perception, is evident in the pupil, 
the master must return to the same 
words, syllables, or letters, until they are 
thoroughly distinguished and compre- 



hended. By this means every new ac- 
quisition becomes permanent, and every 
effort brings with it the proof of some 
progress. Hence there is no lost labour. 
If the pupil should learn only one word 
in an hour, yet is that word for ever 
leai-ned and indelibly stamped on the 
memory by the incessant rejyetition of the 
first thing required, which is the very life 
of the system. The pupil is never to be 
assisted except in what is introduced to 
his notice for the first time. . . . The ob- 
ject of the process desci-ibed is simply to 
make the pupil acquainted with the forms 
of words, syllables, and letters. What 
may be called declamatory reading is re- 
served for a more advanced stage of his 
progress, and the general rule given for 
the attainment of it is Bead as you looidd 
speak ' (J. Payne, Lectures on Education, 
pp. 349-351). 

V. The Phonic - Ancdytic Method. — 
For all the warmth that is sometimes de- 
veloped for or against the foregoing me- 
thods, there is practically not much differ- 
ence between them. The great thing is to 
hold by the principle that 'the acquisition 
of both sound and sign should be based on 
a perception of the sense.' Perhaps the 
best of all methods is constructed from, 
hints collected from all the preceding me- 
thods. This is the method of 'reading 
without spelling,' ' preceded by oral in- 
struction in the use of words and in the 
forms of the letters, and supplemented after 
a time by a certain kind of phonic com- 
parison.' It has been called the 'Phonic- 
Analytic ' method ; but Dr. Currie (who 
describes it admirably, par. 282) is con- 
tent to call it simply ' Reading without 
Spelling,' in order to avoid confusion with 
the ' Phonic ' method. It is exemplified 
with most careful elaboration in Professor 
Murison's Globe Readers (Macmillan). 

Passing beyond the mere mechanical 
exercise of reading, we proceed towards 
Elocution (q.v.) Reading, to be good, 
must be intelligent and expressive — that 
is, it must bi'ing out the sense of the 
matter, and do so with effect through 
skilful use of the tones of the voice. In- 
telligent I'eading is forwarded by every- 
thing that exercises and increases the 
power of the mind. Expressive reading 
has been analysed into the following chief 
elements : puiuty of utterance, distinct- 
ness of utterance, correctness of accent, 
deliberateness, correctness of pitch, modu- 

x2 



308 



READING BEALSCHULE 



lation, fluency or facility. Instruction, 
imitation, and practice ai'e all necessary 
conditions of success. 

Simnltaneoiis reading rests on the 
principle ' that the inferior readers of a 
class are compelled for the time to con- 
form to the standard of the better readers.' 
It secures distinctness ; it improves the 
rate, slowing the quick reader and quick- 
ening the slow ; and it tends to remove 
asperities of tone and modulation (Currie, 
291). With us the process is not profit- 
ably resorted to before the pupils have 
attained some mastery over the difficulties 
of reading. M. Renan states [Vie de 
Jesus) that Jesus doubtless learned to read 
and write according to the method of the 
East, which consists in putting into the 
hands of the child a book, which he re- 
peats in concert with his comrades till 
he knows it by heart (Compayre, transl. 
Payne, p. 10). 

The German methods of teaching read- 
ing sin more seriously than our own in 
mixing up with the strict reading exercise 
a number of other educational purposes, 
all good in themselves, but in this par- 
ticular case misplaced. The following 
passage from Mr. C. C. Perry's Reports on 
German Elementary Schools and Training 
Colleges (Rivingtons) is of much interest 
in this coianection : ' The reading-book,' 
says Mr. Perry (p. 103), 'occupies a cen- 
tral position in the instruction of the 
language. An especially thorough treat- 
ment is given to the normal subject-matter 
contained in the reading-book, as well as 
to the extracts intended for repetition, in 
the selection of which form, contents, 
and authors are to be the main considera- 
tions. With respect to the form, the pieces 
selected must represent the most important 
species of style, as well as the chief kinds 
of poetry. Their contents must be calcu- 
lated to foster an ideal tendency in a boy's 
spirit, and to enlarge his range of thought, 
to render his mind active, and give a 
lasting impulse to his will. Amongst the 
authors, none of the more important na- 
tional Avi'iters who are represented in the 
reading-book must remain unnoticed. The 
treatment which should be given to the 
pieces selected principally consists in (1) 
good reading on the part of the teacher ; 
(2) explanation of difficult expressions, 
figurative modes of speech, etc. ; (3) re- 
peated reading, in which special attention 
is to be given to correct emphasis and ex- 



pressive delivery; (4) stating the main 
contents of a piece, and following out the 
difierent ti-ains of thought ; (5) a free and 
independent rendering of the contents 
(either in a concise or compressed form, 
or adding what can be read between the 
lines, paraphrasing the passage, putting it 
in different order, using different expres- 
sions, etc.); (6) written and oral exercises 
set in connection with the subject (such as 
imitations of style, detailed explanations 
of diffei'ent expressions, synonyms, com- 
parisons of two extracts, etc.) Requisite 
information is also to be given as to the 
form of the piece and its author. A 
number of the poems which have been 
discussed, especially those of a narrative 
form, are to be learned by heart. The re- 
maining contents of the reading-book 
form the general reading material. They 
include, especially, extracts on history, 
geography, natural science, which serve to 
illustrate the instruction in these subjects, 
and are, as far as possible, to be treated in 
connection with them. Pupils must always 
read with correct pronunciation, logical 
accuracy, a good accent, and in an agree- 
able tone.' {See Elocution.) 

Realschule. — The Realschule is essen- 
tially a product of the nineteenth century. 
The political condition of Germany during 
the last decade of the eighteenth and the 
first of the nineteenth cetitury, the impulse 
given to education by Pestalozzi, the fall 
of Napoleon, and restoration of general 
peace and prospei'ity — these were all fac- 
tors in the movement. A general need 
was felt for 'modern education,' which 
should meet the requirements of a society 
in which art, science, trade, and industries 
were making rapid strides. There were 
many attempts at solving the educational 
problem of the times. In some places the 
municipal authorities founded 7ioAere^»'r- 
gerschiden. The Bavarian Government 
opened Bealsclmlen (1808). In other 
places the experiment of grafting modern 
subjects on to the old classical school 
(Gymnasiton) vra,s tried, but without much 
success. It became clear that a new type 
of school was needed, and the result was 
that after the War of Liberation a large 
number of Realschiden sprang into exist- 
ence, for the most part without the 
assistance of the State. But the first be- 
ginnings of the Realschide must be sought 
in a much earlier time. The movement 
really began in the sixteenth century, 



REALSCHULE 



309 



under the influence of the new develop- 
ments of physical science. Its early history 
is closely associated with the name of 
Bacon, who may be fairly said to have 
inspired much of the educational doctinne 
of Comenius. The educational ideal of 
the latter, as well as that of his disciple 
Francke, bore a distinctly modern stamp. 
The Mathematical and Mechanical Real- 
schule of Semler, founded in 1706 in Halle, 
and reopened in 1738, was one of the 
earliest attempts at a technical school; 
the Economical and Mathematical Real- 
schule, founded by Hecker in 1747 in 
Berlin, was a school of great importance, 
directed to giving a technical education in 
a number of special branches. These 
efforts, sporadic and transitory as they 
were, all contributed to the solution of 
the question of an education based on the 
practical needs of life. The writings of 
Rousseau and the philanthropists gave a 
farther impulse to the movement. But it 
was not till the year 1832 that the Real- 
schulen received State aid in Prussia. In 
that year the Government took a tentative 
step towards reorganising and organising 
them, by providing for a fixed curriculum, 
and opening certain branches of the public 
service to pupils who had completed a full 
school course at a Realschule. These 
privileges were, however, made conditional 
upon the attainment of a certain proficiency 
in Latin, in addition to modern subjects ; 
hence this language was generally intro- 
duced into Realschulen, at least as an 
optional subject. A still more important 
step was taken by the Government in 
1859, when an improved scheme for the 
organisation of these schools was produced. 
A distinction was drawn between Real- 
schtden of the first and second rank and 
hohere Biirgerschiden, according to the 
length of the school course, the character 
of the curriculum, and the equipment of 
the school in the matter of teachers and 
apparatus. The ideal at which these schools 
should aim was, according to the Prussian 
Government, a liberal education of a modern 
type. 'Their organisation should be based 
not upon the immediate needs of practical 
life, but on the aim of giving to their 
pupils that degree of intellectual capacity 
which is a necessary condition of a free 
and independent comprehension of their 
future work in life. They should not be 
technical schools, but should concern them- 
selves, like the Gymnasia, with general 



culture. Between Gymnasium and Real- 
schule there should be no difference of 
principle, but the two should be mutually 
complementary.' (Unterrichts- und Pril- 
fangsordnung der Realschulen tmd der 
hoheren Biirgerschulen, 1859.) This ex- 
presses the attitude which the Prussian 
Government has consistently maintained 
in regard to Realschulen. It was the 
attitude of Frederick the Great, who held 
that a purely utilitarian curriculum de- 
prived a school of all title to rank as a 
High School. Thus reorganised, the Real- 
schulen enjoyed increased prosperity, and 
it became clear to men of insight that 
Realschulen of the first rank would soon 
knock at the doors of the universities and 
demand for their alumni equal privileges 
with the pupils of Gymnasia. This demand 
many of the universities met by conceding 
the right to attend lectures {Horfreiheit) 
— a right already enjoyed by many stu- 
dents from foreign countries who had not 
passed the leaving examination (Abiiurien- 
tenexamen) at any Gymnasium. In 1870 
the Government took action by throwing 
open to students who had passed the 
leaving examination at a Realschule the 
right of matriculating in the Faculty of 
Philosophy, which corresponds to our fa- 
culties of Arts and Sciences: this was 
equivalent to admitting them to the full 
privileges of a course in this faculty, with 
the right of entering for the degree of 
Ph. D. at the close of it. The State 
examination pro facidtate docendi was also 
thrown open to Realschuler (pupils of aReal- 
schule.) Against this innovation the Phi- 
losophical Faculty of Berlin entered a vigo- 
rous and unanimousprotest in theyear 1880, 
maintaining that ten years' experience had 
shown bad results (see article Classical 
Culture). But the Government made 
no change in their policy, and in the year 
1882 a new scheme was produced which 
confirmed the privileges of Realschider, 
and at the same time effected a new clas- 
sification of the schools before comprised 
under the names Realschide and hohere 
Bilrgerschtde. By this arrangement, which 
is in force at the present time, two classes 
of these schools are recognised. 1. Those 
which include Latin in their curriculum 
(Realgymnasium, Realprogymnasitim) ; 2. 
Those which do not teach Latin {Oherreal- 
schide, Realschide, hohere Biirgerschule). 
The Realgymnasium and Oberrealschule 
have, like the classical Gymnasium, a 



310 



REASON- 



-KECITATION" 



course of nine years ; the Realprogymna- 
sium and Realschule a course of seven 
years; the hohere Biirgerschule a course 
of six years. At the same time the curri- 
culum of the classical Gymnasium was 
modified, the number of hours devoted to 
Greek and Latin was decreased, and Greek 
composition excluded from the leaving 
examination; time was thus found for 
more mathematics, Prench, and natural 
science. In the Realgymnasium more 
Latin is taught than in the old Realschule 
of the first rank, as organised in 1859, and 
less German, mathematics, natural science, 
and drawing. The Oberrealschule makes 
higher demands than the Realgymnasium 
in German, mathematics, natural science, 
drawing, French, and English ; physiology 
and some technical department is added. 
The Oberrealschule is State-supported, and 
its pupils enjoy many privileges. If they 
pass a leaving examination in Latin, they 
are put on the same footing as pupils of 
the Realgymnasium. Similarly, if the 
latter pass a leaving examination in Latin 
and Greek equal to that imposed upon 
pupils of the gymnasium, they are admitted 
to equal privileges. The tendency of re- 
cent legislation has been to make the 
classical schools more modern in character, 
and the modern schools more classical. 
The result is that the distinction between 
some of the different kinds of schools is 
not very clearly marked. Of the modern 
schools popular favour inclines more to 
the ObeiTealschule than to the Realgym- 
nasium, which is in fact a kind of cross 
between a modern and a classical school. 
Whether the latter kind of schools will 
survive in the struggle for existence is an 
open question. In Alsace-Lorraine they 
have all been already abolished. But the 
future of Realschulen in the widest sense 
of the term is assured. (See L. Wiese, Das 
hohere Schtthoesen in Freussen.) 

Eeason, Processes of Reasoning. — The 
faculty of reason is that by which we are 
able to infer from the known to the un- 
known, or to follow out the logical conse- 
quences of what we know. It is the higher 
part of man's cognitive oi-. intellectual na- 
ture, and that which specially distinguishes 
him from the lower animals. Reason is 
sometimes (as by Kant) distinguished from 
the understanding, or faculty of judgment. 
In recent psychology, however, reason 
and judgment are brought together under 
Thought, or the thinking faculty, the ope- 



rations of which include conception, judg- 
ment, and reasoning. The first crude germ 
of reasoning shows itself in children's 
inferences from one fact of experience to 
another which resembles it more or less 
closely. At this stage, however, reasoning 
is hardly distinguishable from animal in- 
ference. It is only as the child gains 
abstract ideas, and is able to understand 
general propositions, that the process of 
human reasoning becomes distinct or ex- 
plicit. Logic considers the reasoning pro- 
cess as falling into two main forms, 
deduction and induction. The education 
of the reasoning powers of the young in- 
cludes a gi-aduated series of exercises in 
each of these forms (cf. articles Logic, 
Deduction, and Induction). 

Recitation. — -Education consists partly 
in the acquirement of knowledge, and 
partly in the training of faculty. Besides 
learning facts, we must learn how to make 
use of them ; while, again, if we would 
make use of knowledge, we must learn how 
to express it. The expression of knowledge 
in language is speech ; or, when written, 
literature. Recitation, according to the 
common school use of the term, includes 
both the learning by heart of chosen pieces 
of prose and poetry, and the living utter- 
ance of them in speech. Besides leading 
to the mind's- being stored with well- 
framed expressions of noble, wise, and 
beautiful thoughts, recitation is one of the 
means we employ for training the young 
to express what they know with right 
pronunciation, with clear significance, and 
with harmonious eloquence. The other 
means is oral reading. Now in order to 
express ourselves rightly and adequately 
in speech, we must not only knoio that 
about which we are to speak, but we must 
also feel it — or, if we but repeat the 
language of another, we must at least 
appreciate his position and point of view, 
as well as understand the subject-matter 
of what he says or writes. We must know 
and, for the occasion at least, feel his 
meaning. To recite the language of an- 
other, therefore, with full effect, we must 
not only commit his words to memory, but 
we must also know his subject-matter, 
understand his point of view, and appre- 
ciate his feeling. This shows us not only 
the value of recitation as one of the means 
of education, but also how we are to 
employ it. We must master the subject- 
matter and words ; we must understand 



RECREATION RECTOR 



311 



the situation and point of view ; and we 
must appreciate the feeling of wliat we 
are to recite. Then we must learn how to 
give audible expression to these by means 
of the right tones, the right pauses, and 
the riglit accents. We must learn to use, 
in short, not only the instrument of speech 
— voice — with skill, but we must also 
employ our intellect and feelings. Some 
teachers seem to regard mere verbal accu- 
racy in reproduction as eveiything. But 
accuracy in fact, though valuable in itself, 
counts for but very little in the total effect 
which good recitation ought to produce; 
and to gabble, however accurately, through 
a, passage, however well composed, is like 
liammering on a piano with a closed iist. 
It would be well if j^fose were more fre- 
quently used for purposes of recitation. 
It is a little harder to remember than 
verse, but has a more direct practical 
bearing on everyday speech and everyday 
writing. Collective recitation might also 
be more commonly practised. An excellent 
effect is produced when an animated pas- 
sage descriptive of action is recited by a 
whole class at once — especially when por- 
tions here and there can be taken up by 
single voices. 

Recreation signifies such rest and 
change of occupation as will allow time 
for, and actually facilitate, the building- 
up again of exhausted organs. Hence its 
great importance in relation to brain-work. 
An exciting game of chance or novel-read- 
ing may amuse, but will hardly produce 
that recreation which follows a vigorous 
walk or row, or a game at cricket or foot- 
ball. The importance of exercise has been 
discussed under Physical Education. The 
higher value of games over gymnastics 
is generally acknowledged. In the former 
the activity is spontaneous, and more con- 
ducive to general invigoration than the 
formal and less varied exercises in gym- 
nastics. The more purely recreative the 
exercise, the greater the relief from 
school-work ; running, leaping, rowing, 
swimming, cricket, rackets, tennis, and 
even football, under proper restrictions, 
have all their place and utility. Where 
playgrounds of insufficient size exist, gym- 
nastics come in useful, and in all cases 
they are desirable to supplement games. 

Recreative Evening Classes. See 
Adult Education. 

Rector. — I. A high dignitary in a uni- 
versity. Originally, the rector was the 



head of the 'nations' as nations. The 
nations were divisions of members of the 
university grouped according to the coun- 
tries or districts they came from — ^aggrega- 
tions chiefly for purposes of discipline, and 
for mutual protection and defence of privi- 
leges. In the University of Paris there 
were four nations (including masters as 
well as students), each of which was a 
perfectly independent body, electing its 
representative procurator from its own 
number, having its own patron, church, 
meeting-place, and seal (quite sepai^ate 
from the university seal), passing its own 
statutes and rules, and superintending the 
lodging-houses of the students. The rector 
was elected by the four procurators ; and 
rector and procurators, sitting as his as- 
sessors, together constituted the governing 
body. The nations were in existence about 
the middle of the twelfth century, but 
their formal organisation as just outlined 
cannot be positively assigned to an earlier 
date than the first quai-ter of the thirteenth 
century. Meantime, the regulation of the 
studies was in the hands of the consortium, 
magistrorum. By the year 1274 the rector 
had advanced to be, not merely head of the 
nations, but head of the faculty of Arts. 
'After 1266, he might be elected either by 
the procurators, or by four men chosen for 
this special duty ; and regulations made 
in 1281 evidently contemj)lated the possi- 
bility of the electors not being the acting 
procurators. In these regulations it is 
ordered that the electors shall be shut up 
in a room, and not allowed to commu- 
nicate with the external world until a wax 
candle of a prescribed length is burned to 
the socket. If they have not decided by 
that time, other electors are to be chosen. 
If two of these agree, the outgoing rector 
is to be called in to give his vote with them, 
and so make a majority' (Laurie, Rise and 
Constitutions of Universities, p. 186, note). 
The rector was eligible from the artistes 
(graduates in Arts) alone, in consequence of 
the superior antiquity of the Arts faculty ; 
and he held office for three months (later for 
a year), but was re-eligible. He presided at 
the general meetings of the university, 
took charge of the register and public 
money, and administered generally the 
government of the university. In 1341 
he is head of the whole university : the 
form Nos rector et universitas magis- 
trorum et scholariitm is found in use. 
The rector has ousted the original official 



312 



RECTOR 



head of the -university, the chancellor of 
the primary theological school at Notre 
Dame, who retains but a fragment of his 
pristine authority, the conferment of de- 
grees, together with some vague powers 
over the theological school. Within the 
city the rector's precedence was unques- 
tioned ; not only did all other officers and 
members of the university give way to him, 
but even bishops, papal nuncios, and legates 
also. At Bologna there were for long two 
rectors ; it is not till 1514 that we find 
only one, and one seems to have been the 
rule before 1552. In the beginning of the 
thirteenth century (1200-1220) there were 
thirty-six nations (excluding the students 
belonging to the town of Bologna). The 
German nation was subject to two procu- 
rators of its own, and to them alone. The 
remaining thirty-five nations were grouped 
into two universities — universitas ultra- 
nnontanorum, eighteen nations of students 
from beyond the Alps ; and universitas 
citramontanorum, seventeen nations of 
Italians ; and each of these corporations 
elected its own rector and other authorities. 
The rector was elected annually by the 
outgoing rector, the counsellors {consiliarii 
=2)roc2iratores) of the nations, and a cer- 
tain number of electors specially appointed 
by the general body of the students. He 
was selected from the different nations in 
a regular order of succession. He must 
be not under twenty-five years of age ; he 
must be a clei-iciis, but not a member of 
any religious order ; and he should have 
studied law for at least five years at his 
own expense. With each rector sat the 
eighteen, or seventeen, counsellors as asses- 
sors. ' The teaching doctors or professors, 
no less than the students, were subject to 
the rectors. A professor could not leave 
his duties for a few days without obtaining 
formal permission from him, and if the 
term of absence exceeded eight days he 
had to get permission from the whole uni- 
versity ' (Laurie, 137). The rector's civil 
jurisdiction was clear as between two 
parties belonging to the university, or as 
between a scholar and a citizen who con- 
sented to sue the scholar before him ; but 
when a suit against a scholar was brought 
before a city magistrate, and the rector 
claimed jurisdiction, violent conflicts not 
unfrequently arose, till ultimately the pope 
confirmed the university privileges. His 
criminal jurisdiction was generally limited 
to matters of academical discipline, and 



in 1544 the pope confirmed it in all cases 
where both parties belonged to the univer- I 
sity and the offence was not capital. The I 
University of Prague presented a slight, 
variation. 'The members of the univer- 
sity were divided into four nations. The 
highest official was the rector, who was- . 
chosen half-yearly. Each of the nations 
chose an elector ; the four so chosen co- 
opted seven others, and the united body 
then selected five, by whom the rector was i 
chosen. The office could not be filled by I 
any one belonging to a religious order. The | 
most important duty of the rector was ' 
jurisdiction over all members of the uni- 
versity, not only in ordinary cases of disci- 
pline, but also in civil and in criminal 
processes. A court was held by him twice 
a week. His next most important duties, 
were to see that the statutes of the uni- 
versity were observed, to take precedence 
in all functions of the university, and to- 
administer its property ' (Laurie, 258). In 
modern Germany the highest university 
official is the Rector Magnificus, who, when 
not a local magnate, is chosen yearly, or- 
half-yearly, from among the ordinary pro- 
fessors who form the Senatus Academicus, 
Where custom has given the rectorship to 
the local prince or other magnate, then the 
acting official, elected from among the- 
ordinary pi'ofessors, is called pro-rector. 
The University of France is scarcely pa- 
rallel. It is composed of seventeen acade- 
mies, the heads of which bear the title of 
rector ; they are appointed by the Minister 
of Public Instruction, and assisted by a 
secretary and staff of inspectors. In Eng- 
land there is no university official with 
the title of rector, except the heads of 
Lincoln College and Exeter College, Ox- 
ford. The chancellor retains his ancient- 
pre-eminence. In Scotland, also, the chan- 
cellor is the formal head of the university, 
but the rector comes in next, and his elec- 
tion is mainly on the lines of the earliest 
universities of Europe. After various- 
vicissitudes the order of election was settled 
by 21 & 22 Vict. c. S3 (1858), and the' 
ordinances of the Scottish Universities 
Commissioners made and issued thereupon 
{see paper C. 3174 of 1863). At Aberdeen 
University the rector is elected by the matri- 
culated students voting in four nations 
(Mar, Buchan, Moray, Angus), by four pro- 
curators, one procurator being chosen by 
and representing each nation ; and in case 
of equality of the votes of the procurators 



REFORMATION (THE) 



313> 



the chancellor has a casting vote, provided 
he intimate his choice within twenty-one 
days from the day of election ; and failing 
such intimation, the principal has the cast- 
ing vote (Report of the Scottish Universities 
Commission, Ordinance No. 6). At Glasgow 
University the rector is elected by the 
matriculated students voting in four nations 
(Glottiana, Transforthana, Rothseiana, 
Loudoniana), the chancellor (or the princi- 
pal) having a casting vote (as above) in case 
of equality of nations (Ordinance No. 3). 
At Edinburgh and St. Andrews the rector 
is elected by a general poll of the matricu- 
lated students, and in case of equality the 
casting vote of the chancellor or the prin- 
cipal (at St. Andrews the senior principal) 
decides (as above) (Ordinances Nos. 1 and 4). 
The rector holds office for three years, and 
names an assessor who sits with him. He is 
always a man of distinction, political, scien- 
tific, or literary ; sometimes a popular local 
magnate. The Aberdeen and Glasgow stu- 
dents have recently done themselves honour 
by the election of ex-Professor Bain (bis) 
and ex-Professor Lushington. There is 
a strong feeling among the students that 
the rector should attend the meetings of 
the university court, of which he is presi- 
dent; and frequently a pledge to this effect 
is asked from candidates who live at some 
distance, sinecurist rectors being looked on 
with disfavour. 

II. In Secondare/ Schools. — The heads 
of the ' higher class public schools ' and of 
most other schools of secondary instruction 
in Scotland bear the title of rector. On the 
continent also a similar practice prevails 
to a considerable extent. (See Laurie's 
work generally ; also Maiden's Origin of 
Universities, and the references to original 
authorities there given.) 

Reformation (The) in relation to Edu- 
cation.— The simple etymology of the 
word Reformation sufficiently defines it 
as the act of reforming or forming again ; 
or, taken passively, as the state or con- 
dition of being reformed or formed again. 
"When, as is usually the case, the idea of 
improvement is incorporated into its phi- 
lological indifference, it is equivalent to a 
correction of life or manners, or of any- 
thing corrupt, vicious, or objectionable. 
In a very specific and technical sense it 
denotes the great spiritual and ecclesi- 
astical movement, directed at once against 
the doctrines and the domination of the 
mediaeval Church, which culminated in 



the sixteenth century in the division of 
the Western Communion into the two 
sections known respectively as Roman 
Catholic and Protestant ; and as the re- 
sult of which the National Churches of 
Great Britain and Ireland, of Denmark, 
Sweden, Norway, and Holland, and of 
many parts of Germany and Switzerland,, 
became separated from the Roman juris- 
diction. In other countries, as, for ex- 
ample, in Hungary and France, the same 
movement, whilst too feeble or limited to 
lead to a national repudiation of the Papal 
Supremacy, was still powerful enough to^ 
efiect a detachment of large portions of 
the population from the faith and the' 
obedience of Rome. Thus, although the 
most potent and, indeed, the essential and 
inseparable motive of the Reformation 
was a strong spiritual impulse, it will be 
seen that there was still room for the 
working of other elements, as those, for 
instance, of nationality and ethnology. 
It was the representatives of the Teu- 
tonic race in England, Scotland, Germany, 
Switzerland, Holland, Sweden, Norway, 
and Denmark that embraced the Reforma- 
tion ; which was, on the other hand, re- 
jected for the most part by the Latin and 
Celtic races, the chief exception being that 
Teutonic Austria remained Catholic, while- 
the Celts of Wales and of the Scottish 
Highlands, with the reservation of a few 
remote glens only, became Protestant. 
And everywhere, whether it be supreme- 
and of the majority, or subordinate and of 
the few, whether frankly and royally, or 
scornfully and cynically, conceding in some 
places the toleration for which it gasps 
in vain in others, the intellectual impulse 
which was precipitated in the Reformation 
is a force with which the world will have 
to reckon, as it has had to reckon for more 
centuries than it has the gift of generally 
remembering, at every moment of its future 
history. The Reformation was no isolated 
event ; it was rather a genius and a ten- 
dency. Its causes were manifold ; and it 
was closely connected with the intellectual 
and social changes which marked the tran- 
sition from the Middle Ages to the modern 
era of civilisation. The medifeval Church 
had possessed an amount of power never 
before or since reached by any other eccle- 
siastical organisation. It attained the 
height of its glory in the thirteenth cen- 
tury, when the Papal power was spread 
and strengthened by the preaching of the 



314 



REFORMATION (THE) 



friars. In the fourteenth century the im- 
petus thus given had died out and the 
authority of the Church had begun to 
decline. Erom being zealous and active 
preachers, the friars had degraded into 
bigots and mendicants, whose character 
was a reproach and whose manner of life 
was an impediment. The secular clergy 
were hardly less corrupted ; and in many 
cases the higher dignitaries of the Church 
had no" interest in the spiritual duties of 
their office, and gave themselves up en- 
tirely to the pleasures of a worldly life, or, 
at best, to the requirements of political or 
military activity. The revival of the old 
classical literature in Italy, the spirit of 
the Renaissance (q-v.), accelerated the pro- 
cess of spiritual decay ; and the Papacy 
itself became half-pagan, sometimes even 
ostensibly and with profession and circum- 
stance. The Church was little cared for, 
even as an organ of government, and was 
used as an engine of self- aggrandisement 
•and the most extravagant luxury. The 
roots of the Reformation wei'e as deep as 
the altitude of its branches. Its system 
bad been variously nurtured through a 
protracted season of preparation. Its final 
appearance as a controlling or as a grandly 
dividing movement was but the expres- 
sion of sentiments and principles which 
had for ages been struggling, more or less 
locally and occasionally, and with more or 
less of observation, to find formal and 
commensurate utterance. The disaflfection 
towards the Papacy which disclosed itself 
in the rise of sects like the Waldenses, 
and, within the Church, in the reforming 
Councils of the fifteenth century held at 
Pisa (1409), Constance (1414), and Basle 
(1431) ; the rise of radical reformers, such 
as "WyclifFe and others ; the spiritual doc- 
trine of the Mystics ; the political oppo- 
sition to the Roman see, dating from the 
old contests of the empire with the Pope — 
all these are amongst the more memorable 
of the events and the phenomena which 
combine, as antecedents of the Reformation, 
with the influence of the revival of learn- 
ing in promoting general culture, in hasten- 
ing the downfall of scholastic theology, and 
in producing a diligent study of the Bible 
and of Christian antiquity. Protestantism, 
as a religious system, had two main prin- 
ciples, the first of which was the exclu- 
sive authority of the Bible as the rule of 
faith, as opposed to the normal authority 
of the Pope or the Church — a principle 



that involves the right of private judg- 
ment ; whilst the second was the doctrine 
of justification by faith alone, in contra- 
distinction to salvation by works or human 
merit. Protestantism claimed for the in- 
dividual a direct access to the blessings of 
the Gospel without the intermediary im- 
pertinence of the Church or the priesthood. 
But, whatever may have been the relation- 
ship of other causes to the Reformation 
as, so to say, ranking amongst its collateral 
ancestry, it is as nearly as possible beyond 
all reasonable challenge to claim it as the 
lineal descendant of the Renaissance. As 
the Renaissance was a secular Refoi"ma- 
tion, so the Reformation was a baptised 
Renaissance. ' It is now admitted by 
most competent judges,' to cite Mr. Lecky 
in lucid confirmation, ' that the true causes 
of the Reformation are to be found in the 
deep change effected in the intellectual 
habits of Europe by that revival of learn- 
ing which began about the twelfth cen- 
tury in the renewed study of the Latin 
classics, and reached its climax after the 
fall of Constantinople in the diffusion of 
the knowledge of Greek and of the philo- 
sophy of Plato by the Greek exiles. This 
revival ultimately produced a condition of 
religious feeling which found its expres- 
sion sometimes in Protestantism, and in 
other covintries in the prevalence among 
the educated classes of a diluted and 
rationalistic Catholicism entirely different 
from the gross and absorbing superstition 
of the Middle Ages. Which of these two 
forms was adopted in any particular coun- 
try depended upon many special political, 
or social, or even geographical considera- 
tions ; but, wherever the intellectual 
movement was strongly felt, one or other 
appeai-ed. It is surely a remarkable coin- 
cidence, that while the literature of anti- 
quity was thus on a large scale modifying 
the medieeval modes of thought, the an- 
cient sculptures should on a smaller scale 
have exercised a corresponding influence 
upon the art that was their expression. 
And, although the sesthetic movement was 
necessarily confined to the upper classes, 
and to the countries in which civilisation 
was most prominent, it represented faith- 
fully a tendency that in different forms 
was still more widely displayed. It repre- 
sented the gradual destruction of the as- 
cendency which the Church had once exer- 
cised over every department of intellect, 
the srowins difference in realised belief 



REFORMATION (THE) 



315 



between the educated and the ignorant, 
and the gradual disappearance of anthro- 
pomorphic or idolatrous conceptions among 
the former.' Whilst the Renaissance was 
a rebellion or revolt, sometimes with a 
profane insouciance, against the scholastic 
theology and ascetic theories of morals, 
and the cloistered ideal of mediaeval Chris- 
tianity, it was in its second and more 
spiritual stage of development scarcely 
less powerful within the limits of Chris- 
tian belief and practice. The curiosity 
which explored the records of classical 
genius and achievement did not leave 
untouched the symbols and the charters 
of primitive Christianity. An appeal was 
made from the canons and the traditions 
of the Church successively to the Fathers 
and to the New Testament. The latter in 
its original Greek, the Septuagint, the 
Hebrew Bible, took the place of the Vul- 
gate in the hands of the learned ; whilst 
the Scriptures in the vernacular languages 
of Europe brought home to the minds of 
the people the wide diffei-ence between 
the Church of the Apostles and the eccle- 
siastical system over which presided a 
Julius II. or a Leo X. Now at length 
the abortive efforts after reformation, 
which in the thirteenth, the fourteenth, 
and the fifteenth centuries had flickered 
and died away, rose into a great and con- 
suming flame of revolt, the end of which 
was the severance from the Papacy of 
Northern and Western Europe. The Re- 
formation was not only the first great 
triumph of the scientific spirit, but also a 
very effectual assertion of human liberty. 
It was brought about by the application 
of certain keen and independent minds to 
the study of theology — minds which, as a 
consequence of that study, broke away 
from tradition, the Schoolmen, and the 
Church, and, with an audacity the extent 
of which can scarcely at present be real- 
ised, dared to take their religious fate 
into their o\vn hands. The Reformation, 
subject only to its profession of an uncon- 
ditional submission to the authority of 
Scripture, itself the result of an exercise 
of the faculty, was the recovery of the 
right of private judgment, the crowning 
of individuality, and, as was inevitable, 
the spur and incentive to divergence. For 
religious individualism is notoriously inapt 
to organise itself ; and when it has at- 
tained its highest development is then the 
most likely to exhibit itself as a dividing 



force. The Reformation was, therefore, a 
movement of strong, self-contained, self- 
reliant, and daring personalities — of such 
personalities, indeed, as it was calculated 
to produce and to foster. Names, inde- 
pendence, eccenti'icity, and even extrava- 
gance and wilfulness, are found in the 
sedate exemption or the wilder freedom 
from the fetters of a hard and fast system 
of routine, or the unaccommodating bur- 
den of a uniform and universal organisa- 
tion. The culture of the Renaissance was 
but for the few ; it was dainty, fastidious, 
and exclusive. The general ardour for the 
restoration of the arts and of learning 
created an aristocratic public whose su- 
preme pontiff was Erasmus. This scholar, 
whom the Rev. Mark Pattison happily 
describes as the first ' man of letters ' who 
had appeared in Europe since the fall of 
the Roman empire, whilst he shared the 
doctrines of the Reformers, had a horror of 
party and its perils of clamour and vulgar 
excesses. It is claimed for him, in the 
face of all detractors, that from the begin- 
ning to the end of his career he remained 
true to the purpose of his life, which was 
to fight the battle of sound learning and 
plain common sense against the powers of 
ignorance and superstition ; and that amid 
all the convulsions of his time he never 
once lost his mental balance. On the one 
hand, he scornfully denounced the ignorant 
hostility to classical learning which pre- 
vailed in the colleges and convents under 
the control of the orthodox clergy, whom 
he stigmatised as an obscui-antist army 
arrayed against light ; and on the other 
he ' abhorred the evangelicals, because it 
was through them that literature was 
everywhere declining, and upon the point 
of perishing.' More than once Erasmus 
complains, with quite sufficient bitterness, 
that ' wherever Lutheranism reigns, there 
good letters perish ' ; but the names of 
Luther and Melanchthon are personally 
excepted from this general censure. Luther 
was all his life a zealous promoter of edu- 
cation. He held that the establishment 
of schools was the duty of every city and 
village, and wished to divert in that direc- 
tion a portion of the revenues of the 
Church. He was, indeed, so far in ad- 
vance of his age as to advocate the foun- 
dation of girls' schools. The whole of his 
active life was spent as a teacher in a 
university of which he was the animating 
and guiding spirit. At the same time he 



316 



REFORMATION (THE) 



looked upon classical learuiug as suboi'di- 
iiate and ancillary to theology, and as 
valuable only, or at least ehietly, for theo- 
logical purposes. Ei'asnuis had been born 
Avith the hopes of the Renaissance, with 
its aiitieipatiou of a new Augustan age, 
and had seen this fair promise blighted 
by the irruption of a new horile of theolo- 
gical polemics, worse in his eyes than the 
old scholastics, inasuuich as they were I'e- 
volutionary instead of conservative. 

Whilst Erasmus is to be regarded as 
tlio corypluvus of the Renaissance, the 
education of the Reformation is best re- 
presented by the names of Luther and 
Melanchthon. One of the logical conse- 
quences of the fundamental principles of 
the Reformation was the development of 
primary education. In attaching to each 
man the responsibilitv of his creed, and in 
placing the sources of faith in the Holy 
(Scriptures, the Reformation contracted the 
obligation to put eveiy person it had so 
splendidly and so perilously endowed in a 
condition to lay hold of the salvation to 
be found in the reading and the intelli- 
gence of the Bible. The necessity of ex- 
plaining the Catechism and making com- 
ments upon it was for teachers an obliga- 
tion to acquire the art of exposition and 
analysis. The study of the German 
mother-tongue and of singing was asso- 
ciated with the reading of the Bible in 
Luther's translation, and with religious 
services. Luther brought the schoolmaster 
into the cottage, and laid the foundations 
of the system which is the chief honour 
and strength of modern Germany : a sys- 
tem by Avliich the child of the humblest 
peasant, by slow but certain gradations, 
I'eceives the best education the country 
can afford. The purification and widening 
of education went hand in hand with the 
purification of religion ; and the claims 
thus established by Luther to affectionate 
regard have been ever since indissolubly 
united in the minds of his countrymen. 
The Reformation contained, in fact, the 
germs of a complete revolution in educa- 
tion ; for it enlisted the interests of reli- 
gion in the service of instruction, and as- 
sociated knowledge with faith. It is in 
virtue of this combination that for over 
three centuries the Protestant nations 
have led the van of human progress in 
the matter of primary instruction, the 
zeal for which, however, was by no means 
equally exhibited by all the leaders of 



Protestant reform. Melanchthon, for in- 
stance, who for his persevering labour in 
annotating classics and preparing editions 
of school-books, as well as for his prac- 
tical activity in the direct processes of 
instruction, earned the title of rnraytor 
OcniKDiia', worked more for high schools 
than for schools for the people. He was 
distinctly a humanist — above eveiytliing- 
else, a professor of bcllcs-lcftres ; and it 
was with chagrin that he saw his courses 
in the university of Wittenberg deserted 
by students when he lectured on the 
Oli/)ithiacs of Demosthenes. He was so 
far in accord with Erasmus that, in 1522, 
he speaks of the signal folly of those ' who 
at the present day think that piety con- 
sists only in the contempt of all good 
letters, of all ancient erudition.' In the 
same year, and subsequently, Melanchthon 
implores Spalatin to have an especial care 
of the university, complaining that the 
students are rather overwhelmed than in- 
structed by the mass of theological lec- 
tures. He accuses those who profess their 
dislike of profane letters as having ' no 
better opinion of theology, for tliis is only 
the excuse which they put forward for 
their laziness.' And in a declamation 
written by Melanchthon in 1557 he be- 
wails in the strongest terms the decline of 
science and letters. In face of this evi- 
dence, and much more of the same kind, 
we can readily believe Erasmus when he 
says that it was easier to find professors 
than students to attend their lectures ; 
that the booksellers declared that before 
Lutheranism came up they could sell three 
thousand volumes in less time tlian six 
hundred afterwards ; and that at Stras- 
burg and elsewhere there were those who 
thought that the only thing a theologian 
needed to learn was Hebrew. ' No doubt 
the old humanist,' says Dr. Beard, ' grew 
bitter in his last days, as he watched the 
triumphant progress of the movement 
from Avhich he had deliberately turned 
aside. But it is plain that, in spite of 
Melanchthon, there was a tendency to go 
back to the spirit of a time at which it 
was considered a perilous thing for a 
Christian to read heathen books. But the 
tide of reviving interest in classical cul- 
ture, which had been slowly gathering 
strength for a century and a half, was far 
too mighty to be even temporarily ar- 
rested by any defection of the Reformers. 
While they were occupied in internecine 



REFORMATION (THE) 



317 



quarrels and the building up of rival sys- 
tems of dogmatic theology, the work of 
recovering the mind of antiquity went 
steadily on. It was a longer and a more 
laborious task than from our present 
standpoint of culture we are easily able 
to conceive ; and the men who accom- 
plished it are not to be measured by the 
worth of their visible contributions to 
literature. When the convent libraries 
of East and West had been ransacked, and 
every fragment of ancient literature con- 
signed to the safe keeping of the printing- 
press, the work was only begun. Texts 
had to be emended, grammars to be slowly 
compiled, the materials of dictionai-ies col- 
lected with almost infinite toil. The whole 
mass of learned tradition, on the basis of 
which a scholar now begins his work, had 
to be painfully brought together. When, 
by the labours of several generations, the 
philological pai't of the task was accom- 
plished with tolerable completeness — when 
all educated men could read the classical 
authors in the original, and Greek and 
Latin were written by scholars with faci- 
lity and even elegance — there remained 
the work of reproducing the life of the 
ancients ; of understanding their law, 
their worship, their military systems, their 
amusements ; of re-writing their history, 
and reducing their chronology to order. 
And this was a toil which lasted through 
the eighteenth century, if indeed it can 
be said to be even yet at an end. Italy soon 
gave up her place in the van of classical 
culture. Her scholarship became mere 
phrase-mongering and Ciceronianism. Not 
what a man had to say, but how he said 
it, was the all-important thing ; while 
platitude was no offence at all, solecism 
was a mortal sin.' There was a ' lack of 
moral fibre in the Italian scholars of the 
age of the despots : when Rome became 
serious under the influence of the counter- 
Reformation, humanists were warned ofi" 
debateable ground, and bidden to employ 
their pens in her service, if at all. The 
study of Greek fell into disfavour ; and 
when Jesuit influence came to predominate 
in schools and colleges, those admirable 
educators had practical ends of their own, 
which they cared for more than the pro- 
.gress of philology. So the literary hege- 
mony passed to France and to Holland. 
Budaeus, Turnebus, Casaubon, Salmasius, 
.are the glories of French scholarship. If 
the Scaligers boasted an Italian descent, 



the elder lived and wrote in France ; the 
younger and greater, who was Huguenot 
to the heart, taught in Leiden. It would 
be difficult to enumerate the many pi'O- 
found scholars who toiled in the univer- 
sities of Holland to complete the long task 
the nature of which I have endeavoured 
to indicate. Their labours lie concealed 
in the grammars and dictionaries which 



to-day smooth the path of classical culture 
to our children ; in the annotations which 
elucidate every difficult passage and ex- 
plain every obscure allusion ; in that 
knowledge of ancient life which is part of 
the intellectual air we breathe. The re- 
sult was at once to restore that living 
connection with the mind of antiquity 
which Christian Europe deliberately aban- 
doned in the sixth century, and to accu- 
mulate the materials upon which the 
higher and more constructive criticism of 
a later age has worked.' 

Aristotle had been dethroned from his 
pre-eminence in the schools, and Melanch- 
thon attempted to supply his place. He 
appreciated the importance of Greek, the 
terror of the obscurantists, and is the 
author of a Greek grammar. He wrote 
elementary books on each department of 
the Trivium — grammar, dialectic and rhe- 
toric — and made someway with the studies 
of the Quadrivium. It is also noteworthy 
that he wrote Initia Doctrines Physicm, a 
primer of physical science. Horace was 
his favourite classic ; and his pupils were 
taught to learn the whole of it by heart, 
ten lines at a time. 'He died in 1560, 
racked,' as Mr. Browning says, 'with 
anxiety for the Church which he had 
helped to found. If he did not carry 
Protestantism into the heart of the pea- 
sant, he at least made it acceptable to the 
intellect of the men of letters.' 

The work of extending and difiusing 
popular education in Germany under the 
impulse of the Reformation and the per- 
sonal influence of Martin Luther finds an 
instructive analogy in the same work in 
Scotland at the hands of John Knox 
{q.v.). The First Book of Discipline, 
drawn up by the great Scottish reformer, 
and presented to the Estates of Scotland, 
and subscribed by the Secret Council in 
the year 1560, contains Knox's Plan of 
Educational Organisation in Scotland, 
which provides for the equal distribution 
of the means and institutions of educa- 
tion among the whole population— recog- 



318 



REFORMATION (THE) 



nising a gradation of schools, and (1) a 
primary school by every parish church, in 
which, in lack of a schoolmaster, the 
minister with his reader or clerk should 
' take care over the children and youth of 
the parish to instruct them in their first 
rudiments, and especially in the Cate- 
chism ; ' (2) in all large parishes there was 
to be a good school, with a schoolmaster 
' able to teach at least grammar and the 
Latin tongue ' ; (3) in the several towns 
which were centres of the superintendent's 
districts, there were to be colleges, where 
the students should be ' taught logic and 
rhetoric and the tongues'; and (4) univer- 
sities. All of these schools were to be 
subject to inspection — the parochial and 
burgh schools by ' discreet, grave, and 
learned men, to wit, the ministers and 
elders, with the goodly learned men in 
every toAvn, who shall every quarter make 
examination how the youth have profited.' 
They were charged ' to discover if there 
be a spirit of docility in any of the pupils,' 
and to direct such ' to further knowledge ' 
in the colleges and universities ; and those 
who do not shovv" signs of fitness for higher 
learning are to be taught some handicraft, 
or set about some other occupation. It 
was ordained that no parent of whatever 
condition may ' use his children at his 
own phantasy/ especially in the days of 
their youth, but must bring them up in 
learning and vii-tue ; that the rich should 
be compelled to educate their sons at their 
own expense, but that the children of the 
poor should be supported at the charge of 
the Church, the sons of rich and poor alike, 
if they had aptness for learning, continu- 
ing at the schools until the commonwealth 
shoiild have profit of them. It will be 
observed that this scheme separates the 
parish from the burgh or higher schools, 
and establishes grades of seminaries for 
conducting the scholar from the primary 
through the secondary schools to the uni- 
versities ; and that it provides also for the 
moral, intellectual, and technical training 
of the youth, places within the reach of 
the poorest child in the community, if he 
have 'vigour,' the blessings of a liberal 
education, and makes school attendance 
compulsory. If the Parliament had been 
liberal and patriotic enough to have 
seconded at that time the endeavours of 
the Church to plant, ' no country in the 
world,' as the late Principal Lee remarks 
in his History of the Church of Scotland, 



'would have been so well supplied as 
Scotland with the means of extending the 
benefits of a liberal education to every 
man capable of intellectual improvement.' 
Educationists have called the outline of 
this system a perfect one — a plan, indeed, 
so far in advance of the times of its pro- 
jectors, that we are now only attaining 
towards the high standard at which they 
aimed ; and Dr. MacCrie, the biogi'apher 
of John Knox, is justified in his sagacious 
inference that, in ' obliging the nobility 
and gentry to educate their childreia, and 
providing at the public expense for the 
education of the children of the poor who 
discovei-ed talents for learning,' 'they seem 
to have had it in their eye to revive the 
system adopted in some of the ancient 
republics, in which the youth were con- 
sidered as the property of the public 
rather than of their parents.' 

The curriculum of the Scotch schools 
about the middle of the sixteenth century 
was in some respects broader than what is 
found in those of the nineteenth. At the 
Grammar School of Aberdeen, as appears 
fi'om the statutes dated 1553, the boys were 
strictly forbidden to speak in the vulgar 
tongue ; but only in Latin, Greek, He- 
brew, French, and Gaelic. To show that 
the instruction was thorough and not con- 
fined to the embryo clergy, appeal may be 
made to a statement of Knox, who affirmed 
that, in a debate in Parliament in 1543, 
the lay members showed better acquaint- 
ance with Greek than the clergy. Classi- 
cal knowledge continued for centuries to 
be the chief subject of instruction ; but 
what are now called English and commer- 
cial subjects have little mention in the 
records of the larger grammar schools, 
although in the smaller ones reading and 
spelling . were recognised from an early 
date. In Aberdeen, music appears to 
have been taught with more energy than 
in any other of the Scotch burghs. From 
an early date down to the end of the 
seventeenth century, music formed one of 
the regular branches of study, and was 
taught as a part of the ordinary curri- 
culum. As time passed on it was found 
necessary to add reading and other subjects 
— as writing and arithmetic, which were 
somewhat late in attaining their proper 
place as branches of regular instruction — 
to the work ; but as these became promi- 
nent the study of music receded, and the 
' sang school,' which in pre-Reformation 



REFORMATION (THE) 



319 



times was generally an appurtenance of 
the cathedral or the monastery, became a 
thing of the past. Religious instruction 
formed a prominent, if not an essential, 
part of the course of study pursued in the 
old hurgh schools from the Reformation 
till the end of the last century. In 1567, 
Parliament declared that if God's Word 
be not rooted in the youth, their instruc- 
tion shall be ' tinsell loaith to their bodyis 
andsaulis;' and in 1616 the Assembly 
ordained a catechism, to be made easy, 
short, and comprehensive, of which every 
family might have a copy for instructing 
the children and servants in the articles 
of religion. The municipal authorities 
were as willing as the ecclesiastics to en- 
force and to extend religious instruction ; 
and this custom has not unreasonably 
been appealed to as having in no small 
degree contributed towards making a poor 
and thinly-peopled country not only one of 
the freest, most enlightened, and inde- 
pendent, but also one of the most pro- 
sperous in the Avorld. 

Thus it will be understood how it was 
that, partly in accordance with the na- 
tional genius, and partly under the im- 
pulse of the Reformation and the direct 
or traditional authority of John Knox, 
the people of Scotland anticipated many 
of the political and educational cries of 
the pi-esent day. They recognised the 
Necessity for education, and made it com- 
pulsory within certain limits. Fines and 
penalties were devised to counteract the 
negligence or indifference of parents. Sub- 
stantial means were provided to furnish 
the various towns with good secondary 
schools, and the education was excellent 
of its kind. The qualifications of teachers 
were tested, and wise laws were made to 
secure their continued efficiency. Good 
salaries, respectful treatment, and conside- 
ration in the days of old age or infirmity 
Avere all adopted to encourage the teacher 
and retain the services of thoroughly 
qualified schooolmasters. The women 
were trained in domestic duties, and in 
those arts that tend to make the home a 
place of comfort. All these things com- 
bined to pour blessings on Scotland, and 
to achieve for her a reputation second to 
none for the excellence of her educational 
work. Although until lately there has 
been a dearth, and although there is even 
now a relative scarcity, of English works 
on the subject, it is not difficult to trace 



a picture of the education which the Re- 
formation offered to the middle classes of 
Europe ; for ample materials, even to 
such matters of detail as programmes and 
time-tables, are extant in German histories 
of education. 

In following the history of education 
in the sixteenth century, however, it is 
necessary, as in other investigations, care- 
fully to distinguish the theory from the 
practice. For theory, which is concerned 
with effort, and which stands for the ideal, 
the perfect, and consequently the unat- 
tainable, is not only generally in advance 
of the age in which it is conceived, but is 
always and necessarily in advance of prac- 
tice, which is measured by result and ap- 
proximation only, and which is kept back 
by the inharmonious working of variously 
impeded energies. The educational theory 
of the sixteenth century is to be found in 
the works of Erasmus, Rabelais, and Mon- 
taigne, of whom it may be said that before 
pretending to surpass them, even at this 
day, we should rather attempt to over- 
take them, and to equal them in most of 
the precepts of their ideal instruction. 
The practice of the time is to be found, 
first in the development of the study of 
the humanities, particularly in the early 
colleges of the Jesuits ; and, before the 
Jesuits, in certain Protestant colleges, 
especially in the college at Strasburg, so 
splendidly administered by the celebrated 
Sturm (1507-89). Then it is to be recog- 
nised in the revival of the higher instruc- 
tion, as emphatically denoted by the foun- 
dation of the College of France (1530), 
and by the brilliant lectures of Peter 
Ramus (Pierre la Rame'e), who, having 
secured the reception and progress of his 
system of logic in the German universities, 
and the filling of France, England, and 
pai"ticularly Scotland, with his disciples, 
fell a victim to the massacre of St. Bartho- 
lomew's Day, 1572. Finally, it is the 
progress, not to say the birth, of primary 
instruction, through the efforts already 
referred to of the Pr-otestant reformers, 
and especially of Luther. 

The school of John Sturm (Laiine 
Sturmius) stood pre-eminently before the 
rest amongst those movements which were 
of vital influence in the development of 
the science of education. Situated in that 
border city on the debateableland between 
France and Germany, the school of Stras- 
burg, which was first organised as a 



320 



llEFORMATION (THE) 



gymnasium in 1537, promoted in 15G7 
to the status of a college by the Emperor 
Maximilian II., and linally invested by 
Ferdinand II. in 1621 with the rights 
and privileges of a university, discovered 
how to combine and reconcile the pecu- 
liai-ities of French and German culture — 
the profoundness of the latter with the 
clearness and vivacity of the former. 
Sturm, who was one of the most variously 
.accomplished and most uui\'ersally in- 
formed men of liis time, and who achieved 
the honourable t^obriqvef of the Cicero of 
Germany, was much consulted in the 
drafting' of school-codes and in the organ- 
isation of gymnasia ; and liis treatise, Dc 
Litemrum Ludls recte aperie)idis (1538), 
and his Classiar Epistolce: sive Schohv 
Argentiiiensis rcstUufai (1565), addressed 
to the teachers of his own school, entitle 
him to a prominent place amongst the 
pioneers of the reformed education. He 
corresponded with Erasmus, Melanchthon, 
Bucer^ and others, who in divers spheres 
and vocations were amongst the most dis- 
tinguished men of his age. He was, in 
particular, the friend and correspondent 
of Roger Ascham, the celebrated author 
of The S eh oohii aster (1570), which has 
been repeatedly said to contain the best 
advice that was ever given, if, indeed, it 
did not incorporate the only sound method, 
for the study of languages. Sturm was 
ever keeping pace with those about him, 
learning Hebrew, for instance, in his fifty- 
ninth }^ear, and inspiring his teachers with 
his own enthusiasm. He enjoyed the re- 
spect of the Emperors Charles V., Ferdi- 
nand I., and Maximilian II., as well as of 
Queen Elizabeth of England, the pupil of 
his friend Ascham. His fame as a teacher 
and educator was European ; and the area 
from which he drew his scholars was co- 
extensive with his reputation. Whilst 
his pupils were among the men of mark 
throughout Germany, his halls were fre- 
quented by contingents from Portugal, 
Poland, and England. At one time there 
were two hundred noblemen, twenty-four 
counts and barons, and three princes 
-under his instruction. In 1578 his school 
numbei-ed several thousand students ; he 
supplied at once the place of the cloister 
and the castle. Sturm was the tirst great 
head-master, the progenitor of Busbys, if 
not of Arnolds. What he most insisted 
upon was the teaching of Latin, not the 
conversational linguaj'ranca of Erasmus, 



but pure, elegant, Ciceronian Latinity. 
Nowhere, perhaps, had he more effect than 
in England. Our older public scliools, on. 
breaking with the ancient faith, looked to 
Sturm as their model of Protestant edu- 
cation. His name and example became 
familiar to us by the exertions of his 
friend Ascham. Westminstei', under the 
long reign of Busby, received a form 
which was generally accepted as the type 
of a gentleman's education. The Public 
Schools Commission of 1862 found that the 
lines laid down by the great citizen of 
Strasburg, and copied by his admirers, had 
remained unchanged until within the 
memor}^ of tlie present generation. It is 
impossible to detine exactly the extent of 
the formative influence of his doctrine ; 
for besides directly organising many clas- 
sical schools, his pupils rose to be head 
masters of many more, and his principles 
Avere embodied in the School Code of 
Wiix'temberg in 1559, and in that of 
Saxony in 1580, and in the educational 
system of the Jesuits. 

In the first half of the seventeenth 
century, Wolfgang Ratke, Ratich, or 
Ratichius (1571-1635), a native of Wil- 
ster in Holstein, and Jan Amos Komen- 
sky [Latin6 Joannes Amos Comenius) 
(1592-1671), a bishop of the INloravians, 
were, with very different degrees of merit, 
tlie heirs of the educational thought of 
Luther. [See article Ratioii.) 

The glory of applying the new spirit 
to actual practice must be surrendered by 
Ratich in favour of Comenius (q.v-), the 
son of a miller -who belonged to the Mora- 
vian brethren. Comenius, who was born 
at the Moravian village of Comna, in 
1592, and finally attained the dignity of 
being the senior bishop, or liead of the 
church of the Moravian brethren, was for 
a long tin\e unknown and unappreciated. 
Yet he is now recognised as the tirst who 
brought the mind of a philosopher to bear 
practically on the subject of education. 
Montaigne, Bacon, and Milton merely 
advanced principles, leaA'ing others to see 
to their application. Michelet speaks of 
Comenius with enthusiasm as ' that rare 
genius, that gentle, fertile, universal 
scholar ' ; and he calls him the first evan- 
gelist of modern pedagogy — Pestalozzi 
being the second. It is not ditficult to 
justify this appreciation. The character 
of Comenius is worthy of his intelligence. 
Through a thousand obstacles he devoted 



REFORMATION (THE) 



321 



his long life to the work of popular in- 
struction. With a generous ardour he 
consecrated himself to infancy. ' He 
wrote twenty works,' says Compayre, 
' and taught in twenty cities. Moreover, 
he was the first to form a definite concep- 
tion of what the elementary studies should 
be. He determined, neaxiy three hundred 
years ago, with an exactness that leaves 
nothing to be desired, the division of the 
different grades of instruction. He exactly 
defined some of the essential laws of the 
art of teaching. He applied to pedagogy, 
with remarkable insight, the principles of 
modern logic. Finally, as Michelet has 
said, he was the Galileo, we would rather 
say, the Bacon, of modei'n education ' (see 
article Comenius). 

It is in the first grade of instruction, 
the school of infancy, the school by the 
mother's knee, the school of the maternal 
bosom, materyii gremii, that the genius 
of Comenius is the most characteristically 
and most profoundly illustrated. And it 
Avas in this that the Protestant doctrine 
of individuality found its ne ^^^its ultra ; 
for it was this that was the final co-ordi- 
nation of individual privilege and oppor- 
tunity with individual peril, duty, and 
responsibility. ' The Reformers,' says Mr. 
S. S. Laurie,' were educational philan- 
thropists in the truest sense, and hence the 
people's school is rightly called the child 
of the Reformation. ... To the same 
union of the theological with the philan- 
thropic spirit was due the noble schemes 
of popular education embodied in the 
Book of Polity of the Reformed Church of 
Scotland, written so early as 1560.' 

It is with Comenius, therefore, whose 
spirit is so faithfully reproduced, and the 
compass of whose design is so magnificently 
enlarged, in the winged and sonorous words 
of the Tractate of Education addressed by 
John Milton {q.v.) to their common friend 
Samuel Hartlib, that the consideration of 
the influence of the Reformation on edu- 
cation may be concluded — not that the 
impulse or genius of the Reformation had 
spent its force, but rather because in the 
system and method of Comenius may be 
found the germ, suggestion, and potenti- 
ality of all the principles, and all the 
applications of them, which have since 
been evolved in the course and the history 
of the movement. Approaching the sub- 
ject quite independently, and looking at 
it from another and larger, although strictly 



analogous, point of view, the late Dr. 
Charles Beard ' regarded the English Re- 
formation as having come to its close in 
the year 1662, when the Act of Uniformity 
at once settled the Church of England on 
a basis whicli has not since been disturbed, 
and necessitated the separate existence of 
Dissent.' It is observable that the year 
1662 coincided with the seventieth year 
of Comenius, who died in 1671. 

It is not to be supposed, however, that 
all the influences of the Reformation, and 
still less all its motives, circumstances, and 
accidents of detail, were directly favour- 
able to education. Melanchthon's experi- 
ence at Wittenberg, and the scathing de- 
nunciations of Erasmus, as called forth by 
the fanaticism of certain adherents of the 
Reformation who were intolerant of all 
learning which was not directly available 
in the interests of human salvation, have 
shown that in Germany, as in other Re- 
formed or Reforming countries, a period 
of transition, or of scarcely completed 
achievement, is not the ideal foster-period 
of intellectual or scholarly progress, or of 
full- orbed development. Naturally, it was 
the centres of the higher learning, and, 
within these centres, the most exquisite 
and most elegantly formative of the studies 
they affected, that chiefly suffered at the 
hands of persons whose prudence and 
spiritual anxieties led them to distrust 
and discredit, and proportionally to neg- 
lect, all erudition which was not negoti- 
able on the exchange of an eternal woi-ld. 
In its most acute and virulent manifesta- 
tion the jealousy which refused to detect 
the real divinity of any culture which was 
not formally or in terms theological did 
not hesitate to make bonfires of academical 
libraries, and to debase by uses more 
ignoble than destruction the literary 
treasures of antiquity. Even theology was 
not sacred, and in fact was occasionally 
the more obnoxious because it ivas the- 
ology ; and books of patristic and scho- 
lastic divinity, of doctrine and discipline, 
were consumed in market-places and in 
learned quadrangles on the same pyres 
with ti-eatisea on useless mathematics and 
impertinent astronomy. The formula de- 
lenda est, once current in pagan Rome as 
applied to a rival for the secular supremacy 
of the world, was now turned against Rome 
herself, whose spiritual domination was to 
be scattered to the winds with the ashes 
of the literature she had tolerated and con- 

Y 



322 



EEFORMATION (THE) 



served, and to a certain extent assimilated 
and taught. But there were other reasons 
why the Reformation was not immediately 
helpful, but rather detrimental, to the in- 
terests of education, especially of the higher 
education — reasons which were not of the 
essence or the nature of the movement, 
and which, whether with or apart from 
the speciousness of pious pretence, are to 
be recognised in acts of diversion, spolia- 
tion, confiscation, and sacrilege. It has 
been alleged, indeed, that in Scotland, from 
divers causes, the Reformation extinguished 
learning ; but the expression has more 
verbal point than literal accuracy. The 
statement is at once more moderate and 
more correct that in the ecclesiastical and 
political agitation of the sixteenth century 
the Scottish universities were the sufferers, 
and, with the ti'iumphs of the new, or Pro- 
testant, party over the old Church, old in- 
cumbents of chairs and old sources of in- 
come were cut off, and although the uni- 
versities obtained grants of Church lands, 
which were increased on the abolition of 
episcopacy in the next century, still the 
thorough reorganisation contemplated by 
John Knox and James Buchanan in the 
First Book of Discipline was not effected. 
With regard to the English universities, 
it is remarkable that the late Professor 
Huber, successively of Rostock, Marburg, 
and Berlin, a German and a Protestant, 
avers, as ' one undeniable fact,' that up to 
the time of the Catholic reaction under 
Mary ' the Reformation had brought on 
the universities only injury, outward and 
inward. There are a thousand results of 
this great revolution which we must needs 
deplore and disown. Its benefits are not 
to be looked for from the side of the uni- 
versities at all, but in quite another quar- 
tei' — in the deepening of spiritual religion. 
In contrast to the older Church, which was 
troubled with Pelagian elements, it estab- 
lished a purer evangelical doctrine ; and 
this is its true glory. But in regard to the 
constitution and discipline of the Church, 
and the moral and scientific cultivation of 
the community, if it had any advantages 
over the old system, they are balanced "by 
concomitant evils. The higher we esti- 
mate the spirituality of the Reformed doc- 
trine the more are we authorised, and in 
duty bound, not to conceal the price at 
which this jewel was bought ; the more 
also should we cling to the hope that the 
spirit of the truth so dearly purchased 



may at length penetrate and fashion the 
material frame Avhich has received it.' 
What there was of reformation under 
Plenry VIII. chiefly consisted in the spolia- 
tion of the monasteries, and the substitution 
of the Royal for the Papal supremacy. The 
former was so entirely a financial experi- 
ment as to be altogether unworthy of 
notice in any religious connection. What- 
ever may have been the sins and laxities 
of the monasteries, no one who looks at the 
character of the king, the ageuts whom he 
employed, and the uses to which the pro- 
ceeds were put, can believe that they were 
dissolved in the interests of morality. The 
complaints of the most trusted exponents 
of contemporary discontent at the state of 
the universities about the middle of the 
sixteenth century are concei'ned in the 
first place with their general condition, 
and in the second with the character of 
their studies. Under the former head they 
deplore especially the irregular exercise of 
patronage, and the gradual disappearance 
of the non-collegiate or unattached ele- 
ment from the student body; and under 
the latter head they bewail the want of 
men who, by virtue of their recognised 
ability and mature experience, might sti- 
mulate and guide the younger students, 
and the injurious influence of theological 
polemics on genuine study. With refer- 
ence to the relative injury done to the 
well-being of the universities, a passage of 
rough pathos occurs in a sei'mon preached 
at St. Paul's Cross in 1 550 by Thomas Lever, 
who asserts that ' one courtier,' viewed as 
a despoiler, 'was worse than fifty tun- 
bellied monks.' ' Ho^v^ was it possible,' 
asks Professor Huber, ' in the midst of 
universal and increasing insecui'ity ; when 
the violence and evil passions of the king 
broke out more and more immoderately ; 
when all free religious movement, all free 
enquiry into the basis of religious belief, 
dwindled more and more away ; when the 
burning pile was lit for Papist, Protestant, 
and enthusiast ; when the University of 
Cambridge saw two of its chancellors, 
Fisher and Cromwell, perish on the scaf- 
fold ; when, with the noble head of Sir 
Thomas Moi'e, virtue, religion, wisdom, 
and learning appeared all together to perish ; 
while the most contemptible and hateful 
passions not only had free play, but, by 
help of most impudent hypocrisy, obtained 
legal validity and form ; — how was it 
possible, we ask, for any freedom, peace, 



REFORMATION (THE) 



323 



and liberty of the spirit to prevail, without 
which there can be no successful, intellec- 
tual activity at the universities 1 ' 

But so great a movement was not to 
be arrested by an occasional or incidental 
unreadiness of adjustment; and the minor 
impediments of progress were not to be 
treated as permanent or formidable obsta- 
cles to the march of a genius which was 
by hypothesis so variously resourceful as 
that of the Reformation. It was not long 
befoi'e the Protestant schools acquired the 
reputation of being the best in Europe. 
From this circumstance it results that the 
last phase in which the educational signi- 
ficance of the Reformation is to be con- 
sidered is that in which it is seen in the 
process of provoking an activity outside 
its own borders, a counter-energy to its 
own of alienage and antagonism. The 
Roman Catholic Church showed herself 
sensitively conscious of the scholastic 
changes which the spirit of the time had 
made inevitable ; and the challenge which 
had been thrown down by the champions 
of the Reformation was accepted with a 
smiling defiance by Ignatius Loyola and 
his brethren of the Society, or rather his 
fellow-soldiers of the Company, of Jesus, 
who, in a time when defection and desertion 
were common and widespread, came for- 
ward to bind themselves by a vow of obe- 
dience to the Holy See, so absolute as to 
include their obligation to go into any 
country whither the pope might desii-e to 
send them, among Turks, heathen, or here- 
tics, instantly, without discussion, condi- 
tion, or reward. The new order was first 
authorised — with some limitations, as, for 
instance, with regard to numbers — in 1540 
by Pope Paul III., who, three years after- 
wards, removed the original disabilities by 
a full and unreserved sanction. 

The special function of the Jesuits was 
the threefold one of preaching, confession, 
and education. In discharge of their first 
obligation they engaged amongst each other 
to preach mainly for the common people, and 
to strive rather after impressive and touch- 
ing discourse than after choice phrases. 
They affected the confessional on account 
of its intimate and immediate connection 
with the guidance and the government of 
consciences ; and with regard to education 
they had desired to bind themselves to this 
occupation by a special clause in their vows. 
But, although they abandoned that design, 
they made the practice of the duty impera- 



tive by the most cogent rules. Their most 
ardent wish was to gain over the rising 
generation. The programme of studies, 
which dates from the latter part of the 
sixteenth century, and in which the most ap- 
proved portions of the methods pursued in 
the schools of their predecessors or contem- 
poraries in the art of teaching were incorpo- 
rated, is in use, with certain modifications, 
in English Jesuit schools of the present 
day. Their extension and their success 
were extraordinary. As late as the year 
1551 they had no firm station in Germany; 
in 1566 their influence extended over Ba- 
varia and the Tyrol, Franconia and Suabia, 
a great part of the Rhineland and Austria, 
and they had penetrated into Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Moravia. About the middle 
of the sixteenth century the society had 
several colleges in France, particularly 
those of Billom, Mauriac, Rodez, Tournon, 
and Pamiers. In 1561 it secured a footing 
in Paris, notwithstanding the resistance of 
the Parliament, of the university, and of 
the bishops themselves. A hundred years 
later it counted nearly fourteen thousand 
pupils in the province of Paris alone. The 
College of Clermont in 1651 enrolled more 
than two thousand young men, and in 1695 
had three thousand students. The middle 
and higher classes assured to the colleges 
of the society an ever-increasing member- 
ship. At the end of the seventeenth cen- 
tury the Jesuits could inscribe on the roll 
of honour of their classes a hundred illus- 
trious names, including those of Conde and 
Luxembourg, Flechier and Bossuet, La- 
moignon and Seguier, Descartes, Corneille, 
and Moliere. In 1 7 1 the order controlled 
612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 59 novi- 
ciates, 340 residences, 200 missions, 29 pro- 
fessed homes, and 24 universities. In 
Catholic countries they were the real mas- 
ters of education, and they maintained 
their educational supremacy till the end of 
the eighteenth century. Various opinions 
are extant with regard to the merits of the 
system of the Jesuits. Bacon speaks of 
them in more than one passage as the re- 
vivers of the art of education, declaring of 
them, inter alia, that as to whatever relates 
to the instruction of the young we must 
consult the schools of the Jesuits, for there 
can be nothins: that is better done. ' Ad 
Pxdagogicam quod attinet,' he says, ' hre- 
vissimum foret dictu, Consule scholas Je- 
suitarum : nihil enim, quod in iisum venit, 
his melius.' Descartes approved of their 

y2 



324 



REFORMATION (THE) 



system, and Chateaubriand regarded their 
suppression as a calamity to civilisation 
and enlightenment. On the other hand, 
Leibnitz affirms that ' in the matter of 
education the Jesuits have remained below 
mediocrity' ; and Voltaire declared that 
'the fathers taught him nothing but Latin 
and nonsense.' 

The Jesuits devoted themselves with 
great assiduity to the direction of their 
Latin schools ; and it was, indeed, one of 
the principal maxims of Lainez, the first 
general of the order after its founder, that 
the lower grammar schools should be pro- 
vided with good masters. With accurate 
discrimination he chose men who, when 
they had once undertaken this subordinate 
branch of teaching, were willing to devote 
their whole lives to it ; for it was only 
with time that so difficult a business could 
be learned, or the authority indispensable 
to a teacher be acquired. Here the Je- 
suits succeeded to admiration ; it was found 
that their scholars learned more in one 
year than those of other masters in two, 
and even Protestants recalled their chil- 
dren from distant gymnasia and committed 
them to their care. Schools for the poor, 
modes of teaching suited to children, and 
catechising followed ; and the whole course 
of instruction was given entirely in that 
enthusiastic and devout spirit which had 
characterised the Jesuits from their earliest 
institution. While the superiority of the 
Protestant schools lay in the greater free- 
dom of spirit which characterised them, 
and the greater regard paid to the sub- 
stance of literature, the great and distinc- 
tive excellence of the Jesuits consisted in 
the possession and the inculcation of a de- 
finite educational method. ' It was the 
want of method,' says Professor Laurie, 
' that led to the decline of schools after 
the Reformation period ; it was the study 
of method which gave the Jesuits the 
superiority that in many parts of the con- 
tinent they still retain.' It is to their 
possession and exemplification of the same 
quality that the late Professor Ranke at- 
tributes their success — a success which, 
viewed in combination with its causes, 
seems to him to pi-esent a case perhaps 
without parallel in the history of the 
world. ' Without any striking manifesta- 
tion of genius or originality,' he remarks, 
'neither their piety nor their learning 
moved in any undefined or untrodden 
paths. They had, however, a quality which 



distinguished them in a remarkable degree- 
— rigid method, in conformity with which 
everything was calculated, everything had 
its definite scope and object. Such a union 
of appropriate and sufficing learning with 
unwearied zeal, of study and persuasive- 
ness, of pomp and penance, of widespread 
influence and unity, of a directing principle- 
and aim, never existed in the world, be- 
fore or since. They were industrious 
and visionary, woi'ldly-wise and full of 
enthusiasm, well-bred men and agreeable 
companions, regardless of their personal 
interests, and eager for each other's ad- 
vancement. No wonder that they were- 
successful.' The Jesuits were probably 
the first to bring the teacher into close 
connection with the taught ; but they are 
open to the accusation that the watchful 
care over their pupils, dictated to them by 
love, devotion, and self-sacrifice, degraded 
into surveillance, which lay-schools have 
borrowed from them, whilst their study of 
nature has led them to confession and di- 
rection. ' They have tracked out the soul 
to its recesses,' is the charge roundly 
brought against them by Mr. Oscar Bi'own- 
ing, ' that they might slay it there, and 
generate another in its place ; they edu- 
cated each mind according to its powers, 
that it might be a more subservient tool 
to their own j)urposes. They taught the 
accomplishments which the world loves, 
but their chief object was to amuse the- 
mind and stifle enquiry ; they encouraged 
Latin verses because they were a conve- 
nient plaything on which powers might 
be exercised which could have been better 
employed in understanding and discussing" 
higher subjects ; they were the patrons of 
school plays, of public prizes, declamations, 
examinations, and other exhibitions, in 
which the parents were more considered 
than the boys ; they regarded the claims 
of education, not as a desire to be en- 
couraged, but as a demand to be played 
with and propitiated ; they gave the best 
education of their time in order to acquirer 
confidence, but they became the chief ob- 
stacle to the improvement of education ;. 
they did not care for enlightenment, but 
only for the influence which they could 
derive from a supposed regard for en- 
lightenment.' 

Another of the ' teaching congrega- 
tions ' which subsequently arose to exer- 
cise its benevolent functions within ec- 
clesiastical limits, which were nominally 



REFORMATION (THE) 



325 



Homan, was that of the Jansenists of Port- 
Royal. They were named after a Belgian 
theologian named Cornelius Jansen (1585- 
1638), who, devoting himself to the study 
of the Fathers, and especially of St. Augus- 
tine, wrote a treatise, entitled Augustinus, 
1640, against the doctrine of freewill, and 
other heresies of the Pelagians and Mas- 
silians. The publication of this work, 
which is generally taken as marking the 
foundation of Jansenism in France, took 
place in 1640, two years after the death 
of the author, and exactly one hundred 
years after the first papal consecration of 
the Society of Jesus. From their earliest 
organisation the Jansenists manifested an 
ardent and affectionate solicitude for the 
education of youth ; and in 1643 founded 
their Petites ^coles at Port-Royal des 
Champs, in the seclusion of the forests of 
Versailles. Here they commenced with 
only a small number of pupils, and de- 
veloped their method as they proceeded ; 
and ' here we find, for the first time in 
the modern world, the highest gifts of the 
greatest men of a country applied to the 
business of education.' Rivals and anta- 
gonists of the Jesuits, they differed from 
the latter at once in their statutes, their 
constitution, and their destinies ; and even 
to a greater decrree in the motive and the 
spirit by which they were animated. ' For 
the Jesuits,' to quote the pointed anti- 
thesis of Professor Compayre, ' education 
is reduced to a superficial culture of the 
brilliant faculties of the intelligence ; 
whilst the Jansenists, on the contrary, 
aspire to develop the solid faculties, the 
judgment, and the reason. In the col- 
leges of the Jesuits, rhetoric is held in 
honour ; in the Petites E coles of Port- 
Royal it is rather logic and the exercise 
of thought. The shrewd disciples of Loyola 
adapt themselves to the age, and are full 
of allowance for human weakness ; the 
recluses of Port- Royal are as severe upon 
others as towards themselves. In their 
suppleness and cheerful optimism the Je- 
suits are almost the Epicureans of Chris- 
tianity ; with their austere and somewhat 
sombre doctrine, the Jansenists would 
rather be its Stoics. The Jesuits and the 
Jansenists, those great rivals of the seven- 
teenth century, yet face each other, and 
contend against each other, at the present 
moment.' The success of the Jansenists 
has seldom been surpassed ; and, indeed, 
it was too much for the jealousy of the 



Jesuits. Neither piety, nor wit, nor virtue 
could save them. Persecution did not 
long grant them the leisure to continue 
the work they had undertaken. By 1660, 
when they had completed only some seven- 
teen years of their career of instruction, 
the enemies of Port- Royal had triumphed, 
and the Jesuits obtained an order from 
the king closing the schools and dispersing 
the teachers. Pursued, imprisoned, exiled, 
the solitaries of Port- Royal were allowed 
to do little more than to consolidate in 
imperishable works the principles of a 
pedagogy which might have given an en- 
tirely different direction to the education 
of France and of Europe. 

The roll of the great teachers whose 
community was graced by the polemical 
renown of Blaise Pascal includes also the 
names of Pierre Nicole, the moralist and 
dialectician, one of the authors of the 
famous La Logique, ou I'Art de Penser, 
and the writer of a treatise entitled 
L' l^ducation d'un Prince, a series of re- 
flections on education, and applicable, as 
he himself says, to children of all classes ; 
of Claude Lancelot, the grammarian, the 
author of various Methodes for learning 
respectively the Greek, Latin, Italian, and 
Spanish languages ; and of Antoine Ar- 
nauld, called ' the Great,' the joint author 
of Leo Logique and of the Grammaire 
Generale, who also produced the Reglement 
des i^tudes dans les Lettres humaines. 
Other names of less celebrated Jansenists 
are still worthy of mention, as, for instance, 
those of Lemaistre de Sacy, the author of 
various translations ; of Coustel, who pub- 
lished Regies de V Education des Enfans ; 
and of Varet, the author of L' Education 
Chretienne. Fenelon may be reckoned as 
belonging to the same school, but he was 
more fitted to mix and grapple with man- 
kind. With regard to the relative dura- 
bility and value of educational methods 
Professor Compayre judiciously observes 
that ' the merit of institutions should not 
always be measured by their apparent 
success. The colleges of the Jesuits, during 
three centuries, have had a countless num- 
ber of pupils ; the Petites Ecoles of Port- 
Royal did not live twenty years, and 
during their short existence they enrolled 
at most only some hundreds of pupils. 
And yet the methods of the Jansenists 
have survived the ruin of their colleges 
and the dispersion of the masters who 
applied them. Although the Jesuits have 



326 



REFORMATION (THE) REFORMATORY SCHOOLS 



not ceased to rule in appearance, it is the 
Jansenists who triumph in reality, and 
who have to-day the control of secondary 
education.' 

To the same purport is the estimate of 
the work of the Jansenists and its abiding 
character and influence recorded by the 
judicial pen of the late Leopold von Ranke. 
' Whilst the Jesuits,' he writes, ' were 
hoarding up learning in huge folios, or 
were losing themselves in the revolting- 
subtleties of an artificial system of morals 
and dogmas, the Jansenists addi-essed 
themselves to the nation. They began 
by translating the Holy Scriptures, the 
Fathers of the Church, and Latin pi^xyer- 
"books ; they happily avoided the old 
Frankish forms which had till now been 
so prejudicial to the popularity of all 
works of that kind, and expressed them- 
selves with an attractive clearness of 
style. The establishment of a seminary 
at Port-Royal led them to compose school- 
books of the ancient and modern lan- 
guages, logic and geometry, which, ema- 
nating fi-om minds not trammelled by 
■antiquated forms, contained new methods, 
the merits of which have been universally 
admitted. . . . Men of the lofty genius and 
profound science of Pascal, of the poetical 
originality and perfection of Racine, and 
of the wide range of knowledge of Tilleraont 
were formed within their walls. Their 
labours extended, as we see, far beyond 
the circle of ascetic theology which Jansen 
and Du Yerger had traced. It would not 
be too much to assert that this union of 
men of high intellect and filled with noble 
objects, who, in their mutual intercourse 
and by their oi'iginal and unassisted efforts, 
gave rise to a new tone of expression and 
a new method of communicating ideas, 
had a most remarkable influence on the 
whole form and character of the literature 
of France, and hence of Europe ; and 
that the literary splendour of the age of 
Louis XIV. may be in part ascribed to 
the Society of Port-Royal.' 

For the space of some two hundred 
years the educational systems of the Refor- 
mation, as well as of the Catholic Avorld, 
suffered arrest, if not retrogression. From 
the genei'al stagnation and the general 
pedantry which was the result, the colleges 
of the Jesuits, owing to their eftective 
tradition of method, suffered less than 
those of their rivals or their confederates 
in the art and practice of instruction. So 



early as the latter half of the sixteenth 
centuiy complaints loud and long, and 
proceeding from men of the highest intel- 
ligence, were rife as to the waste of time, 
the severity of the discipline, and the bar- 
barism and intricacy of the grammar rules, 
which gave an evil tone to the schools of 
the period. There were, however, extenu- 
ating circumstances ; for it has to be 
remembered that all Europe had been 
embroiled in civil and ecclesiastical con- 
tentions, and that the seeds of popular 
education and of an improved secondary 
system could not possibly have developed 
themselves in an atmosphere so unge- 
nial. Indeed, until the remodelled school 
code of Saxony appeared in 1773, the dawn 
which had been so full of promise was 
overcast ; the spirit that actuated the 
Refoi-mers had died, and there had been a 
relapse into the old scholasticism, A couple 
of centuries wei-e lost. Scotland alone, 
remote at least from continental imbrog- 
lios, and one of the typical centres of the 
Reformation — Scotland alone, as is claimed 
by one of her two Professors of the History, 
Theory, and Practice of Education, was 
dux'ing this period busily carrying out, in 
a truly national sense, the programme of 
the Reformation and the humanists ; but 
this, in accordance with the genius of 
Protestantism, mainly on the popular side. 

(Mr. Oscar Browning's article on ' Edu- 
cation ' in the Encyclo2)n'dia Britannica, 
9th edition ; American Journal of Educa- 
tion, passim ; Professor V. A. Huber's 
Die Englischen Universitdten, 1839-40 ; 
Rev. R. H. Quick's Essays on Educational 
Reformers, 1868 ; Mr. James Grant's His- 
tory of the Burgh Schools of Scotland^ 
1876 ; Professor Gabriel Compayre's i/is- 
foire de la Pedagogie, 1881 ; Dr. Charles 
Beard's ' Hibbert Lecture ' on the Refor- 
mation of the Sixteenth Century, 1883 ; 
Professor S. S. Laurie's John Amos Co- 
menius, 2nd edition, 1884 ; Mr. James 
Bass Mullinger's University of Cambridge, 
from the Royal Injunctions of 1535 to the 
Accession of Charles I., 1884 ; and others.) 

Reformatory Schools are institutions 
for the reception and reformation of juve- 
nile offenders under sentence for criminal 
oftences. They were the outcome of the 
efforts of the Philanthropic Society, of 
Avhich Sir Stafford Northcote (afterwards 
Lord Iddesleigh) was one of the most active 
members, and the first general law relating 
to them was passed in 1854, 'for the better 



REFORMATORY SCHOOLS REGISTRATION OF TEACHERS 32V 



care and reformation of youthful offenders 
in Great Britain.' This was followed by 
the Irish Act of 1858. Any juvenile 
offender convicted of an offence punishable 
with penal servitude or imprisonment, who, 
in the opinion of the court, justices, or 
magistrates before whom he is charged, is 
under the age of sixteen years, and who is 
sentenced to imprisonment for not less than 
ten days in Great Britain, and not less 
than fourteen days in Ireland, may also 
be sentenced to be sent, at the expiration 
of his period of imprisonment, to a certified 
reformatory school, to be there detained 
for a period of not less than two years, 
and not more than five years. Juvenile 
offenders are only sent to such reformatory 
schools as are under the exclusive manage- 
ment of pei'sons of their own religious 
persuasion. A capitation grant is made 
by Parliament for the support of reforma- 
tory schools, and the usual average is 
about 5s. lid. per head per week, the 
balance, about Is. Qd. per week, being 
taken out of the local rates. In Great 
Britain there were in 1888 sixty-four re- 
formatory schools, and in Ireland ten. 
These schools include the ' Cornwall ' ship 
off Purfleet,' the ' Akbar ' hulk and the 
' Clarence ' ship, both at Liverpool. The 
number of offenders committed to these 
reformatory schools in Great Britain in 
the year ended September 29, 1886, was 
1,269, of whom 1,082 were males and 187 
females. 79*7 per cent, of the total num- 
ber committed were committed for larce- 
nies or attempts to steal ; 4*9 per cent.for 
housebreaking, shopbreaking, or burglary; 
and 5 '6 per cent, for vagrancy. The re- 
maining 9 "8 per cent, were for various 
other offences. 

Of the numbers committed in each of 
the three years, 1883-84, 1884-85, 1885- 
86, the percentage under the different 
decrees of instruction was as follows : — 





1885-86 


1884-85 


1883-84 




w 


S' 


m 


S 


w 


a; 


















a 


s 


^ 


§ 


S 


3 








fe 


& 


Neither read nor write 


19-3 


24-1 


22-2 


18-0 


22-3 


36-2 


Eead or read and write 














imperfectlv . 


72-7 


58-8 


66-G 


Gl-9 


6G-3 


47-5 


Eead and write well . 


8-0 


iV-i 


yyv 


2U-1 


11-3 


lG-3 


Of superior instruction 


— 


"" 


0-2 


— 


0-1 





The total amount payable by Her 
Majesty's Treasury on account of the re- 
formatory schools for the year 1885-86 



was 66,660?. 10s. 10c?., being a decrease 
upon the amount for the year 1884-85 of 
875?. 7s. 5d. The amount recovered from 
parents in 1885-86 was 5,030?. 16s. 7c?,, 
being an increase of 213?. 6s. Id. in com- 
parison with the sum recovered in the 
previous year. The importance of making 
reformatory schools a part of the public 
penal system was first practically recog- 
nised by Massachusetts in 1848. 

Registration. — In private schools, and 
in public scliools above the elementary 
class, custom and convenience determine 
what registers shall be kept, but in public 
elementary schools registration is subject 
to definite and rigid rules. The books 
prescribed are an Admission Poegister, a 
Daily Attendance P^-egister, anda Summary. 
(1) The Admission Register must be kept 
by the head teacher. It must show dis- 
tinctly for each child admitted, its number, 
date of admission, full name, name and 
address of its parent or guardian, whether 
exemption from religious insti-uction is 
claimed, date of birth, the last school 
attended, highest standard in which it was 
there presented, the successive standards 
in which it is presented in the new school, 
and, lastly, the date of leaving. (2) The 
Attendance Register shows the daily and 
weekly attendances of each scholar through- 
out the school year. At the foot are en- 
tered, at each school meeting, the number 
present, and, weekly, the number on re- 
gister, the number present at all, and the 
total number of attendances for the week. 
(3) The Summary shows for the whole 
school, class by class, and week by week, 
the numbers entered at the foot of the 
attendance registers. In Board schools a 
Fee and Stock Book has to be kept, in 
addition to the three books already named. 

Registration of Teachers. — In all 
countries where education is regulated by 
the State it follows, almost as a logical 
consequence, that the State should impose 
some test of aptitude on its teachers. 
Thus in France there is the brevet de 
cajjacite, without which no primary teacher, 
whether public or private, can exercise 
his calling. There is likewise the brevet 
de capacite de Venseignement secondaire 
special, which is compulsory on the se- 
condary teacher who has not the degree 
of bachelor. In Germany the Zeugniss 
corresponds to the French teacher's brevet, 
and in nearly every Continental State 
some similar certificate is required. In 



328 REGISTRATION OF TEACHERS RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



England the certificate, or ' parcliment,' 
of elementary teachers {see Certificated 
Teachers) is tantamount to registration, 
although only one-half of our elementary 
teachers have undergone any professional 
training (except as pupil-teachers), and no 
list of acting teachers is issued by the Edu- 
cation Department. On the other hand, 
for secondary teachers, whether in public 
or private scliools, no credentials are de- 
manded by the State, and till within quite 
recent years no attempt has been made 
either to provide for them a professional 
training or to exclude impostors from the 
profession. The movement in favour of 
the registration of teachers began rather 
more than a quarter of a century ago with 
an association, consisting mainly of private 
teachers, formed for the object of influenc- 
ing public opinion in this direction, and 
ultimately obtaining an Act of Parliament. 
It was not, however, till 1869 that the 
subject of registration was brought before 
the Legislature. In that year Mr. Forster 
introduced, together with his Endowed 
Schools Bill, a second Bill for the organisa- 
tion of higher education and the registra- 
tion of teachers other than elementary, 
commonly known as Mr. Forster's Bill 
No. 2. This Bill met with little favour ; 
it was regarded by the general public with 
indifference, supported only by a section 
of the profession, and suspected even by 
the Liberal party in the House as an un- 
warrantable interference with the liberty 
of the subject. But though it did not 
reach a second reading, it is of historical 
interest as the first assertion of the prin- 
ciple that it is the business of the State 
to supervise all education, and as tracing 
the main lines on which subsequent Bills 
have been drawn. The backbone of the 
Bill ^^'as an Educational Council, to whom 
the examination and registration of teachers 
were committed. In 1879 a Bill, which was 
promoted by the College of Preceptors, was 
introduced by Dr. Lyon Playfair. This 
Bill, commonly known as the ' Lyon Play- 
fair Teachers' Registration Bill,' repro- 
duced Mr. Forster's Educational Council, 
with one important change in its consti- 
tution. One-fourth of the council were 
eventually to be elected by the general 
body of registered teachers. Thus the 
council, instead of being a State depart- 
ment, tempered by university syndics, 
became, to a certain extent, a democratic 
and representative body. The same Bill, 



with some important modifications, was 
undertaken in 1881 by Sir John Lub- 
bock. For the provisions of this Bill we 
must refer our readers to a pamphlet. The 
Registration of Teachers, by F. Storr (W. 
Rice, 1887), where the text is given as an 
appendix. Space will only permit us to 
call attention to some moot points raised 
by the Bill, and to indicate what are the 
present views and wishes of the profession. 
(1) Teachers are generally agreed that a 
Registration Act will be of little effect un- 
less it is compulsory. The Medical Act 
affords a precedent exactly to the point. 
The first clause of the Teachers' Bill must 
run : ' No teacher, after a certain date to 
be fixed by the council, shall be able to 
recover tuition fees in a court of law un- 
less his name is upo^i the register.' (2) For 
admission to the register some professional 
test must eventually be imposed. Here, 
again, there is an exact analogy between, 
the teaching and the medical profession. 
(3) That all teachers, including the ele- 
mentary, should be included in the register 
is greatly to be desired. There are prac- 
tical difliculties in the way, but these would 
disappear if a Minister of Education were 
created. (4) The council to whom is com- 
mitted the administration of the Bill should 
be elected mainly by the teachers them- 
selves; but it is generally thought that 
delegates of the various educational bodies 
— the Universities, the College of Precep- 
tors, the National Union of Elementary 
Teachers, &c. — would be preferable to di- 
rect representation. We may add. Lord 
Salisbury's Government, in a debate in 
the House of Commons (April 27, 1888), 
pledged itself to consider the Registration 
of Teachers in a forthcoming bill affecting 
secondary education. For further informa- 
tion see Proceedings of International Con- 
ference on Education, vol. iv. p. 136, and 
Journal of Education, Feb. 1888, contain- 
ing Report of Conference of Teachers' 
Guild. 

Religious Education. — All that this 
article is called on to deal with is the 
efforts made by the State, and the ChurcheSj 
assisted by various benevolent societies, 
to arrange for or to further the suitable 
religious education of the classes who at- 
tend primaiy schools. 

Even were it possible it would scarcely 
be advisable to attempt an account of the 
innumerable methods devised both in 
school and pulpit to meet the require- 



EELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



329 



ments of those who are in a position to 
choose for themselves the systems they 
consider best. 

I. The attitude of the State towards 
Religious Education. — It has gradually 
come to be held as an axiom that the 
State has no direct concern with religious 
education. Secular knowledge the State 
is bound to give. Religious knowledge 
it leaves to the different denominations. 
The Government grants in England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland are regulated on this 
principle. They are made («) to denomi- 
national training colleges, (h) to primary 
schools. 

(«) To the denominational training 
colleges the State contributes three- 
fourths of their annual expenditure, pro- 
vided that expenditure is confined within 
certain strictly defined limits. The re- 
maining fourth is contributed by the reli- 
gious bodies under whose management 
the colleges are. In this way the State 
pays for the secular training of the 
teacher, but allows the utmost liberty of 
action to the denomination in the matter 
of their religious teaching. Of these 
denominational training colleges there are 
in all fifty-three : forty-three in England, 
seven in Scotland, three in Ireland. 

(6) Government schools in England. — 
The division of State-aided schools into 
School Board and Voluntary arises largely 
from the different regulations in force in 
each with regard to religious instruction. 
It dates from the passing of Mr. Forster's 
Act in 1870. The changes with regard 
to religious instruction introduced by the 
Act are comprehensively summed up by 
Dr. Rigg {National Education, chap, x.) 
as follows : — 

' The new Act retained existing in- 
spected schools, but it made a time-table 
Conscience Clause imperative in all schools 
in which religious instruction was given ; 
it also did away with all denominational 
classifications of schools, and with denomi- 
national inspection, treating all inspected 
schools as equally belonging to a national 
system of schools, and under national in- 
spection, the distinction as to inspectors 
and their province being henceforth purely 
geographical. But the new Act no longer 
required that public elementary schools, 
established by voluntary agency and 
tinder voluntary management, should have 
in them any religious character or ele- 
ment whatever, whether as belonging to 



a Christian Church or denomination, or as 
connected with a Christian philanthropic 
society, or as providing for the reading of 
the Scripture in the school. It was left 
open to ally party or any person to esta- 
blish purely voluntary schools if they 
thought fit. But furthermore, the Act 
made provision for an entirely new class 
of schools, to be established and (in part) 
supported out of local rates, to be 
governed by locally elected School Boards, 
and to have just such and so much reli- 
gious instruction given in them as the 
governing Boards might think proper, at 
times preceding or following the prescribed 
secular school hours, and under the pro- 
tection of a time-table Conscience Clause, 
as in the case of voluntary schools, with 
this restriction only, that in the schools 
no catechism or denominational religious 
formulary of any sort was to he taught.^ 

In the School Board schools so founded 
there is nothing derived from their con- 
stitution to prevent a considerable amount 
of religious instruction being given ; but 
the differences of opinion among the mem- 
bers of the Board are generally so marked, 
that it is not possible to agree upon any- 
thing further than the reading of the 
Bible without note or comment. (See 
School Boards.) 

In Voluntary schools the only restric- 
tions as to the amount and nature of the 
religious instruction are (1) that such in- 
struction must be given either before or 
after the time required for secular sub- 
jects, and (2) 'any scholar may be with- 
drawn by his parent from such instruc- 
tion without forfeiting any of the other 
benefits of the school.' The full Liberty 
thus allowed has been found, when pro- 
perly employed, to permit of as thorough 
and systematic a religious education as 
could be given under any school system. 
It is on this account that the Voluntary 
schools are so highly valued and so warmly 
supported by those who are principally in- 
terested in religious education. 

Government Schools in Scotland, — In 
Scotland the system of School Boards pre- 
vails very widely, though not exclusively. 
This is to be accounted for partly because 
it falls in with the tradition of Scotch edu- 
cation, partly also because there is no re- 
striction in Scotland as to what religious 
instruction shall be given in the schools. 
A Conscience Clause similar to that in 
England protects individual liberty of 



330 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



opinion, but with this exception denomi- 
national teaching may be freely given. 
The Presbyterians have, therefore, no in- 
ducement to maintain separate schools, as 
the Board schools fully meet their require- 
ments. The voluntary principle is, how- 
ever, fully recognised. There is nothing 
to prevent the denominations retaining 
their schools under the Privy Council, and 
it is probable that Episcopalian and Roman 
Catholic schools will be permanently so 
retained. 

In Ireland the provisions made by the 
National Board for Religious Education 
closely resemble those in force in the Vo- 
luntary schools in England. The schools 
are divided into two classes : (1) Those 
whose ownership is vested in the Commis- 
sionei-sof Education or trustees ; (2) those 
not so vested, whose ownership is retained 
by those who build them. The rule with 
reference to religious instruction is that, 
provided four hours are devoted each day 
to secular instruction, as much time as the 
manager wishes may be devoted to dis- 
tinctly denominational teaching, either 
before or after secular school business, and 
at one, but only one, intermediate time 
between the commencement and close of 
the secular school business. In Vested 
schools accommodation must be provided 
so that such pastors or other persons as 
shall be approved of by the parents or 
guardians of the children shall have access 
to them in the schoolrooms for the purpose 
of giving religious instruction there at 
times convenient for that purpose. In 
Non- Vested schools no such obligation 
exists. The teachers give whatever course 
of instruction the managers may approve ; 
but all children whose parents disapprove 
of the course must be dismissed till the 
time for religious instruction is over. In 
cases in which the managers do not permit 
religious instruction to be given in the 
schoolroom, the children whose parents or 
guardians so desire must be allowed to 
absent themselves from the school at rea- 
sonable times, for the purpose of receiving 
such instruction elsewhere. 

A special feature of the Irish system 
is that grants are made to monastery and 
convent schools, in which the teaching is 
done by the monks and nuns. There are 
upwards of 200 such schools, attended by 
upwards of 50,000 pupils. 

II. The Religious Education Work of 
the different Denominations. — Leaving the 



passive attitude taken up by Govern- 
ment on the question of religious instruc- 
tion, and proceeding to consider the work 
done by the different denominations and 
the societies in connection with them, we 
find great activity prevailing in all three 
countries. In England sectarian repug- 
nance to the School Board system, with 
its prohibition of denominational formu- 
laries, has i"oused the Churches to strenu- 
ous exertions in support of Voluntary 
schools. A desire to develop to the ut- 
most such religious teaching as the Board 
system does permit has led them to frame 
elaborate organisations for stimulating 
the earnest study of the Bible in Board 
schools. 

(1) Training Colleges, as the means 
whereby religious influence maybe brought 
to bear upon \he schools, occupy a large 
share of attention. The Cliurch of England 
possesses thirty. Of these one has been 
built and maintained by the Society for the 
Promotion of Christian Knowledge ; three 
by the Home and Colonial Society {q.v.) ; 
three are the especial charge of the Na- 
tional Society {q.v.). The rest may be 
classed generally as diocesan, but almost 
without exception they are largely aided 
by the National Society. With a view to 
securing a high standard of religious know- 
ledge, an inspector is appointed by the Arch- 
bishops of Canterbury and York to visit 
and report upon the colleges. There is also 
an Examining Board for Pv,eligious Know- 
ledge, to examine the candidates for en- 
trance to the colleges and the students in 
training. The Board consists of the arch- 
bishops' inspector, who is chairman, two 
representatives elected by the principals 
of the colleges for masters and mistresses 
respectively, of a member appointed by the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, of one appointed 
by the National Society, and of the secre- 
tary of the National Society. The Board is 
assisted by a staff of eight experienced ex- 
aminers. All the expenses connected both 
with the inspector and the Board are de- 
frayed by the National Society. The So- 
ciety further pays a capitation grant to 
the colleges according as their students 
pass in first, second, or third class. This 
work is further assisted by the Society for 
the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 
which makes grants of 21. to all who pass 
in first-class and subsequently enter a re- 
cognised training college. 

Of the other religious bodies the Wes- 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION- 



SSI 



leyans have two training colleges, the 
Congregationalists one, and the Roman 
Catholics three, the latter being largely 
supported by the Catholic Poor Schools 
Committee. In all these colleges special 
and earnest attention is paid to religious 
instruction. The Roman Catholic colleges 
have the advantage of a regular system of 
religious inspection provided by the Poor 
Schools Committee. 

(2) Schools. — Great exertions are made 
by all denominations to maintain and de- 
velop the Voluntary School system. The 
following table taken from the Tear-Book 
of the Church of England shows the large 
sums which are raised for the purpose : — 

YoLUXTARY Contributions. 



Day scliools, year 
ended August 31 


1885 


1886 


Church 
British, &c. . 
Weslej'au . 
Roman Catholic . 
Board . 


& ^. d. 

583,936 3 4 

96,832 6 3 

15,934 7 11 

69,233 8 10 

891 11 11 


£ .!. d. 

586.950 19 

74,693 19 8 

15,691 9 2 

64,600 2 4 

660 19 3 


Total . 


756,827 18 3 


742,597 9 5 



In connection with the Church of Eng- 
land, in addition to diocesan and parochial 
efforts, the Society for the Promotion of 
Christian Knowledge and the National 
Society give large grants for building and 
enlarging schools. The work of testing 
the religious instruction in Church schools, 
which was discharged by the State until 
1870, is now carried on by the Church it- 
self. A large body of experienced ex- 
aminers, acting in each case under insti'uc- 
tions from the bishop of the diocese, are 
engaged in the work. The maintenance 
of these inspectors involves an expenditure 
of not less than 15,000?. a year on the part 
of the Diocesan Boards. Large grants 
towards the salaries of inspectors are made 
by the National Society. Prizes for pro- 
ficiency in diocesan examination are given 
in many cases by the S.P.C.K. 

The religious instruction given in Board 
schools is also the object of much atten- 
tion. Grants are made by the Society for 
Promoting Christian Knowledge to pro- 
mote the systematic religious instruction 
of Board school pupil-teachers in the dio- 
ceses of London and Rochester, and hand- 
some exhibitions are awarded. 

A large work with a similar object, 
but dealing with all the classes in Board 



schools, has been undertaken by the Re- 
ligious Tract Society. Liberal prizes are 
offered for proficiency in Biblical know- 
ledge, and immense numbers are induced 
to compete. As an illustration of the work, 
it may be mentioned that last year 228,021 
children offered themselves for examina- 
tion in connection with the London School 
Board, and prizes to the value of 500L 
were distributed. 

The Wesleyans, by means of the Com- 
mittee of Education, watch carefully over 
the interests of their Voluntary schools. 
The severe competition of the Board schools 
prevents any great advance in the number 
of these schools ; but the attendance at 
them has increased upwards of 25 per 
cent. There is a regular system of exami- 
nation of pupil-teachers in religious know- 
ledge in Wesleyan schools ; but no general 
system of examination for the scholars. 

The Roman Catholics, largely through 
the instrumentality of the Poor Schools- 
Committee, have so successfully resisted 
the Board school system that not only has 
it made no inroad on their schools, but the 
number of their schools, the number of 
their teachers, and the number of their 
pupils has been more than doubled since 
1870. These circumstances are particu- 
larly creditable Avhen it is remembered that 
the childi^en of the Roman Catholic poor 
are among those least able to pay high 
school fees. The religious instruction in 
these schools is superintended and en- 
couraged by means of a thorough system 
of inspection, on the results of which 
liberal prizes are awarded to pupil-teachers 
and others. 

Sunday Schools. — The work done in 
Sunday schools forms a very important 
part of the religious education given by 
the different denominations. Since the 
Act of 1870, and the consequent spread of 
Board schools, the importance attached to 
Sunday schools has increased, and there 
has been a corresponding increase in their 
numbers and efficiency. In connection 
with the Church of England, the Sunday 
School Institute (Serjeants' Inn, Elect 
Street, London, E.C.), since its foundation 
in 1843, has done much fco extend and im- 
prove Sunday school teaching. It has now 
under instruction in England and Wales 
some 6,000,000 scholars, taught by nearly 
600,000 teachers. The chief branches of 
the Institute work are (1) providing suit- 
able lessons for the use of teachers. The 



332 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



books and papers issued with this object 
have attained a very wide circulation. 
(2)^ Instruction in the art of teaching. 
This instruction is given not mei-ely in Lon- 
don, but by the deputation secretaries, who 
visit all parts of England and Wales, and 
some counties in Ireland, to lecture and 
give model lessons. Other important 
branches are the examination of Sunday 
school teachers at different centres, the 
founding and organising of branch associ- 
ations all over the country, of which there 
are 363, and the publication of literature 
of all kinds suitable for helping on Sunday 
school work. 

In connection with the various Dis- 
senting bodies the following agencies exist 
for furthering Sunday school work : ' The 
Connexional Sunday School Union ' 
(2 Ludgate Circus Buildings, London, 
E.C.), for Wesleyan Sunday schools ; ' The 
Sunday School Association,' established 
1833 (37 Norfolk Street, Strand, London, 
W.C), and 'The Sunday School Union' 
(56 Old Bailey, London, JE.C), established 
1803, not connected with any one 
denomination. The work done by the 
Sunday School Union is very extensive. 
On its books it has nearly 150,000 
teachers, and nearly 1,500,000 scholars. 
Its objects are (1) to stimulate and en- 
courage Sunday school teachers at home 
and abroad to greater exertions in the 
promotion of religious education; (2) by 
mutual communication, and by means of 
a valuable training class held all the year 
round in London, to improve the methods 
of instruction; (3) to ascertain where Sun- 
day schools are needed, and promote their 
establishment; (4) to supply books and 
stationery suited for Sunday 'schools. 

In Scotland, the fact that distinct de- 
nominational teaching is permitted in the 
Board schools has made it possible to 
secure efficient religious teaching without 
such special effort as has been re'quired in 
England. 

Training CoIIeges.—The Church of 
Scotland and the Free Church manage 
between them six training colleges— four 
for masters and mistresses, two for mis- 
tresses. These Churches examine the 
candidates for admission to traininc^ in 
religious knowledge, and prescribe a 
course of study to be followed. They also 
•examine the students at the end of each 
year of their course, and the results are 
printed. The Episcopal Church manages 



one college for masters and mistresses. 
The students receive the same religious 
instruction as is given in the English 
Church colleges, and it is tested by the 
same examiners. Schools. — Among Pres- 
byterians the Board school system is 
universal. ' Use and Wont ' secured be- 
fore 1872 in the vast majority of schools 
the teaching of the Bible and the shorter 
catechism. Under the Act of 1872 the 
matter is wholly in the hands of the 
School Boards. As the result of the 
elections during all the years which have 
elapsed since 1872, ' Use and Wont ' has 
been maintained. In a few isolated cases 
the catechism is not taught, but Bible 
teacliing holds its ground. Many of the 
Boards in Scotland appoint examiners in 
religious instruction, wlio report to them. 
In addition, an association (office, 3a Pitt 
Street, Edinburgh) exists for the pur- 
pose of encouraging inspection in reli- 
gious instruction, and some of the Boards 
avail themselves of its inspectors. The 
Episcopal Church maintains in all some 
seventy-five schools. Religious instruc- 
tion is carefully given in them, and dio- 
cesan inspectors are employed to test the 
proficiency of the pupils in religious sub- 
jects. As the Poor Schools Committee 
represents in matters which concern 
elementary education Scotland as well as 
England, the account of its operations 
given above may be taken as referring to 
both countries. 

Ireland. — (1) Training Colleges. — It 
was only in 1883 that the system of de- 
nominational training colleges was ex- 
tended to Ireland. Up to this date the 
only place where teachers could be trained 
was at the College of the Commissioners 
of Education in Marlborough Street. 
This college has always been managed in 
accordance with the fundamental prin- 
ciple of the National Board, combined 
literary and moral, and separate religious 
instruction. Clergymen of the difierent 
denominations are permitted to visit and 
instruct the students separately at fixed 
times ; at all other times no distinction 
whatever is made on the score of religion. 
This system was always profoundly dis- 
tasteful to the Roman Catholics and a 
large section of the Chui'ch of Ireland, 
and the result was that most of the Irish 
teachers were untrained. When the offer 
of denominational ti'aining colleges was 
made by the Government in 1883, the 



RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 



333 



Roman Catholics immediately founded one 
for masters and another for mistresses. 
In 1884 the Church of Ireland founded 
one for masters and mistresses. The reli- 
gious instruction in the Roman Catholic 
colleges is managed by the college au- 
thorities. In the Church of Ireland 
Training College the candidates for en- 
trance are examined by the college. The 
students in training are examined by the 
Board of the General Synod, as explained 
below. The Presbyterians and Wesleyans 
have as yet no training college. They 
get their teachers from Marlborough 
Street, and provide religious education 
for them by sending their catechists at 
such times as the Time-Table permits. 
(2) Schools. — Since disestablishment in 
1870, the Church of Ireland has done 
much towards maintaining schools and 
improving the religious instruction given 
in them. The Church 'educational organ- 
isation consists of a Central Board ap- 
pointed by the General Synod, and of Dio- 
cesan Boards appointed by the different 
Diocesan Synods. Most of the schools 
under Church management are in connec- 
tion with the National Board. Of the 
rest some, through not accepting the sys- 
tem of the National Board, remain in con- 
nection with the Church Education So- 
ciety, a society originally formed to resist 
the advance of the National Board. Others, 
owing to the smallness of their numbers, 
can get no grants from the National Board, 
and have to depend upon grants from such 
sources as the Diocesan Board, the Eras- 
mus Smith Board, the Islands and Coasts 
Society, the Ladies' Hibernian Society, 
and private benevolence. The Board of 
the General Synod and (with one or two 
exceptions) the Diocesan Boards work 
alike for all classes of schools. The Synod's 
Board provides the catechists for the Marl- 
borough Street Training College, a work 
in which it is sometimes assisted by the 
English Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel. lb also organises, and with the 
help of the Irish Association for the Pro- 
pagation of Christian Knowledge gives 
liberal prizes at, examinations in religious 
knowledge, held twice a year, for teachers 
in charge of schools, and also for the stu- 
dents of the Church of Ireland Training 
College. The Diocesan Boards, in addition 
to helping poor schools, have two important 
duties : (1) to provide diocesan inspectors 
to inspect national schools in religious 



knowledge, and other schools in both re- 
ligious and secular knowledge ; (2) to or- 
ganise and give prizes for the annual dio- 
cesan examinations of Sunday and day 
schools. It has not as yet been found 
possible to appoint diocesan inspectors fo? 
all the dioceses, but, with scarcely an ex- 
ception, the annual examinations have been 
everywhere organised with great success. 
Special examiners are appointed by the 
Boards, who make the tour of their diocese. 
The children come in large numbers to the 
different centres, and liberal prizes are 
awarded on the results of the examination. 
In connection with the Diocesan Boards a 
Church of Ireland Educational Association 
has been formed. By this association 
calendars of religious instruction, accom- 
panied by notes for Sunday school teachers, 
are compiled. The calendars and notes are 
expected to circulate through the whole 
of the Irish Church. 

The Sunday schools of the Church of 
Ireland are for the most part organised so 
as to work for the annual examination held 
by the Diocesan Boards. In the diocese 
of Dublin a system of lectures and exami- 
nations for Sunday school teachers is main- 
tained by the Diocesan Board. In the 
northern and southern diocese Sunday 
school teachers avail themselves of the ex- 
aminations of the English Sunday School 
Institute. 

The schools of the Presbyterians and 
Wesleyans are placed under the National 
Board whenever their numbers make it 
possible. Diocesan inspectors are not em- 
ployed. In the Presbyterian Church the- 
rule is that every minister shall be respon- 
sible for his own immediate charge, and 
the Presbytery supervise him. A Com- 
mittee of the General Assembly on Ele- 
mentary Education exercises a general 
superintendence. In the Methodist Church 
the rule is : The schools shall be syste- 
matically visited by the ministers, and they 
are required to keep an account of such- 
pastoral visits, to be handed to the chair- 
man of their district. In each of the ten 
districts a minister is annually appointed 
to visit and inspect all the schools within 
his district. An Education Fund exists- 
for helping schools too small to receive aid 
from the National Board. The supervision 
of the education work forms part of the du- 
ties of the General Committee of Manage- 
ment. Both among the Presbyterians and 
Wesleyans the Sunday school system is; 



334 



EEMORSE RENAISSANCE (THE) 



vigcft'ously worked, .ind in most schools 
yearly examinations are held. IVie Roman 
Catholics have from the first used the Na- 
tional system of schools, and as a result 
they have splendid national schools all 
■over Ireland, not even the most remote 
parts being excepted. The religious in- 
struction given in these schools is closely 
■watched and superintended. Besides the 
ordinary national schools the Roman Ca- 
tholics have tlie convent and monastery 
schools referred to above. Their religious 
education is also largely assisted by the 
religious orders. Chief among these are 
tlie Christian Brothers. Their schools 
number nearly 100, and are attended by 
about 30,000 pupils. These schools ax-e, 
of course, unreservedly denominational in 
character. 

Remorse. See Penitence. 
Renaissance (The) in its relation to 
ilducation. — Renaissance is a term which 
in its French and more current ortho- 
graphy is identical with its less commonly 
•employed English form of Renascence, both 
being derived from the Latin verb renascor, 
to be born again, and both also being 
equivalent in general meaning to new birth, 
regenei'ation, or renewal, and applicable 
in general to the revival of anything long- 
extinct, lost, or decayed. It is more deti- 
nitely and piarticularly used, however, to 
designate the transitional movement in 
Europe from the Middle Ages to the 
modern world, and especially the time of 
the revival of letters and the arts in the 
fifteenth century. The term Renaissance 
is, therefore, susceptible of use alike in 
literature, sculpture, painting, architec- 
ture, and decorative art ; whilst in a nar- 
rower sense than any which has been yet 
described, it is referred to the style of 
architecture which succeeded the Gothic, 
and that peculiar style of ornamentation 
revived by Raphael in the pontificate of 
Leo X. (1513-1522), as the result of the 
discoveries made by him of the frescoes and 
other works of art in the then recently ex- 
humed Therma^ of Titus and in the Septi- 
zonia. It was in most intimate connec- 
tion with the uprising of the passion for 
the old Roman literature, that there arose 
also this desire for the study of classic 
art, to be followed before long by the 
attempt after its reproduction. Traces 
of the imitation of Roman architectural 
forms are observable of so early a date as 
the middle of the fourteenth century. 



But the true Renaissance dates from the 
time of Brunelleschi, or the early part 
of the fifteenth century, in whose hands 
it assumed character and consistency. 
There are several reasons why it is only 
natural that the Renaissance should have 
its origin in Italy, where at best Gothic 
architecture had never secured any other 
than a precarious hold, and where the new 
style attained its zenith or full develop- 
ment in the course of the centuiy of its 
introduction. At the beginning of the 
centuiy subsequent to this, the Renais- 
sance of Italy had become a model for the 
art of other countries. During the eai'ly 
period of its existence the new style of 
architecture displays not so much an 
alteration in the arrangement of the 
spaces and of the main features of the 
edifices, as in the system of ornamenta- 
tion and in the aspect of the pi'ofiles. At 
tliis epoch there was an endeavour to adapt 
classical forms with more or less freedom 
to modeni buildings ; Avhilst later, that is, 
in the sixteenth century, a scheme based 
on ancient architecture was universally 
prescriptive. Two distinct styles belong 
to this first period, each possessing and 
illustrating its especial peculiarities — the 
Early Florentine and the Eai-ly Venetian 
Renaissance. And, in accordance with 
the rule of individual divergence, although 
every country derived its Renaissance 
from that of Italy, yet each had its pecu- 
liar presentation of the same, and was 
described as French, German, Spanish, or 
English Renaissance, in virtue of its ex- 
hibition of traits which were exclusively 
its own. The Renaissance style was in- 
troduced into Fi'ance, the first country 
north of the Alps to import the new 
style, by Fra Giocondo, in the reign of 
Louis XIL, the 'Father of his People' 
(1499-1515), and by Sei'lio and other 
Italian architects under his son, Francis I., 
'the Father of Letters' (1515-1547), and 
Henry 11. These architects modified their 
ideas to suit the French taste ; the gene- 
ral arrangement of the Gothic churches 
being retained, and the Renaissance sys- 
tem of decoration being substituted for 
the Gothic, exclusively or chiefly in the 
details of the ornamentation. In its best 
examples the French Renaissance illus- 
trated a richness which was without 
prodigality or excess, and a symmetry 
which did not degenerate into stifthess. 
It was not before the middle of the six- 



EENAISSANCE (THE) 



335 



teenth century that the Renaissance style 
was employed in Germany, where it ex- 
emplified the fault of a certain degree of 
heaviness, the penalty paid for an undue 
exuberance, not to say extravagance, as 
well in its constructive character as its 
decorative details. In Spain an Early 
Renaissance style appears — a kind of 
transitional Renaissance belonging to the 
first half of the sixteenth century. It 
consisted of the application of Moorish 
and pointed-arch forms in conjunction 
with those of classical antiquity. In this 
way a conformation was produced which 
was peculiar to Spain ; and the style is 
characterised by bold lightness, by luxu- 
riance in decoration, and by a spirit of 
romance. The Italian Renaissance style 
was introduced into England about the 
middle of the sixteenth century by John 
of Padua, the architect of Henry VIII. 
English buildings of this style are distin- 
guished by a capricious treatment of forms, 
and a general exhibition, at least to alien 
critics, of a deficiency of that grace and 
dignity, both in details and ensemble, 
which to Italian structures in the same 
style impart a peculiar charm. 

Tlie arts, and indeed the methods of 
culture in general, are so intimately con- 
nected, so sensitive to each other's influ- 
ence, so amenable to like conditions of 
prosperity and progress, that the forms of 
the life of one of them being ascertained, 
the forms of the life of the others as embodi- 
ments of the same spirit of the time may 
be at least approximately inferred or un- 
derstood. Each of the arts ofiers a miiTor 
to the lineaments of the sister arts, and 
especially to such of these as are fugitive 
or mutable ; in each of the arts the others 
are reflected, and, if the expression were 
allowed, each might be said to allegorise 
the others. In particular, the phenomena 
of architecture, here used as the typical or 
interpreting art of the Renaissance, may 
be regarded as declaratory and explana- 
tory of the other arts of the period and 
the movement, including that liberal art 
which is known as learning or literature, 
and the transmission and extension of 
which is known as education. 

In order to appreciate the influence of 
the Renaissance on education, or, in other 
words, to understand the Renaissance as 
expressed in education, it is necessary to 
devote a few sentences to the methods of 
the latter before the advent of the day 



which, in the course of several antecedent 
ages, had been heralded at irregular in- 
tervals by auroras which were not of the 
morning. The education of the Middle 
Ages (q-v.), broadly stated, was alterna- 
tively that of the cloister or the castle. 
The two methods stood in sharp contrast 
to each other. The object of the one was 
to form and to furnish the young monk ; 
of the other, to fashion and equip the 
young knight. It would be ungrateful 
indeed to forget the services rendered to 
education by many illustrious monasteries, 
in which the torch of learning was kept 
alight throughout the dark ages — as, for 
instance, those of Tours, Fulda, and Monte 
Cassino, the monks of which, and espe- 
cially of the last, were distinguished, not 
only for their knowledge of the sciences, 
but for their attention to polite learning, 
and their acquaintance with the classics. 
They composed not only learned treatises 
on music, logic, astronomy, and the Vitru- 
vian architecture, but they likewise em- 
ployed a portion of their time in trans- 
cribing Tacitus and other masters of the 
ancient literature ; and their example in 
these respects was followed, in the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries, with great spirit 
and emulation by many English monas- 
teries. But the value, because the validity, 
of cloistered education was impaired by 
reason of the long hours which the pupils 
and the members of monasteries were 
required to abstract from their studies 
and to devote to elaborate and unfruitful 
ceremonies, to what Milton calls a ' tedious 
number of liturgical tautologies,' or rosarial 
iterations, or to other exercises which 
were often exacting, exhausting, and un- 
timely. 

The culture of the Scriptorium itself 
was to a great extent uncouth and me- 
chanical. The discipline was hard, and 
was made purposely and conscientiously 
repulsive. The rod was the sole, or at 
least the sufficient, symbol of an educa- 
tional regime, the guiding principle of 
which was that no training could be efl"ec- 
tual which was not forbidding and dis- 
tasteful, and that no worthy subject of 
instruction could be approached except 
through the portals of suffering. This 
forcible imposition of asceticism upon the 
learners induced in them a spirit of revolt 
against the teachers, and a disgust of the 
learning which they misrepresented. The 
seven ' arts ' of monkish training signified 



336 



RENAISSANCE (THE) 



the whole circle of subjects studied by 
those who desired and sought a liberal 
education. These extended to science as 
well as to art, and included grammar, 
logic, and rhetoric, Avhich formed the 
Trivium — and arithmetic, music, geo- 
metry, and astronomy, which formed the 
Quadrwium. These two, the Trivium 
and the Quadririum, combined to make 
up the seven years' coui'se, the divisions 
of which have profoundly affected our 
modern training ; and it is a survival of 
this classification, which was in vogue as 
early as the fifth century, that we still 
speak of the curriculum of arts at a 
university, and that students become 
graduates in ' arts,' as bachelors or mas- 
ters. 

So gloomy a view is taken of the mon- 
astic training of youth that to some 
students of history it would seem that the 
joy of human life would Lave been in 
danger of being obliterated if it had not 
been for the warmth and colour of a 
young knight's boyhood. He was equally 
well broken into obedience and hardship 
with the youthful student of the cloister ; 
but the obedience was the willing service 
of a mistress whom he loved, and the 
hardship was the permission to share the 
dangers of a leader whom he emulated. 
Against the Trivium and Quadrivium 
which measured the achievements of re- 
luctant monkish study, were set the seven 
knightly accomplishments of riding, swim- 
ming, shooting with the bow, boxing, 
hawking, playing chess, and weaving the 
verses of romance or tenderness. Every 
feudal court and castle was in fact a 
school of chivalry, in which the sons of the 
sovereign and his vassals, together com- 
monly Avith those of some of their allies or 
friends, were reared in its principles and 
habituated to its customs and observances. 
And, although princes and great person- 
ages were rarely actually pages or squires, 
the moral and physical discipline through 
which they passed was not in any impor- 
tant particular different from that to 
which less exalted candidates for knight- 
hood were subjected. The page com- 
menced his service and instruction when 
he was between seven and eight years old, 
and the initial phase continued for seven 
or eight years longer. He acted as the 
constant personal attendant of both his 
master and mistress. He waited on them 
in their hall and accompanied them 



in the chase ; he served the lady in her 
bower, and followed the lord to the camp. 
From the chaplain and his mistress and 
her damsels he learned the rudiments of 
religion, of rectitude, and of love ; from 
his master and his squires he learned the 
elements of military exercise, to cast a 
spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to 
march with the measured tread of a 
soldier ; and from his master and his 
huntsmen and falconers he acquired the 
mysteries of the woods and rivers, or, in 
other words, the rules and practices of 
hunting and hawking. When he was 
between fifteen and sixteen he became a 
squire ; but no sudden or great alteration 
was made in his mode of life. The 
details of his service, however, acquired 
more dignity according to the notions of 
the age ; and his military exercises and 
athletic sports occupied an always in- 
creasing portion of the day. He accus- 
tomed himself to ride the ' great horse,' to 
tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword 
and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run 
and leap, and to bear the weight and 
overcome the embarrassments of armour 
He inured himself to the vicissitudes of 
heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the 
pains or inconveniences of hunger and 
thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was 
then, too, that he chose his ' lady-love,' 
whom he was expected to regard with an 
adoration at once earnest, respectful, and, 
if possible, concealed. When it was con- 
sidered that he had made sufficient ad- 
vancement in his military accomplish- 
ments, he took his sword to the priest, 
who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and 
returned it to him. He was now eligible 
to become a ' squire of the body,' and 
truly an ' armiger ' or ' scutifer,' for he 
bore the shield and armour of his leader 
to the field, and, what was a task of no 
small difficulty and hazard, cased and 
secured him in his panoply of war before 
assisting him to mount his courser or 
charger. It was his function also to dis- 
play and guard in battle the banner of the 
baron, or banneret or the pennon of the 
knight he served, to raise him from the 
ground if he were unhorsed, to supply him 
with another — if need be, his own — if his 
horse were killed or disabled, to receive 
and keep any prisonex'S he might take, to 
fight by his side if he were unequally 
matched, to rescue him if captured, to 
bear him to a place of safety if wounded, 



RENAISSANCE (THE) 



337 



and to bury him honourably when dead. 
And after he had worthily and bravely 
borne himself for six or seven years as a 
squire, the time came when it was fitting 
that he should be made a knight. 

Perhaps in nothing is the difference be- 
tween the two forms of education, those of 
monkery and chivalry, more clearly shown 
than in the relations to women respectively 
of the youthful monk and the youthful can- 
didate for knighthood. The former was 
brought up to regard a woman as the worst 
among the many temptations of St. Antony, 
and his life, as of one surrounded and cared 
for by celibates, to be himself a celibate, 
knew nothing of domestic tenderness or 
affection. A page, on the other hand, 
was trained to recognise as his best re- 
ward the smile of the lady of the castle, 
or her frown as his worst punishment ; 
and as he grew to manhood, to cherish 
an absorbing passion as the strongest 
stimulus to a worthy life, and the con- 
templation of female virtue in its most 
noble forms of illustration, whether these 
occurred within his own observation and 
experience, or had to be sought as glorified 
and idealised in romance, as the truest 
earnest of future immortality. Both these 
forms of education disappeared before the 
Renaissance and the Reformation. But it 
is not to be supposed that no efforts were 
made to improve upon the narrowness of 
the schoolmen or the idleness of chivalry. 
Certainly it cannot be said that the Church 
was indifferent to the cultivation and ex- 
tension of such learning as she approved ; 
and she claims to have shown from the 
earliest times, through her councils and 
prelates, an earnest solicitude for the 
enlightenment of the people. In the ninth 
century alone, more than twelve councils 
urged upon priests and people the esta- 
blishment of schools, monastic or paro- 
chial, for the culture of sacred and secular 
learning, the study of divine and human 
sciences ; and from the beginning of the 
eleventh century the papal bulls and 
briefs took notice of the most minute de- 
tails of management, even to the super- 
intendence of the schools, so far as the 
age permitted. The Emperor Charle- 
magne (742-814) eai-ly turned his atten- 
tion to the establishment of episcopal 
seminaries, to which he added grammar and 
public schools, as preparatory both to the 
seminaries and to secular professions. Not 
that they were confined to grammar, for 



they recognised the Triviitm and Quadri- 
vium ; but grammar, in the sense of lite- 
rature, seems to have been the principal 
subject of their teaching. These schools 
were established in connection with the 
cathedral or the cloister. Cardinal New- 
man regards it as probable that Charle- 
magne did not do much more than this ; 
for, 'after all, it was not in an emperor's 
power, though he were Charlemagne, to 
carry into effect in any case, by the re- 
sources peculiar to himself, so great an 
idea as a university.' It is his merit to 
have ' certainly introduced ideas and prin- 
ciples, of which the university was the 
result.' 

Whatever the necessary limitations of 
his power and influence, however, it is in 
the period of Charlemagne, as he helped 
to make it, that the common consent of 
experts finds the era which forms the true 
boundary line between ancient and modern 
history. The influences transmitted by 
the reforms and policy of Chai-lemagne 
were of greater permanence than the fabric 
of the empire itself, and in no respect have 
they had a more enduring effect than 
in connection with the history of mental 
culture in Europe. It is, indeed, not a 
little remarkable, that in this somewhat 
unduly neglected ninth century may be 
discerned, as in miniature, all those con- 
tending principles — the conservative, the 
progressive, and the speculative — which, 
save in the darkest times, have rarely 
since ceased to be apparent in the great 
centres of our higher education. It is 
chiefly as the scholar and the founder of 
schools that the great emperor must live 
with posterity. He found men ignorant 
and unwilling to learn ; no schools or col- 
leges existed in all Germany or Gaul, and 
the intellect of Europe had sunk into un- 
wonted apathy. He filled his empire with 
seats of learning, and left behind him a 
throng of accomplished scholars — a gene- 
ration of poets, historians, and progressive 
priests. ' Alcuin,' the English ' Restorer 
of Letters in France,' it has been said in 
a rapture of estimating the educational 
and the political movements of the Carlo- 
vingian period by their relative powers of 
perpetuation and survival — 'Alcuin was 
greater than Charlemagne, and Erigena 
than Coeur de Lion.' While the priests 
instructed the children of the commonalty, 
the bishops performed the same office for 
youths of rank or of exceptional ability. 



338 



RENAISSANCE (THE) 



■Wilfrid, Archbishop of York, who was 
driven out of his splendid benefice in 668, 
received the sons of many great men who 
were sent to him for education, whether 
they were designed for clerical or lay pur- 
suits. And Egbert, Archbishop of the 
same see, and a disciple of the Venei-able 
Bede, ' loved to take under his care youths 
of good capacity, and, supporting them 
from his own purse, to guide them afFec- 
tiontitely in the paths of learning.' Many 
other prelates zealously spent themselves 
and their substance in the instruction of 
youth. 

In addition to cathedral, monastic, and 
parochial schools, there existed in the me- 
diaeval era what were known as ' chaptral 
schools,' which seem to have been gene- 
rally under a mixed jurisdiction, and the 
authority over Avhich was vested in vary- 
ing proportions, co-ordinately or A\'ith a 
correlative superiority and subordination, 
in lay or clerical inclividuals or corpora- 
tions. Still other schools existed in various 
parts of Europe, unconnected with any 
organisation, though generally directed by 
monks or clergy. ' Such were the schools,' 
says Mr. Leicester Ambrose Buckingham, 
' founded by the Counts of Raperschwil, 
in the neighbourhood of St. Gall, which, 
though independent of the abbey, were 
protected and encouraged by the monks ; 
such were the schools which flourished in 
some parts of England in the reign of 
Henry III., of which FitzStephen makes 
mention of three established in London, 
and holding high repute for learning; 
such were probably the eight schools 
which Lothaire I. founded in 823, in the 
principal towns of Italy ; such were the 
schools for the poor which were frequently 
created by pious benefactors, as the Ecole 
des Bons Enf ants, which existed at Rheims 
from the thirteenth centuiy, the esta- 
blishment bearing the same name at 
Brussels, which was endowed by Pierre 
"Van Huffele, Chaplain of St. Gudule, in 
1358, with all his property, and farther 
enriched in 1377 by Jean t' Serclaes, 
Archdeacon of Cambray, who provided it 
with the means necessary for the lodging 
and nourishment of twelve poor scholars 
between the ages of nine and eighteen 
years, and the many similar foundations 
which existed in other parts of Europe ; 
such also were the schools of the Hierony- 
mites, a pious confraternity bearing con- 
siderable resemblance to the Christian 



Brothers of modern days, and instituted 
by Gerard Groote in 1396, whose esta- 
blishments were numerously diffused 
throughout Central Europe.' 

' Benefactors and patrons,' says Car- 
dinal Newman, in continuation of his 
remarks on the inability of Charlemagne 
to found a university, ' may supply the 
framework of a Studium Generale ; but 
there must be a popular interest and 
sympathy, a spontaneous co-operation of 
the many, the concurrence of genius, and 
a spreading thirst for knowledge, if it is 
to live. Centuries passed before these 
conditions were supplied, and then at 
length, about the year 1200, a remarkable 
intellectual movement took place in Chris- 
tendom ; and to it must be ascribed the 
development of univei'sities.' These in- 
stitutions are usually considered to have 
grown out of the schools which previous 
to the twelfth or thirteenth century were 
attached to most of the cathedrals and 
monasteries, providing the means of edu- 
cation both to churchmen and laymen, 
and bringing together the few learned and 
scientific men who were to be found in 
Europe. On all hands it is admitted that 
the new intellectual impulse sprang up, 
not only on the domain and under the 
guidance of the Church, but out of the 
ecclesiastical schools ; to whose teaching 
of the Trivium and the Quadrivium, the 
seven liberal arts, the Scholee Majores 
added medicine, law, and theology. ' From 
Rome as from a centre,' to quote the bold 
directness of Cardinal Newman, ' as the 
Apostles from Jerusalem, went forth the 
missionaries of knowledge, passing to and 
fro all over Europe ; and as metropolitan 
sees were the record of the presence of 
Apostles, so did Paris, Pavia, and Bologna, 
Padua and Ferrara, Pisa and Naples, 
Viemia, Louvain, and Oxford, rise into 
universities at the voice of the theologian 
or the philosopher.' In the latter portion 
of the mediaeval epoch the universities 
arose in considerable abundance ; so that 
not less than fifty-six were founded in 
Europe before the close of the fifteenth 
century. As all these institutions, like 
the schools from which they were deve- 
loped, were the daughters of the Church, 
so their teaching perpetuated and petri- 
fied, as jealousy and narrowness and in- 
tolerance, the spirit which in earlier times 
had appeared as self-preservation, and had 
led so largely to a cenobitic or eremitical 



RENAISSANCE (THE) 



339 



seclusion, protected by the horrors, diffi- 
culties, or inaccessibilities of nature from 
Hhe. world' of the period, which was at 
once vile, cruel, and persecuting, to con- 
front or to challenge which, by way of 
antagonism, was probably death to the 
body, and to come into accommodating 
contact with which was certainly corrup- 
tion, and probably death, to the soul. 
The very graces and refinements of such 
a society were to be withstood, even in 
their resurrection after centuries of abey- 
ance and purgation and in the midst of 
another ' world ' in which the Church 
marched at large with the pomp and dig- 
nity of a triumphal procession. 

Yet the power of the Church when 
brought face to face with the Renaissance 
fell short of omnipotence, and her influ- 
ence of universality. Some of the most 
pious of her educational agencies and or- 
ganisations were paralysed by the evolu- 
tion of a bigotry which was often in the 
direct ratio of their devotion and single- 
ness of heart and purpose. Thus the ex- 
emplary Brethren of the Common Life, 
the best known name among whom is that 
of Gerard Groote, and who devoted them- 
selves with all humility and self-sacrifice 
to the education of children, had not, with 
all their purity and sweetness, sufficient 
strength to preserve amongst the necessary 
developments of the age the supremacy 
they had enjoyed for a hundred years. 
They could not support the glare of the 
new Italian learning ; they obtained, and 
in a certain sense it may be feared that 
they deserved, the title of Obscurantists. 
The Epistolfjn Ohscurorum Yiroruin, the 
wittiest squib, notwithstanding its breadth 
and exaggeration, of the Middle Ages, 
which was so true and so subtle in its 
satire that it was hailed as a blow struck 
in defence of the ancient learning, consists 
in great part of the lamentations of the 
Brethren of Deventer over the new age, 
which they could neither comprehend nor 
withstand. INIr. Oscar Browning very 
reasonably affirms the education of the 
Renaissance to be best represented by the 
name of Erasmus, that of the Reformation 
by the names of Luther and Melanchthon, 
Erasmus has been called the ' Voltaire of 
the Renaissance,' a partial truth, obscuring 
a vast difference which cannot properly 
be forgotten. For although Erasmus in- 
veighed against the clergy as ' an obscu- 
rantist army arrayed against light,' he did 



not attack the Church, in which, were it 
not free from the polemical strife and the 
party excesses which his soul abhorred, he 
hoped to enjoy the delights of a revived 
literature in a new Augustan age. Con- 
currently with the great name of Erasmus 
it is proper in this connection to mention 
those of Vittorino de Feltre, who died in 
1477, after having reached the highest 
point of excellence as a practical school- 
master of the Italian Renaissance, and of 
Count Baldassare Castiglione, the author 
of II Lihro del Cortegiano, or Book of the 
Courtier, in which he portrays a cultivated 
nobleman in those most cultivated days. 
' He shows,' says Mr. Browning, in a con- 
venient summary of his doctrine, ' by what 
precepts and practice the golden youth of 
Verona and Venice were formed, who live 
for us in the plays of Shakespeare as 
models of knightly excellence.' For our 
instruction it is better to have recourse to 
the pages of Erasmus. He has written the 
most minute account of his method of teach- 
ing. ' The child is to be formed into a good 
Latin and Greek scholar and a pious man. 
He fully grasps the truth that improvement 
must be natural and gradual. Letters are 
to be taught playing. The rules of gram- 
mar are to be few and short. Every means 
of arousing interest in the work is to be 
fully employed. Erasmus is no Cicero- 
nian. Latin is to be taught so as to be of 
use — a living language adapted to modern 
wants. Children should learn an art — 
painting, sculpture, or architecture. Idle- 
ness is above all things to be avoided. 
The education of girls is as necessary and 
important as that of boys. Much depends 
upon home influence ; obedience must be 
strict, but not too severe. We must take 
account of individual peculiarities, and not 
force children into cloisters against their 
will. We shall obtain the best result by 
following nature. It is easy to see what 
a contrast this scheme presented to the 
monkish training — to the routine of use- 
less technicalities enforced amidst the 
shouts of teachers and the lamentations of 
the taught.' 

It is difficult for students of education 
to attach too much importance to this 
great revolution. For nearly three cen- 
turies the curriculum in the public schools 
of Europe remained what the Renaissance 
had made it, although the signs are scarcely 
ambiguous that we have again entered on 
an age of change. ' The Renaissance,' ob- 

z2 



340 



RENAISSANCE (THE) 



serves the Rev. Mark Pattison, in his 
Isaac Casanbon, 1559-1614, 'had dealt 
with antiquity, not in the spii'it of leanied 
research, but in the spirit of free creative 
imitation. In the fifteenth century was 
revealed to a world, which had hitherto 
been trained to logical analysis, the beauty 
of literary form. The conception of style 
or finished expressions had died out with 
the pagan schools of rhetoric. It was not 
the despotic act of Justinian in closing the 
schools of Athens which had suppressed 
it. The sense of art in language decayed 
from the same general causes which had 
been fatal to all artistic perception. 
Banished from the Roman empire in the 
sixth century, or earlier, the classical con- 
ception of beauty of form re-entered the 
circle of ideas again in the fifteenth cen- 
tury, after nearly a thousand years of ob- 
livion and abeyance. Cicero and Yirgil, 
Livius and Ovid, had been there all along ; 
but the idea of composite harmony, on 
which their works were constructed, was 
wanting. The restored conception, as if 
to recoup itself for its long suppression, 
took entire possession of the mind of edu- 
cated Europe. The first period of the 
Renaissance passed in adoration of the 
awakened beauty, and in efforts to copy 
and multiply it.' 

Under the reawakening of this sense 
of beauty it happened that the classics, 
however they miglit be prized for their 
matter, were valued above all things for 
their form and expression. In this spirit 
the scholars of the Renaissance did all 
they could to discourage translations. Thus 
it happens that in the period of change, 
when Europe was rearranging its insti- 
tutions, men who were most influential 
in education were entirely fascinated by 
beauty of expression as exemplified in two 
ancient languages. To such men the one 
thing needful for the young seemed to be 
an introduction to the study of the ancient 
writings. Education became in conse- 
quence a mere synonym for instruction in 
Latin and Greek, and the only ideal of 
culture was that of the classical scholar. 
From this it followed that acquirement 
was placed before achievement. The high- 
est distinction was awarded to the student 
of other men's words and other men's 
thoughts, so that doing and thinking came 
to be considered of far less importance in 
education than learning and remembering. 
Thus the scholars of the Renaissance, 'not- 



withstanding their admiration of the great 
nations of antiquity, set up an ideal which 
those nations would heartily have despised. 
The schoolmaster very readily adopted 
this ideal ; and schools,' Mr. Quick com- 
plains, ' have been places of leai-ning, not 
training, ever since.' 

Such an ideal was, in the nature of 
things, generally impossible of attainment 
except to the rich and leisurely, who alone 
possessed the opportunities necessary for 
its effective contemplation. In practice the 
learned ideal has the further disadvantage 
of offering no compensating benefit for 
rudimentary effbrts, and it knows little or 
nothing of proportional rewards for inter- 
mitted study, interrupted advance, or 
arrested approach. The first stage, the 
study of the ancient languages, is so totally 
different from the study of the ancient 
literatvires to which it is the preliminary, 
that the student who never goes beyond 
this first stage either gets no benefit at all, 
or a benefit which is not of the kind in- 
tended. 

It is almost a corollary from the en- 
thusiasm for literature as an exclusive 
educational instrument, that literature, 
properly so called, is forbidden to the 
schooh'oom, in which the subject of in- 
struction is not so much the classics as the 
classical languages. That which is to be 
effectively the literature of the young must 
have its form and expression in the ver- 
nacular. 

The ideal of the Renaissance, again, in 
its relation to education, ' led the school- 
masters,' to quote further from the ob- 
jections of Mr. Quick, 'to attach little 
importance to the education of children. 
Directly their pupils were old enough for 
Latin grammar the schoolmasters were 
quite at home ; but till then the children's 
time seemed of small value, and they 
neither knew nor cared to know how to 
employ it. If the little ones could learn 
by heart forms of words which would after- 
wards ' come in useful,' the schoolmasters 
were ready to assist such learning by 
ready application of the rod; but no other 
learning seemed worthy even of a caning. 
Absorbed in the world of books they 
overlooked the world of nature. Galileo 
complains that he could not induce them 
to look through his telescope, for they held 
that truth could be arrived at only by com- 
parison of manuscripts. No wonder, then, 
that they had so little sympathy with chil- 



RESEAPX'H, ENDOWMENT OF 



341 



(Iren, and did not know how to teach them. 
It is by slow degrees that we are Vjreaking 
away from the bad tradition tlius esta- 
blished, and getting to understand chil- 
dren, and, with such leaders as Rousseau, 
Pestalozzi, and Froebel, are investigating 
the best education for them. We no 
longer think of them as immature men and 
women, but see tliat each stage has its 
own completeness, and that there is a per- 
fection in childhood which must precede 
the perfection of manhood just as truly as 
the flower goes before the fruit.' {See ar- 
ticles on ' Education,' by Oscar Browning, 
and ' Knighthood,' by F. Drummond, in 
EncydopcHdia Brito/anica, 9th edition ; 
Leicester A. Buckingham's Bihle in the 
Middle Ages, 1853 ; Cardinal Newman's 
Historical Sketches : Eise and Progress of 
Universities, 1873 ; Rev. Mark Pattison's 
Iso/ic CasoMhon, 1875 ; J. Bass Mullinger's 
Schools of Charles the Great and the Resto- 
ration of Education in the Ninth Century, 
1877 ; Rev. R. H. Quick's ' Renascence, 
and its Influence on Education ' in Edu- 
cation : an International Magazine, Sep- 
tember a.nd November 1880.) 

Research, Endowment of. — For some- 
thing like a quarter of a century the public 
mind has been becoming more and more 
familiarised with the idea of the endow- 
ment of scientific research, and at the same 
time the idea of ' science ' has been ac- 
quiring a wider meaning. Indeed, the 
question has now almost assumed the form : 
Shall the prosecution of learning in all its 
great branches be assisted more liberally 
and more systematically ? The supreme 
national importance of the question is 
acknowledged by all, although with very 
wide discrepancy as to the value of par- 
ticular studies. Unless w^e gird up our 
loins we shall be outstripped by our con- 
tinental neighbours. The great difficulty 
is Avhence to find the indispensable money ; 
minor, yet not inconsiderable, difficulties 
are to find the right men to endow, and to 
work out a scheme for the regulation of 
the endo\\Tnent. Considering the enormous 
masses of money available for the promo- 
tion of learning at the university seats, 
public men naturally resist any claims on 
the public treasury until the universities 
and colleges have turned their wealth into 
channels that accord with the modem 
spirit and with modem deeds, and yet can 
show a clear case for public consideration. 
Academic conservatism is naturally strong. 



and it is powerfully backed up by the last 
wishes of the pious founder. The recon- 
ciliation of the conflicting claims was well 
expressed by Lord Derby : ' Respect the 
founder's object,' he said, ' but use your 
own discretion as to the means. If you 
do not do the first, you will have no new 
endowments ; if you neglect the last, those 
which you have will be of no use.' How- 
ever firmly fixed the present system at our 
great universities may be, still, as a matter 
of fact, ' nothing could be more alien to the 
whole purport of the original statutes than 
that the period of study should be limited 
by the undergraduate course, and that fel- 
lowships should then be given as prizes for 
past exer-tions or as subsidies for ordinary 
teaching ' {Essa.ys on the Endovrment of 
Research, p. 58). 'With regard to the 
bulk of the college endowments,' says Mr. 
J. S. Cotton, ' the right mode of appropri- 
ation is perfectly clear. The intentions of 
the founders, the teaching of history, and 
the wants of the present day, all point in 
the same direction. The money should be 
devoted to study, and to study alone ; en- 
forced as a duty, and protected by ade- 
quate guarantees, but unencumbered by 
any obligation to impart common instruc- 
tion. By this one bold and necessary re- 
form the Universities of Oxford and Cam- 
Ijridge may once again pick up the torch 
of intellectual progress, which has for a 
while fallen from their hands ; and at the 
same time England, in fulfilling the designs 
of her gi'eat patrons of learning, may re- 
gain her place among the nations as the 
chosen home of literary erudition and sci- 
entific inquiry ' (p. 63). In other essays 
in the same volume the late Dr. C. E. 
Appleton inquir-es into the economical 
character of subsidies to education in all 
grades (pp. 64-85), and then examines the 
endowment of research as a productive 
form of expenditure. On the latter 
head he points out that 'the investigation 
of truth, considered as a vocation, is an 
instance of that class of industry whose 
economical condition seems to be one of 
inherent and permanent incapability to 
maintain itself,' and concludes that ' it is 
scarcely conceivable that any alteration, 
however radical, could be made in the 
arrangements of society which could render 
the labour of scientific discovery of any 
appreciable pecuniary value to the man 
engaged in it.' Consequently, in order to 
live, a 'researcher' must engage in some 



342 



RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 



other occupation, which supports him and 
leaves him some spare time and energy 
for his special research. The alliance of 
research with incumbency of a benefice, 
while rendering research possible, camiot 
be serviceable for the cure of souls ; neither 
can the research amount to what it might 
under conditions not hampered by the 
duties of the benefice. But the increased 
zeal of the Church is steadily driving other 
interests away from the incumbencies. A 
good school appointment, while less com- 
promised by research, cannot but cumber 
the efforts of the researcher. 'It is a 
melancholy fact,' says Dr. Appleton, 'that 
the connection of the profession of learning 
and science with that of the higher educa- 
tion in this country, owing in large measure 
to the great improvements which have been 
made in the latter, and the engrossing- 
character of the duties which it imposes, 
has gone far to choke the spirit of original 
investigation altogether ' (p. 90). Again, 
however, there is the fact that scientific 
men get attached to commercial enterprise 
as advisers of large firms, or as themselves 
patentees. Still, ' with respect to the enor- 
mous proportion of scientifically trained 
persons who are directly or indirectly sup- 
ported by commerce, it should be remarked 
that this source of maintenance is not only 
the exclusive privilege of physical science, 
but almost the exclusive privilege of one 
only of the physical sciences. There is 
no commercial career open to a biologist, 
for instance ; and the existence of a com- 
mercial career, and frequently a very lu- 
crative one, for the chemist, has the effect 
of starving all the other sciences for the 
benefit of one of them. One of our fore- 
most teachers of biology complained to me 
not long ago that he was compelled to ad- 
vise his best pupils, who were desirous of 
devoting themselves to a life of research, to 
give up their own study and enter upon 
that of chemistry, as there was no prospect 
of a career for them in any other science ' 
(p. 96). Besides this disturbance of the pro- 
portions of knowledge, another disadvan- 
tage, arising from being compelled to de- 
pend on commerce for support, is this, that 
the introduction of the utilitarian motive 
destroys the strictly scientific character 
of research. There remains the case in 
which the expenses of a life devoted to 
research are provided from the private 
fortune of the inquirer. This, says Dr. Ap- 
pleton, with bitter keenness, 'is a way of 



paying for research which is very charac- 
teristic of this country.' Yet, 'judged by 
its results, it would seem to be more ad- 
vantageous to the cause of knowledge than 
any of the preceding expedients. Whilst, 
in Germany the case of Humboldt is an 
exceptional one, it is a remarkable fact 
that some of the greatest scientific work, 
both as regards quality and quantity, has. 
been carried out in England by men of 
property. The possessor of private fortune 
who engages in research is indeed more 
nearly in the position of the recipient of 
an endowment for research than any other, 
because he is entirely free from the dis- 
traction of extraneous duties. But the- 
system of letting research be paid for in 
this way is not witliout grave disadvantages. 
In the first place, this kind of support is. 
sporadic and fortuitous, and though favour- 
able to the development of pai-ticular 
studies, it resembles the dependence of 
science upon commerce in this respect,, 
that it is quite inconsistent with the har- 
monious development of the body of human 
knowledge as an organised and interdepen- 
dent whole. Secondly, there is unfortunately 
no necessary connection between wisdom, 
and the inheritance of riches, and conse- 
quently it is always within the bounds of 
possibility that a man of property may 
subsidise in his own person, not knowledge- 
but error, a mischievous crotchet or a 
perfectly fruitless and impossible inquiry, 
and may employ the contents of a bottom- 
less purse in compelling the attention of 
the world to it. This possibility, thirdly, 
is analogous to another disadvantage at- 
tending this mode of suppoi-t. There is 
no guarantee in the case of the private- 
person, as there is to some extent in the 
csise of all the preceding expedients, and 
as may be secured by the proper adminis- 
tration of public endowment, that the in- 
vestigator is sufficiently furnished with 
the preliminary knowledge or discipline to- 
make his researches fruitful. In short, 
work supported by private means is very 
likely to be mnateur work, or du2)Ucate 
work. It may be added, finally, that from 
an economical point of view the employ- 
ment of private wealth upon research stands 
on the same footing as endowment. If the 
object is unproductive the community at 
large is in either case poorer by all that is 
consumed by the investigator while em- 
ployed in research' (pp. 97-99). The va- 
rious artificial means by which scientific 



RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 



343 



research has hitherto been supported being 
attended with grave disadvantages to sci- 
ence itself, the only means of maintaining 
knowledge which remains is that of public 
endowment. The endowment of scientific 
investigation out of the taxes — and Dr. Ap- 
pleton rightly recognises that the commonly 
talked of opposition between the physical 
sciences and other branches of study is 
entirely without foundation — has been re- 
commended on a variety of grounds : 'from 
considerations of the dignity of knowledge 
and the honour of a nation ; from the ex- 
amples of other nations who are under a 
paternal form of government; or as one 
of the functions and expenses of the sove- 
reign. Bentham justifies it as a work of 
superfluity, the expense of which is trifling 
as compared to the mass of necessary con- 
tributions. Let any one, he says, under- 
take to restore to each his quota of this 
superfluous expense, and it would be found 
to be imperceptible, so as "to excite no 
distinct sensation which can give rise to a 
distinct complaint." Others, again, have 
held that the endowment of science involves 
considerations which do not come within the 
view of political economy, and therefore, 
if not sanctioned, that such endowment 
is a little condemned by it.' Dr. Appleton, 
however, faces the economical aspect of 
direct endo^nnent and science, and con- 
cludes that 'the application of endowments 
to the maintenance of scientific research 
is economically sound, because, although 
knowledge is a kind of wealth, there are 
apparently insuperable diSiculties in the 
way of making it an exchangeable commo- 
dity, out of the sale of which the scientific 
observer can make a living.' There might 
also be urged 'the beneficial efiect which 
purely abstract ideas — such as, e.g., that 
of the universal brotherhood of mankind 
— have exercised indii-ectly on the produc- 
tion of wealth, by bringing about changes 
in the relations of men and nations to one 
another.' The case of Tycho Brahe is 
certainly a remarkable example of the 
princely fashion in which the sixteenth 
century thought fit to endow research, 
and might shame a less material age into 
some attempt at imitation. 

There can be no question that the exa- 
mination system is in direct antithesis to 
original research. 'Competitive examina- 
tions and original I'esearch,' says Professor 
Sayce (p, 139), 'are incompatible terms. 
The object of the one is to ai^i^ear wise. 



the object of the other to he so. The one 
is mercenary, the other unselfish; and 
however advisable it may be to drive a boy 
through a mental treadmill, the process 
must degrade a man into a piece of ma- 
chinery.' No learning is reckoned of any 
account unless it will ' pay ' in examinations. 
'Professor Max Miiller offered in vain, 
term after term, to read the Rig- Veda with 
any one of the 2,400 members of the Uni- 
versity of Oxford ; none would go to him, 
since a third-hand acquaintance with a few 
words and forms from that oldest specimen 
of Aryan literature is sufficient for the 
schools. The same professor, one of the 
most interesting and lucid of lecturers, 
when lecturing on the fascinating subject 
of comparative mythology, which he has 
made so peculiarly his own, could collect 
but a miserable fragment of an audience 
around him, and even of this the larger 
part consisted of college lecturers, who 
intended to retail to their own pupils some 
of the crumbs which had fallen into their 
note-books.' This is all very humiliat- 
ing. Mr. Sayce goes on to sum up the 
mischievous results of the examination 
system ' at these "ancient seats of learning," 
though now of cram, under the general 
charge of its destruction of intellectual 
morality, and alienation of science and 
research.' 

The testimony of Dr. Henry Clifton 
Sorby is very striking. 'Judging from my 
own experience,' he says (p. 151), 'I do not 
hesitate to say that for the successful 
prosecution of original inquiry, two of the 
most essential requisites are abundance of 
time for continuous and extended experi- 
ments, and freedom from all those disturb- 
ino- cares and ensrasjements which either 
interrupt the experiments at critical times, 
or so occupy the attention as to prevent 
the mind from properly digesting the re- 
sults, and deducing from them all the 
conclusions to which they should conduct 
the investigator.' The same reasoning 
applies to all other subjects of scientific 
investigation, as well as to physical science. 
The examples Dr. Sorby cites from his own 
studies are remarkable, and he concludes 
emphatically that, ' whatever the experience 
of others may lead them to think, mine has 
been amply sufficient to convince me that 
I never could have done what I have been 
able to do if it had been necessary for me 
to attend to any business or profession as 
\ a means of support' (p. 163). One excep- 



3U 



RESEARCH, ENDOWMENT OF 



tion he makes — and it may be said to prove 
the rule— in the case of those who are 
employed to carry out what really are 
original inquiries in connection with some 
of our large manufactories. Such positions 
do indeed present great facilities for the 
advancement of cei'tain branches of science 
— indeed, they may almost be called an 
endowment for research ; but the care of 
a business and profession is a totally diffe- 
rent thing. 

Assuming that the money difficulty 
is overcome, there would still remain the 
further difficulty of obtaining the right 
young men as ' researchers,' and of regu- 
lating their appointment. Dr. Sorby has 
no doubt that such men could be found, 
' and in fact I could name several noble 
examples of the very sort wanted.' Be- 
sides, 'looking at the question from a 
national point of view, one cannot but feel 
that to enable such men to occupy their 
whole time over the A'aluable work which 
they are both able and willing to do, is 
out of all proportion more important than 
rewarding a youth Avho has passed a suc- 
cessful examination in such a way that 
the public gains little or nothing from the 
expenditure.' As to the regulation of 
such appointments, Dr. Sorby has some 
very pointed remarks. 'Much of what 
has been urged against such endow- 
ments,' he argues, ' appears to me to have 
force not so much against the general 
principle as against what I regard as a 
wrong application of it. Some have urged 
that it would lead to no good result, be- 
cause, when once such an appointment 
has been obtained, a person who had 
worked hard as a candidate would become 
idle as soon as the need for work ceased 
to exist. Precaution should be taken to 
avoid a conclusion so lame and impotent 
as this. Everything should be so regu- 
lated that good and efficient men may not 
be driven back by the feeling of uncertain 
tenure, and at the same time that it may 
be impossible for a man, when once he 
has obtained an appointment, to pocket 
the money and do no more work. Unless 
such a thing were rendered impossible, 
there would be little advantage in chang- 
ing the present system. The conclusion 
to which I have come is, that any one who 
has the will and ability for original work 
may very safely be appointed for a certain 
number of years, and aftei- that reappointed 
every year, or every two years, as long as 



he continues to discharge his duties in an 
efficient manner. I do not think there 
would generally and in practice be any 
•difficulty in deciding whether he did so. 
Though a great amount of excellent 
scientific work may produce a very small 
show, yet almost any one who had had 
practical experience of original research 
could easily see whether adequate work 
had been done, or time passed in laborious 
idleness. In the case of residents in a 
university I can scarcely believe a mistake 
to be possible.' Further, ' in making re- 
gulations for the endowment of research, 
care should be taken to avoid dictation, 
and to allow as much room as possible 
for the intellectual expansion of the in- 
dividual.' As to the amount of annual 
income to be paid to a ' researcher ' that 
would be most conducive to the general 
advancement of science, Dr. Sorby natu- 
rally finds it difficult to pronounce any 
very confident opinion, on account of the 
whole system having been so far almost 
untried. ' The character of the occupation 
and social position must be taken into 
account, as well as mere money value. 
This latter, however, should be sufficient 
to attract and permanently attach to the 
work of research men of the highest in- 
tellectual capacity, and enable them to 
enjoy those material advantages which 
they could obtain if they devoted their 
time and talents to any business or pro- 
fession not necessarily involving a greater 
amount of personal discomfort.' Perhaps 
this estimate is highly liberal. The well- 
paid posts in universities at the present 
time do not encourage large stipends. 
The man of science should not be ex- 
pected to enter on contests of social dis- 
play ; on the contrary, it will be all the 
better for himself and for science that 
he rather err on the other side. 

Professor Max Miiller (Chijjs from a 
German WorJishop, vol. iv. pp. 4-10) 
makes a strong argument for reform at 
Oxford and Cambridge, which may be 
usefully applied to other endowed institu- 
tions as well, and which supports power- 
fully the views indicated in the foregoing 
portion of this article. ' Unless I am 
mistaken,' he says, ' there was really no 
university in which more ample provision 
had been made by founders and bene- 
factors than at Oxford, for the support 
and encouragement of a class of students 
who should follow up new lines of study, 



RESEARCH. ENDOWMENT OF- 



-REWARDS 



345 



•devote their energies to work which, from 
its very nature, could not be lucrative or 
even self-supporting, and maintain the 
fame of English learning, English indus- 
try, and English genius in that great and 
time-honoured republic of learning which 
claims the allegiance of the whole of 
Europe — nay, of the whole civilised world. 
That work at Oxford and Cambridge was 
meant to be done by the Fellows of col- 
leges.' Something has already been done, 
but ' something remains still to be done in 
order to restore these fellowships more 
fully and more efficiently to their original 
purpose, and thus to secure to the univer- 
sity not only a staff of zealous teachers, 
which it certainly possesses, but likewise 
a class of independent workers, of men 
who, by original research, by critical edi- 
tions of the classics, by an acquisition of 
scholarlike knowledge of other languages 
besides Greek and Latin, by an honest 
devotion to one or the other among the 
numerous branches of physical science, by 
fearless researches into the ancient history 
of mankind, by a careful revision of the 
matei-ials for the history of politics, juris- 
prudence, medicine, literature, and arts, 
by a life-long occupation with the pro- 
blems of philosophy, and last, not least, by 
a real study of theology, or the science of 
religion, should perform again those duties 
which, in the stillness of the Middle Ages, 
were performed by learned friars within the 
walls of our colleges. ... If only twenty 
men in Oxford and Cambridge had the 
will, everything is ready for a reform — that 
is, for a restoration of the ancient glory 
of Oxford. The funds which are now 
frittered away in so-called prize fellow- 
ships would enable the universities to- 
morrow to invite the best talent of 
England back to its legitimate home. . . . 
Why should not a fellowship be made 
into a career for life, beginning with 
little, but rising, like the incomes of other 
professions ? Why should the grotesque 
condition of celibacy be imposed on a 
fellowship, instead of the really salutary 
condition of — No work, no pay ? Why 
should not some special literary or scien- 
tific work be assigned to each Fellow, 
whether resident in Oxford or sent abroad 
on scientific missions ? Why, instead of 
having fifty young men scattered about 
in England, should we not have ten of 
the best workers in every branch of 
human knowledge resident at Oxford, 



whether as teachers, or as guides, or as 
examples ? The very presence of such 
men would have a stimulating and eleva- 
ting effect ; it would show to the young 
men higher objects of human ambition 
than the baton of a field-marshal, the 
mitre of a bishop, the ermine of a judge, 
or the money-bags of a merchant ; it would 
create for the future a supply of new 
workers as soon as there was for them, if 
not an avenue to wealth and power, at least 
a fair opening for hard work and proper 
pay. All this might be done to-morrow 
without any injury to anybody, and with 
every chance of producing results of the 
greatest value to the universities, to the 
country, and to the world at large. . . . 
Much of the work, therefore, which in 
other universities falls to the lot of the 
professors ought in Oxford to be per- 
formed by a stafi" of student Fellows, 
whose labours should be properly organ- 
ised, as they are in the Institute of France 
or in the Academy of Berlin. With or 
without teaching, they could perform the 
work which no university can safely 
neglect, the work of constantly testing 
the soundness of our intellectual food, and 
of steadily expanding the realms of know- 
ledge. We want pioneers, explorers, con- 
querors, and we could have them in abun- 
dance if we cared to have them. What 
other universities do by founding new 
chairs for new sciences, the colleges of 
Oxford could do to-morrow by applying 
the funds which are not required for 
teaching purposes, and which are now 
spent on sinecure fellowships, for making 
either temporary or permanent provision 
for the endowment of original research.' 

It ought to be acknowledged that 
there are a few prizes at the universities 
which may be regarded as so many en- 
dowments of research ; and certain others 
have been founded by London City Com- 
panies, notably the Grocers, Mercers, and 
Goldsmiths. (See Essays on the Endow- 
tnent of Research hy various Writers, 
H. S. King & Co.) 

Responsions. See Moderations. 

Results. See Payment by Results, 

Rewards. — The term reward in con- 
nection with education may be defined as 
something bestowed by one in authority 
in recognition of a good or virtuous act. 
The reward may have an intrinsic value, 
as in the case of school prizes, or may be 
coveted and prized merely as a mark or 



346 



REWAEDS- 



-RHETORIC 



symbol of approval and commendation. 
Most rewards bestowed on the young owe 
a part of their value to the distinction and 
honour which they bring to the winner. 
From this definition it will be seen that 
it is the essence of a reward that it be 
given as a consequence and in acknoAvledg- 
ment of an effort of will. Hence a school- 
prize, position in honoiirs' lists, and so 
forth, is only a reward so far as the attain- 
ment of it depends on effort, and not on 
superior ability. Rewards are correlated 
with punishments, constituting together 
the sjreat means of stimulatins; the will to 
right action before the higher motives are 
sufficiently developed. A reward incites 
the will to effort by the prospect of a 
pleasure, whereas punishment stimulates 
it by the compulsory force of pain (cf. 
article Punishment). It is evident that 
in the apportioning of rewards regard 
must always be paid to the amount of 
effort involved. Hence it may often be 
desirable to reward backward children, the 
more so as they are shut out from the 
distinctions and prizes which depend on 
superior ability. Rewards, like punish- 
ments, may easily be given thoughtlessly 
and in excess, in which case they are 
likely to do harm rather than good. Giv- 
ing things to young children for doing 
what they ought to do without such in- 
ducements, a fault common among weak 
and indulgent parents, is detrimental to 
moral character. It is peculiarly foolish 
to reward children for acts of kindness or 
benevolence, the very essence of which is 
disinterestedness.^ It should be the aim 
of the educator to dispense witli tangible 
rewards as far as possible, to lead the 
child to set a higher value on the approval 
which the rewai-d represents than on the 
object itself, and gradually to emancipate 
it from the sway of such artificial stimuli 
by exercising it in the pursuit of virtue 
for its own sake. {See Locke, Thoughts, 
§§ 52, 53 ; Sully, Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 
480 and following ; andarticle 'Belohnung,' 
in Schmidt's Encydo'pcidie; cf. references 
to Beneke and Waitz at end of article 
Punishment.) 

Reynolds, John. See Home and Co- 
lonial School Society. 

Rhetoric (from Greek p-qnup, an orator) 
meant in ancient times the principles 
which underlie the art of oratory. It is 

1 See Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. 



now used in a more extended sense tO' 
denote the theory of eloquence, or the 
effective employment of language, whether 
spoken or written. The end of speech is 
either to convince the vmderstanding, gra- 
tify the feelings, or rouse the will. We 
are moved to act, however, only in so far- 
as our judgments are convinced and our 
feelings excited ; hence there are but two 
main rhetorical ends, the intellectual oi- 
logical, and the emotional or festhetic. 
The inquiry into the best means of attain- 
ing these, leads on the one hand to the- 
consideration of the conditions of clear un- 
derstanding, such as clearness of language 
and logical correctness of argument, and 
on the other hand to the treatment of the 
elements that make up impressiveness and 
beauty of style. Rhetoric seeks further 
to classify the different kinds of composi- 
tion, and to consider the special rules 
which are applicable to each. These are 
commonly divided into three : 1. Descrip- 
tion, which has to do with the objects and 
scenes of still life ; 2. Narration, which 
aims at presenting a series of actions in 
their proper connection and dependence ; 
and 3. Exposition, which seeks to set forth 
the general truths of science. Prom this 
brief sketch of the science of rhetoric the 
reader may see that it has a close bearing 
on the teacher's work. A study of the rhe- 
torical principles of clear statement forms 
in comiection with logical study a neces- 
sary preparation for all intellectual educa- 
tion ; and the study of composition on its 
aesthetic or artistic side will be of ser-vice 
to the teacher in setting forth the beauties 
of our great writers, and in exercising the 
taste of the young in literary composition. 
It is evident, further, that the special prin- 
ciples of each of the three main varieties of 
composition have their value for the teacher. 
Thus the rules of good description, which is 
required in the teaching of all concrete 
subjects, as geography, history on its pic- 
turesque side, and descriptive science, are 
of special u.tility. The art of description 
means the most effective way of represent- 
ing an object, scene, or incident, so as to 
help the hearer or reader to the utmost 
in the imaginative realisation of the same ; 
and the teacher who has studied the rhe- 
torical principles of the subject vfiiW. be in 
a better position to describe clearly and 
vividly, so as to leave a lasting impression 
on the child's mind. Again, in history- 
teaching of the more advanced kind, a 



EICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH 



347 



knowledge of the rules of clear orderly 
narration is necessary to the teacher's 
success. And, finally, in expounding scien- 
tific truths, a knowledge of the rhetorical 
principles bearing on the management of 
the proposition, the choice of examples and 
so forth, will be fovmd to l^e of very great 
value. {See Bain, English Co))ipositio7i and 
Rhetoric, enlarged edition, 1887.) 

Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich (gene- 
rally .known under the Gallicised form 
' Jean Paul,' which he adopted), h. 1763, 
the year after the publication of Rous- 
seau's J^mile, at Wonsiedel, a town in the 
Fichtelgebirge to the north-east of Ba- 
varia. Richter came of a race of peda- 
gogues, both his grandfather and his father 
having been schoolmasters. Of his early 
life and education we have a voluminous 
but by no means clear account in the 
fragmentary autobiography. The general 
impression left upon us is that from his 
regular pastors and masters Richter learnt 
but little. He was a dreamy child, living 
in a self-created world of fancy, and de- 
vouring from his earliest years every book 
he could lay his hands on. Among them 
he notes as epoch-making volumes the 
Dialogues of the Dead and Rohinson 
Crusoe. In 1781 he left the university 
of Leipzig, where he was studying theo- 
logy, in order to gain his own livelihood 
and support his mother, now a widow and 
in destitute circumstances. Having failed 
in his first literaiy ventures, he was driven 
to teaching as a last resource, and for two 
years acted as private tutor to the brother 
of a rich friend, but he found the work 
uncongenial and irksome. His next ex- 
perience as a teacher was a complete con- 
trast to the first. In 1789 he started for 
himself a school in the small town of 
Schwarzenbach. His pupils numbered only 
seven, most of them the sons of friends, 
and varying in age from seven to fifteen. 
What to most men with his genius would 
have been a repulsive drudgery was to 
Richter an inspiring task. To use his 
own metaphor, he was the planet Saturn 
with his seven satellites. The planet must, 
we fancy, have often appeared to his class 
a comet or an ignis fatuus, leading them 
a wild dance through earth, air, fire, and 
water. Of formal instruction there was 
little, but all his pupils loved their master, 
and he had from the first firmly grasped 
the fundamental principle of education, 
not to instil knowledge but to evoke 



faculty, to teach not to preach. It was 
during these five years that the materials 
were gathered and the ideas matured which 
were given to the world some five years 
later in Levana, when the author had 
' graduated as a parent.' Jean Paul is the 
direct lineal descendant of Jean-Jacques, 
and the Levana is one of those winged seeds 
blown out of France which fell and ger- 
minated on German soil, though the differ- 
ences between the two men and their works 
are at least as striking as their resem- 
blances. Richter, like Rousseau, is a senti- 
mentalist, and approaches the problem of 
education from the emotional rather than 
from the intellectual side. Both regard 
the child as a tender plant to be reared 
and nurtured, not as a lump of clay to be 
moulded on the schoolmaster's wheel. Both 
sympathise with the joyous freedom of 
childhood and preach deliverance from the 
hide-bound traditions of the schoolroom. 
But hei^e the I'esemblance ends. Rousseau 
starts with cex'taiia aphorisms — the innate 
goodness of human nature, the corrupting 
influence of society — and deduces there- 
from a complete system with the logical 
accuracy and neatness of a Frenchman.. 
Richter is the most eccentric of writers 
and repudiates all attempts at systematic 
exposition. Levana is a mighty maze, and 
that without a plan, yet not without fixed 
ideas and principles. In fact, as the out- 
come of personal experience, it is a far- 
safer guide to parents and masters than 
the doctrinaire theory of his master. At 
starting he joins ^issue with the main prin- 
ciples on which Emile's education is based. 
Rousseau's is a system of elaborate checks- 
and safeguards, a negative education which 
could be fully realised only in a cofiin. To' 
educate by illusions and carefully-prepared 
accidents is both immoral and futile, for 
sooner or later the boy will discover the 
trickery. To reward and punish by phy- 
sical consequences only (the doctrine that 
Herbert Spencer has revived) is to sacri- 
fice the growing man for the sake of the 
adult. Life is too short and the conse- 
quences too grave. Moreover, the theory 
is not really in accordance with nature.. 
The will of a superior is as much a fact of 
nature as that fire burns or water drowns, 
and a child must be made to recognise one 
fact no less than the other. Lastly, Rous- 
seau's system treats the pupil as a solitary 
unit and would cut him off from all human 
intercourse except with his governor, who 



348 



ROCHOW, FREDERIC EBERHARD VON ROUSSEAU 



follows him like his shadow. Richter 
lays full stress on the cultivation of social 
sympathies, and has no belief, at least for 
boys, in a cloistered virtue. In conclusion, 
we may glance at a few of the salient 
features in Richter's own system. In his 
sti'ictui'es on the ' classical parrots ' and 
his vindication of the mother tongue as 
the chief subject-matter of instruction he 
is a true modern. In his insistence on 
religious teaching without forms or for- 
mulas, catechisms or church-going, he is 
the worthy follower of Lessing. In his 
philosophic analysis of play and the peda- 
gogic importance that lie attaches to games, 
music, and fairy stories, he is a forerunner 
of Froebel. Lastly, in the broad view that 
he takes of life as a whole, neither magni- 
fying nor belittling the functions of the 
teacher, he deserves among educators, even 
more than among writers, his epithet of 
' unique.' Of the Levana a useful con- 
densation has been edited by Susan Wood, 
B.Sc. Among Richter's other writings 
bearing on education Qiiintus Fixlein and 
Maria Witz (an exquisite idyl depicting 
the inner life of a village dominie) deserve 
mention. For his doctrines see G. Wirth's 
Richter als Pddagog. 

Robes (Academic). See University 
Robes. 

Rochow, Frederic Eberhard von 
(1734-1805). — A German educationist, 
a native of Berlin, was trained to the 
■army, and smelt powder at Prague in 
1756. Becoming acquainted Avith Base- 
dow's Aims and Methods of Education, he 
devoted himself with sound judgment and 
discriminating charity to improving the 
schools and homes of his own peasantry. 
As a first instalment to improving their 
school system he published in 1772 a 
School Book/or Children of Country People 
and for the Use of Village Schools, the 
•chief object of which was to elevate the 
intelligence and practical skill of teachers, 
and to inaugurate free education. He 
next published the Reader (1770), Manual 
■of Catechetic Forms for Teachers (1783), 
Catechism of Sound Reason (1786), and 
Corrections (1792), which is a collection of 
definitions full of pedagogic suggestions, 
and finally translated Mirabeau's Discourse 
on National Education (1792). He was 
really the first advocate of a reformation 
of the elementary school system of Prussia. 

RoUin (1661-1741) was first as pupil, 
and afterwards as professor, connected dur- 



ing the greater part of his life with the 
University of Paris, to which he considered 
that next to God he owed everything. His 
name — ' bon Rollin,' as the phrase goes — 
has been honoured among his countrymen 
rather for what he was than for what he 
did, rather for the disinterested sincerity 
of his character than for any striking 
originality of intellect. Thus in his fa- 
mous Traite des Etudes he emphatically 
advocates, with very many discriminating 
suggestions as to curriculum (e.g. domestic 
economy is ranked next to religion in im- 
portance), a more thorough education for 
girls ; but in this first book he is avowedly 
following in the steps of Fenelon. In other 
matters he follows the Port- Royalists, and 
like them he is, from our point of view, 
prudish ; among the French books recom- 
mended for the young, Corneille (bk. ii.) and 
Moliere do not find a place. Occasionally 
he is almost retrogressive ; the Oratorians 
had laid great stress on the teaching of the 
national history ; Rollin admits that by 
postponing it to Greek and Roman history 
he virtually excludes it from the university 
course (bk. vi.). Indeed he is altogether 
an exponent of existing practice, especially 
that of the University of Paris, rather than 
an originator. It is, however, in his eighth 
and last book of the Traite that Rollin is 
at his best. Villemain has described him 
as the 'veritable saint del'enseignement'; 
and on the matters of discipline considered 
in this book we feel that he at once by 
character and by experience is qualified, 
as few have ever been, to be a teacher of 
teachei'S. 

Rousseau. — Jean -Jacques Rousseau 
(1712-1778) was born at Geneva, his 
mother dying in giving him birth, thus 
making his birth, as he pathetically said, 
the first misfortune of his life. Of weak 
body and morbid mind, his destiny was 
for himself gloomy and filled with pain, 
but he stands out for ever in history as 
one of those brilliant spirits of the eigh- 
teenth century who made the French Re- 
volution possible, and in the ' azure of the 
past' he is one of that constellation in 
which the other stars of first magnitude 
are Voltaire and Diderot, d'Holbach and 
d'Alembert. His Contrat Social may be 
said to have been the very bible of the 
Revolutionists, with its passionate throb 
of liberty, its appeal to right and to justice. 
The 'gospel of Jean- Jacques Rousseau'— 
which rang over France, stirring the sleep- 



ROUSSEAU 



349 



ing people as with a trumpet-blast and 
breathing into their hearts the longings 
which burst into the flame and the whirl- 
wind of the Revolution when he himself 
lay sleeping for ever in the j)eaceful shades 
of Ermenonville - this gospel was, in a 
word, the cry that ' man is born free, but 
is in fetters everywhere.' ' To renounce 
liberty is to renounce manhood ; it is to 
renounce the rights of humanity ; yes, it 
is to renounce its duties. ' Never book had 
mightier force than this Contrat Social, 
and though to-day its truths have become 
truisms and its mistakes absurdities, it yet 
remains as a monument to the man who 
grasped and held to a fundamental verity 
which had scarce been dreamed by his 
contemporaries. 

In 1750 Rousseau made his debut in 
the world of letters with an essay, which 
won a prize offered by the Academy of 
Dijon, on the question, 'Has the restora- 
tion of the sciences contributed to the puri- 
fication or to the corruption of manners 1 ' 
In this essay he endeavoured to prove the 
thesis that riches gave birth to luxury and 
idleness, and that the arts sprang from 
luxury, the sciences from idleness. Hence 
he argued that a return to simplicity of 
life would conduce to purity of morals. 
Out of this opinion grew his theory of 
education, a theory fully expounded in 
his famous £mile, published in 1762 : a 
work which, he said in his preface, was 
' commenced to please a good mother who 
was capable of thought,' and which was 
based on the idea that education should 
' commence at birth,' and should be guided 
by a comprehension of child -nature grow- 
ing out of a careful and sympathetic study 
thereof. In the very first sentence of his 
book Rousseau strikes the key-note in 
which all his writing is set : ' All is good 
as it comes from the hand of the Creator ; 
all degenerates in the hands of man.' The 
object of education, then, is to follow the 
indications given by nature, and since 
' men are moulded by education as plants by 
culture,' it is of vital importance that this 
education shall be sound. ' We are born 
feeble and have need of strength ; we are 
born stripped of everything and we need 
help ; we are born stupid and have need 
of judgment. Everything which we lack 
at birth, and which we require in our ma- 
turity, is given to us by education. This 
education comes from nature, from men, 
or from circumstances. The internal de- 



velopment of our faculties and of our 
organs is the education of nature ; the 
use which we are taught to make of this 
development is the education of men ; and 
the acquisition of experience about the 
things which afiect us is the education of 
circumstances.' Of these three kinds of 
education that only which is given by men 
is really under our control. 

Primarily the pupil is to be trained to 
be a man. ' How to live is the trade I 
would teach him. In passing from my 
hands he shall not be magistrate, or soldier, 
or priest; he shall be first of all man.' 
To this end education must begin in the 
cradle; the mother must nurse her babe 
that she may stand first in his affections ; 
the father must be his first tutor ; if the 
mother is too delicate to nurse, the father 
too busy to teach, the family has no real 
existence. As soon as the child begins to 
observe, care must be exercised in the ob- 
jects he sees ; he must be accustomed to 
the sight of new things, of ugly animals, 
that he may feel fear of nothing. As 
children are easily frightened by masks, 
Emile is first to see a pleasant-looking 
mask, and then the mask is put on by 
somebody and everybody laughs, so that 
the child laughs too ; gradually ugly ones 
are introduced until, 'if I have managed 
my gradation well,' he will laugh at a 
hideous one as at the first. Thus a child 
may be made intrepid, and ' when reason 
begins to frighten them let habit reassure 
them.' As Emile begins to speak and to 
walk no over-solicitude is to be shown. 
If he hurts himself, ti-anquillity on the part 
of the elder teaches self-control and cour- 
age ; and as a child, unless carelessly placed 
in danger, cannot hurt himself seriously, 
he should be left to face small injuries and 
so learn endurance. Thus nature teaches, 
and thus the child should be trained. He 
should not obtain a thing because he asks 
for it, but because he needs it ; he should 
not act from obedience, but from necessity. 
Do not forbid him to do a thing, but pre- 
vent him from doing it ; let that which is 
granted be granted at his first request, and 
let a refusal be irrevocable. Thus he will 
become patient, equable, peaceable, for it 
is in man's nature to endure the necessity 
of things, but not the whims of other people. 
Let the child be free to follow his own 
fancies, putting out of his way valuable 
things that he might injure, and let him 
be left to grow witliout chastisement and 



350 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 



without forcing. In similar fashion is his 
education to progress as he grows older ; 
experience is to be allowed to teach him 
lessons, and control is to be minimised as 
much as possible. His body is to be trained, 
but no direct instruction is to be given 
to his mind until he passes out of actual 
childhood. Then let him learn his first 
geography in the town he inhabits ; stimu- 
late his curiosity by expressing wonder as 
to the occurrence of natural phenomena ; 
answer when he asks, and thus lead him 
to knowledge. Gradually, carefully pre- 
pared experiments give rise to new cui'i- 
osity, again to be satisfied ; and so step by 
step his education progresses, always na- 
turally, and therefore always surely. 

Such is an outline of the famous edu- 
cational scheme of Rousseau, a work which 
may still well be studied by those who have 
in their hands the guidance of the young. 
Rousseau died on July 2, 1778, and was 
buried in the Isle of Poplars, Ermenon- 
ville ; his tomb bears the inscription : 
* Here lies the man of nature and of truth. 
Vitam im^yendere vero.^ 

Royal Commissions on Education are 
appointed by the Queen in council. They 
consist of a certain number of persons, 
members of either or both Houses of Parlia- 
ment, with whom are associated individuals 
possessing a special knowledge of educa 
tion, or in a special sense representing 
educational interests secular or sectarian. 
They are charged with the duty of reporting 
in terms of their ' order of reference. ' They 
have ample power to examine Avitnesses, 
and to call for the produ.ction of all docu- 
ments which they deem necessary for their 
inquiry. The evidence which they collect, 
and the report which is founded on it, are 
published in a Blue-Book, which is pre- 
sented to members of both Houses of Par- 
liament, and may be bought by any one 
from the ' Queen's Printers ' (Messrs. Eyre 
& Spottiswoode, New - Sti'eet Square, 
E.C., or Messrs. Stanford, Charing Cross) 
for a small sum, charged to cover the cost 
of printing and publication. Reports, old 
and new, and odd volumes of reports can 
also be obtained from Messrs. P. King 
& Co., Canada Buildings, Westminster, 
S.W., Parliamentary publishers and book 
sellers. The report of a Royal Commission 
should be signed by all the members of the 
commission. If unanimity has not pre- 
vailed, it is signed by the majority, and 
appended to it is published the report of 



the dissentient minoxity or minorities. 
Reports on education have also been drawn 
up by Select Committees of the House of 
Commons, and both kinds of reports are 
usually made the bases of legislative and 
administrative reform. It will be found, 
for example, that before the first great 
exhaustive inquiry by a Royal Commission 
into the state of public instruction in Eng- 
land was ordered in 1858, several Com- 
mittees of the House of Commons had in- 
vestigated and reported upon education, 
e.g. Brougham's Committees of 1816 and 
1818, and the Select Comanittees of 1834 
and 1838. The first important Royal 
Commission on education was, however, 
that appointed by Lord John Russell's 
Administration in 1850 to inquire into 
the state of the Universities of Oxford, 
Cambridge, and Dublin. The report of 
this Commission led to the legislation of 
1854, by which the old University system 
was revolutionised and brought into har- 
mony with modern requirements. (^S'ee 
article University Reform.) The famous 
'Newcastle Commission' of 1858 was a 
Royal Commission, and consisted of the 
Duke of Newcastle, who was chairman, 
Sir John Duke Coleridge, now Lord Cole- 
ridge and Lord Chief Justice of England, 
the Rev. W. C. Lake, now Dean of Durham, 
Professor Goldwin Smith, Mr, Nassau 
Senior, Mr. Edward Miall, and the Rev, 
William Rogers. Mr. Fitzjames (now Mr, 
Justice) Stephen was the secretary. The 
Commission was helped by several assistant 
commissioners, who conducted special in- 
quiries into the state of education in i-e- 
presentative agricultural, manufacturing, 
mining, and fishing communities, not only 
in England, but in foreign countries. 
By its ' order of reference ' the Newcastle 
Commission was charged with the duty of 
inquiring into ' the state of popular edu- 
cation in England, and the measures re- 
quired for the extension of sound and 
cheap elementary instruction to all classes 
of the people.' Its chief recommendations 
were (1) that grants for elementary edu- 
cation should be expressly apportioned 
upon the examination of individual chil- 
dren ; (2) that means should be taken for 
reaching more rapidly the places not pre- 
viously aided with Parliamentary grants ; 
(3) that the administration of the grants 
in aid should be simplified not merely 
as regards the clerical work of officials, 
but also by ' withdrawing Her Majesty's 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 



351 



Oovernment from direct financial inter- 
ference between the managers and teach- 
ers of schools.' Thus the Report of the 
Newcastle Commission was the parent of 
{1) the ' Revised Code ' ; (2) 'payment by- 
results ' ; and (3) the great reforms which 
were ultimately embodied in Mr. Forster's 
Act of 1870, and in the subsequent Acts, 
into the working of which another Royal 
Commission was appointed to inquire in 
January 1886. 

On July 18, 1861, a celebrated Royal 
Commission was appointed to inquire into 
the condition of ' certain public schools 
in England.' The schools were Eton, 
Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Harrow, 
Rugby, and Shrewsbury. The members 
of the Commission were the Earl of Claren- 
don, the Earl of Devon, Lord Lyttleton, 
Sir Stafford Northcote, the Hon. E. T. B. 
Twistleton, the Rev. W. H. Thompson, 
M.A., and Mr. Halford Vaughan, M.A. 
They were ordered to inquire into the ad- 
ministration of the school revenues, the 
condition of the foundations and endow- 
ments, the course of studies pursued, and 
the methods of teaching adopted. Professor 
Montague Bernard, B.C.L., was the secre- 
tary of theCommission . The Commissioners 
■obtained at the outset written answers to 
questions addressed to the governing bodies 
and head-masters of the schools scheduled. 
Then they personally visited each school 
and inspected its arrangements. Finally 
they took evidence from a vast array of 
witnesses — including even some junior 
boys — who could presumably throw light 
on the subject. Though Marlborough, 
Cheltenham, Wellington College, and the 
City of London School were not included 
in the order of reference, the Commis- 
sioners, finding that these seminaries had 
attained a position entitling them to be 
ranked with the great public schools, also 
investigated their system of teaching from 
information voluntarily supplied, and re- 
ported on it. The Commissioners recom- 
mended that great modifications be made 
in the constitution of governing bodies of 
the great public schools — chiefly with the 
object of giving them permanence and 
stability of character, and of protecting 
them from the domination of local and 
personal influences. They suggested the 
appointment of some Crown nominees to 
each governing body. They recommended 
that governing bodies have power to amend 



their statutes, subject to the sanction of 
the Crown, to appoint and dismiss the 
head-master, who was to have the sole 
right of selecting his assistants. The 
Commissioners reported in favour of 
adding at least one modern language, 
French or German, and one branch of 
natural science, to the classical curriculum 
then in vogue. Every boy, it was recom- 
mended, should be subjected to an entrance 
examination, designed to test his know- 
ledge of classics and of French or German, 
and boys who failed to make reasonable 
progress were to be liable to dismissal. 
The Commissioners thought that charges 
and fees should be revised — the charge for 
instruction being in all cases separated 
from the charge for boarding and for 
domestic superintendence. The working 
of the monitorial system, according to the 
Commissioners, needed immediate vigi- 
lance, as did the system of fagging. They 
recommended that fags should be released 
from all work that ought to be done by 
domestic servants, and that fagging must 
never be allowed to encroach on a boy's 
time for lessons or for needful recreation. 
Holidays too ought, in the opinion of the 
Commissioners, to be arranged so that 
they should occur at the same time in 
each school. As to the existing system, 
the Commissioners reported that the 
course of study lacked flexibility and 
breadth, that the schools were ' too in- 
dulgent to idleness,' or struggled ineffectu- 
ally with it, and as a result that they 
turned ' out a large proportion of men of 
idle habits and empty and uncultivated 
minds.' At the same time it was admitted 
that the schools had been for many years 
progressing in the right direction. The 
manners of the boys had improved, and 
the masters had maintained classical 
studies as the staple of an EngKsh educa- 
tion, ' a service,' said the Commissioners, 
which far outweighed the error of having 
clung to these studies too exclusively. 
The report was dated February 13, 1864. 
Mr. Yaughan dissented from the recom- 
mendation that a modern language should 
be one of the subjects included in the 
entrance examinations. (See Farl. Papers, 
1864 [3288], vol. xi. p, 1,) 

On December 28, 1864, a Royal Com- 
mission was appointed to inquire into the 
education given in schools not touched by 
the Newcastle Commission of 1858, or by 
the Public Schools Inquiry Commission, 



352 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 



of which Lord Clarendon was chairman, in 
186L The scope of this inquiry included 
all schools which educate children ex- 
cluded from the operation of the Parlia- 
mentary grant, except the nine great 
public schools already reported on by the 
Public Schools Inquiry Commission of 1 86 1 . 
The Commissioners were Lord Taunton 
(chairman). Lord Stanley, Lord Lyttleton, 
Dr. Hook, Dean of Chichester, Dr. Temple, 
now Bishop of London, Rev. A. T. 
Thorold, M.A., Mr. T. Dyke Acland, Mr. 
Edward Baines, Mr. W. E. Forster, Mr. 
Peter Erie, Q.C., and Dr. John Storrar. 
The Commissioners divided the schools 
they examined into (1) Endowed, (2) 
Private, and (3) Proprietary. By En- 
dowed Schools they meant schools main- 
tained wholly or partly by means of a 
permanent charitable endowment. The 
term Private Schools they limited to such 
as were the property of the head-master or 
head-mistress. The remaining schools, 
which were either the property of indi- 
viduals or corporations, who in some cases 
appropriated the profits of them, and in 
others applied these to the reduction of 
the cost of their own children's education, 
the Commissioners described as Frojyrie- 
tary Schools. The investigations into the 
condition of the endowments of these 
schools and into the education of girls, a 
matter steadily kept in view by the Com- 
missioners, rendered the inquiry specially 
interesting. Assistant Commissioners 
made reports on selected districts. Mr. 
D. R. Fearon, H.M. Inspector of Schools, 
reported on the metropolitan area ; Mr. H. 
A. Giffard, M.A., on London outside the 
postal district ; Mr. C. H. Stanton on 
Devon and Somerset ; Mr. T. H. Green, 
M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, 
on Staffordshire and Warwickshire ; Mr. 
J. Hammond on East Anglia ; Mr. Fitch, 
H.M. Inspector of Schools, on the West 
Riding of Yorkshire ; Mr. James Bryce, 
afterwards Under-Secretary of State for 
Foreign Affairs, on Lancashire ; and Mr. 
H. M. Bompas, M.A., on Wales. Mr. 
Matthew Arnold reported on the system 
of education existing in France, Germany, 
Switzerland, and Italy. The Rev. James 
Eraser, afterwards Bishop of Manchester, 
reported on the schools of the United 
States and Canada. Baron Mackay, of 
the Hague, at one time an attache to the 
Dutch Legation in London, reported on 
the schools of Holland. At the instance 



of Dr. (now Sir) Lyon Playfair, who ad- 
dressed a strong letter on the subject to the 
Commissioners, they also made inquiry 
into his assertion that the Industrial Ex- 
hibition at Paris in 1860 furnished evi- 
dence of a decline in the superiority of 
certain branches of English manufacture 
over those of other nations — a decline that 
was due in Dr. Playfair's opinion to the 
absence of technical education in Eng- 
land. In fact, the whole modern move- 
ment in favour of technical education in 
Great Britain may be said to have origin- 
ated with Dr. Playfair's letter and the 
Report of Lord Taunton's Commission 
upon it. The Commissioners reported 
that reform must begin with the endowed 
schools, because unless they were com- 
pelled to do good work they did positive 
harm by standing in the way of better 
institutions. Whilst regard was to be 
paid to the wishes of those who had origin- 
ally bequeathed the endowments, the Com- 
missioners advised that this sentiment 
ought not to be carried too far, for many 
of the bad existing arrangements were 
themselves departures from the intentions 
of the ' pious founder.' Rules, said the 
Commissioners, should be remodelled to 
suit the purpose of each school. Special 
constitutions of governing bodies should 
be discarded where they did not work well. 
The narrow curriculum of education 
should be enlarged. Gratuitous instruc- 
tion should not be given indiscriminately 
where it was found to be lowering the 
character of the school, and with its cha- 
racter the standard of its teaching. Gra- 
tuitous instruction given at haphazard, 
and not as a reward of merit, actually 
defeated the intentions of the founders. 
It did not supply opportunities for poor 
children of exceptional talent, and it 
gradually prevented the school from giving 
high education. Three grades of schools, 
according to the Commissioners, should 
be organised : (1) schools which taught 
boys up to the age of 18 or 19 ; (2) schools 
which stopped their teaching at the age of 
16 ; (3) schools which stopped it at the 
age of 14. In the first grade Greek was 
admissible in the classical course. In the 
second it was recommended that Greek be 
left out, and attention paid to two, and 
in the third to one modern language, in 
addition to Latin. The schools should be 
reorganised on a harmonious plan, so that 
those in a district or county might be made 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 



353 



to supply each other's deficiencies. Limits 
should be set to the fees, and trustees should 
not be chosen exclusively from members of 
the Church of England. The restriction 
of masterships to persons in holy orders, 
it was reported, should be abolished, and 
with it the rule which assumed that all 
religious teaching must be that of the An- 
glican Church. As for endowments, their 
application, the Commissioners said, must 
be regulated by Parliament. All close 
foundations, whether in favour of the rich 
or the poor, were stigmatised by the Com- 
mission as evils. The fixed salaries and 
freehold tenure of masters the Commission 
thought should be done away with, the 
plan they favoured being payment by capi- 
tation fees, under a guarantee for a time 
that such payment would never fall under 
a certain annual sum. Exhibitions, said 
the Commissioners, should not be confined 
to the universities, but holders of them 
ought to be allowed to proceed to technical 
schools. The same recommendations in 
the main were made for girls' schools, and 
it was recommended that they should, 
in every case where it was possible, be 
allowed a share of all redistributed or 
available endowments. The establishment 
of boarding-houses on the ' hostel ' or col- 
lege system rather than on that of sepa- 
rate houses was also recommended, the 
plan having worked well at Marlborough, 
Haileybury, Wellington, and Felstead. On 
the whole, the Commission did not approve 
of the establishment of a normal school 
to train the masters. Masters so trained 
in France they had discovered became 
mere teachers rather than educators. 
Strong powers were recommended to be 
given to head-masters over their subordi- 
nates, and it was pointed out that a 
universal demand for a good system of 
official inspection existed. Small endow- 
ments, which just because they were small 
were wasted, the Commissioners suggested 
should be consolidated. Among the 
powers to be given to the governors were 
those of settling the programme of in- 
struction and of preparing reorganisation 
schemes to be laid before the Charity Com- 
missioners and Parliament for their sanc- 
tion. Three authorities, it was suggested, 
should be constituted: governors for the 
local management of each school, a provin- 
cial authority to regulate the relations of 
schools in each district one to another, a 
central avithority to exercise a general 



control over the working of the system. 
By enlarging the powers of the Charity 
Commission a central authority might be 
found. The Charity Commission, it was 
said, should appoint for each provincial 
district an oflicial Commissioner for secon- 
dary education, with whom six or eight 
unpaid Commissioners should be associated 
as the provincial authority. On the other 
hand, it was to be left to a district, if it 
chose, to form a representative board out 
of chairmen of boards of guardians and 
Crown nominees as a provincial authority. 
As for the governing bodies, it was pointed 
out that they were inefficient for many 
reasons, among others that they were chosen 
by co-optation. The new governing bodies, 
it was recommended, should consist of a 
small number of the existing trustees, to 
which were added trustees elected by the 
ratepayers and nominated by the provincial 
board. The schools, it was recommended, 
should be worked in close concert with the 
universities by means of a council of ex- 
aminations. As for private and proprietary 
schools, it was pointed out that if they were 
to be efiective their fees must not put them 
out of the reach of the class for whom the 
corresponding public schools were needed, 
and they must be registered and subjected 
to the same conditions of examination and 
inspection as the public schools. The re- 
port is to be found in Pari. Papers., 1867- 
1868 [3966], vol. xxviii. pt. i. 1. The 
Commissioners, whilst reporting generally 
that the answers of experts to their ques- 
tions as to technical education shewed that 
it would be desirable to promote the teach- 
ing of physical science in secondary schools, 
did not present any elaborate report on 
the question. (See Pari. Papers., 1867 
[3898], vol. xxvi. 261.) 

In 1881, a Royal Commission, consisting 
of Mr. (now Sir) Bernhard Samuelson, 
F.R.S., Professor (now Sir) Henry Roscoe, 
F.R.S., Mr. (now Sir) Philip Magnus, 
Messrs. John Slagg, M.P., Swire Smith, 
and William Woodall, M.P., was appointed 
to inquire into the instruction of the in- 
dustrial classes of certain foreign countries 
in technical and other subjects, and gene- 
rally into the subject of technical educa- 
tion at home and abroad. Their first re- 
port is dated February 17, 1882, and deals 
with technical education in France. The 
Commissioners spoke with approval of the 
instruction in the use of tools, which had 
just been introduced into French elemen- 

A A 



354 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION 



tary schools, but seemed in doubt as to the 
value o£ the new apprenticeship schools 
for training ordinaiy workmen, such as 
those which had been established at La 
Yillette and Havre. Till this manual 
teaching was introduced into the French 
schools, the Commissioners reported that 
the French workmen got as little technical 
education as Englishmen. The gratuitous 
courses of lectures given in French towns 
on scientific and literary subjects the Com- 
missioners thought highly valuable. They 
spoke with approval of the excellence of 
the gratuitous Art teaching given at an 
early age to children, and continued in 
adult schools, as beneficial to the French 
workman. In this report they made no 
practical recommendation, except the in- 
troduction of manual work into elementary 
schools frequented by children of the in- 
dustrial class {Pari. Pcqjers, 1882 [c. 3171], 
vol. xxvii. 40). The second and final re- 
port is dated April 4, 1884, and it stated 
that foreign industry, as tested by the Paris 
Exhibition of 1878, had revealed an unex- 
pected capacity for development. In the 
production of some kinds of machinery 
France, Switzerland, and Germany were 
abreast of England. In industries involving 
chemical processes Germany was ahead of 
her. This was also the case with respect 
to the construction of roofs and buildings 
where accurate mathematical knowledge 
had to be applied. The soft woollen fabrics 
of Rheims and Roubaix excelled those of 
Bradford, especially in dyeing. Yerviers 
exported to Scotland woollen yarns carded 
and spun by English machines from South 
American wool, at one time bought in 
Liverpool and London, but now purchase- 
able in Antwerp. Great, however, as the 
progress of continental industry had been 
since 18 50, the Commissioners reported that 
on the whole the English people still held 
their place at the head of the industrial 
world. They had not lost it : they were 
only losing it. The advantages gained 
by their continental rivals were due 
chiefly to the superiority of foreign manu- 
facturers, their managers and their fore- 
men, in technical skill, and in their sound 
knowledge of the sciences upon which 
their trades depended. The technical 
education given to the workmen also told 
on the competition between foreign and 
English industries. The Commissioners 
therefore recommended that action should 
be taken to promote technical education 



in the United Kingdom by the Legisla- 
ture and public authorities. They sug- 
gested that in every trade where a know- 
ledge of science or art is of advantage, 
it be made a condition of employment 
imposed on young persons by masters and 
trades unions that they shall take steps 
to get that knowledge — either in schools 
attached to works or groups of works, or 
in such classes as may be available, these 
classes to be partly maintained by the 
employers and trade organisations. Pro- 
moters of technical classes were urged to 
make the emoluments of the teachers suf- 
ficient to tempt them to continue the in- 
struction of their pupils beyond the rudi- 
mentary stage, and group the teaching of 
science subjects in accordance with the 
regulations of the Science and Art Depart- 
ment. It was recommended that techni- 
cal scholarships be founded in elementary 
schools, and that agricultural societies 
promote and encourage classes in secon- 
dary or county schools for teaching agri- 
culture. {Pari. Papers, 1884 [c. 3981], 
vol. xxix. p. 539.) The Commissioners 
further recommended the introduction of 
drawing as a necessary subject like the 
' three R's ' in elementary schools ; the 
encouragement by grants, as for a ' specific 
subject,' of skill in using tools for work- 
ing wood or iron in elementary schools ; 
that object lessons in agriculture in all 
rural schools be given ; that the Scotch 
rule that children under the age of four- 
teen shall not be allowed to work full 
time till they pass the Fifth Standard be 
extended to England ; that School Boards 
have power to organise technical classes 
under the Science and Art Department, 
which should be empowered to arrange 
that the scientific teaching shall be better 
adapted to the wants of the working 
classes than it is at present ; that it shall 
not be a requirement of the Department 
that fees be exacted from artisans under 
technical instruction ; that in awards for 
industrial design more attention be paid 
by the Department than is the case at 
present, to the applicability of the design 
to the material it is to be wrought out 
in ; that training colleges for elementary 
teachers desirous of imparting technical 
education be established ; that local autho- 
rities be empowered to organise and main- 
tain higher technical schools and colleges ; 
that museums and libraries be opened on 
Sundays, and that the limit imposed by the 



ROYAL COMMISSIONS ON EDUCATION RUSTICATION 



355 



Free Libraries Act on the expense which 
local authorities may incur for the esta- 
bhshment of museums and galleries of ai"t 
be abolished. They also recommended 
the abolition of the maximum of 500/. as 
the grant which the Science and Art De- 
partment may make in aid of the erection 
of local schools of art and of museums 
in connection with them. (See Teciinical 
Education^ by F. C. Montague, M.A. ; 
Cassell & Co. (1887).) 

In January 1886 a Royal Commission 
^vas appointed to inquire into the working 
of the Elementary Education Acts of Eng- 
land and Wales. The Commissioners were 
Lord Cross, chairman, Cardinal Manning, 
the Duke of Norfolk, Lord Harrowby, 
Lord Beauchamp, the Bishop of London, 
Lord Norton, Sir Erancis Sanford, Mr. 
Lyulph Stanley, Sir John Lubbock, Sir 
Bernhard Samuelson, Rev. Dr. Rigg, Dr 
Dale, Canon Gregory, Canon Smith, Rev. 
T. D. C. Morse, Mr. C. H. Alderson, Dr. 
J. G. Talbot, Mr. Sidney Buxton, Mr. 
T. E. Heller, Mr. Rathbone, Mr. Henry 
Richard, and Mr. George Shipton. Mr. 
Mundella and Mr. B. MoUoy, M.P., were 
■also members. Mr. Mundella retired on 
joining Mr. Gladstone's third Administra- 
tion. Mr. Molloy resigned because Lord 
Salisbury's Government refused to grant 
a Select Committee to investigate charges 
of complicity with assassination brought 
against him and several Irish members by 
the Times, and which were reproduced in 
the House of Commons by Lord Harting- 
ton. The constitution of the Commission 
of 1886 differs from that of the Newcastle 
Commission in one important point. The 
Newcastle Commission was a body repre- 
senting the general public interest in edu- 
cation. The Commission of 1886, on the 
other hand, represents special education 
interests, professional and sectarian. The 
points which the Commissioners were i"e- 
quested to inquire into were : 

1. The existing law — how it grew up: 
(a) the law previous to 1870 ; (&) the 
Acts from 1870 to 1880 ; (c) the codes 
and instructions after 1870. 2. The ex- 
isting state of facts — as to («) buildings ; 
(h) number of scholars ; (c) income and 
expenditure ; (d) staff and salaries ; (e) 
comparison of Voluntary and Board schools ; 
(/) merit grants ; (g) small schools ; (A) 
training colleges ; (k) average duration of 
school life. 3. The provision made — (a) 
for the supply of schools ; (b) for the 



management [of schools ; (c) for inspec- 
tion ; (d) for supply of teachers ; (e) 
training colleges ; (/) for regular attend- 
ance of children. 4. The efficiency of 
machinery, both central and local : (a) for 
religious and moral training ; (b) secular 
instruction. 5. Board schools. 6. Spe- 
cial schools and their difficulties. 7. Re- 
lations of ordinary elementary schools to 
other schools. 8. The burden of the cost : 
(a) On the central Government ; (b) on 
the rates ; (c) on voluntary subscribers ; 
(d) on the parents. 9. School libraries 
and museums. 10. School Boards. 11. 
Grievances. 12. Committee of Council on 
Education. 

The Commissioners had not concluded 
their deliberations when the present work 
went to the press. 

Royal Military Academy. See Edu- 
cation FOR THE Army. 

Royal Military College. See Edu- 
cation FOR THE Army. 

Royal School of Mines. See Normal 
School of Science. 

Ruddiaaan, Thomas (1674-1757), the 
Scottish grammarian and classical critic, 
was a native of Banffshire, and was edu- 
cated at Aberdeen. After spending some 
time as schoolmaster in Kincardineshire, 
he repaired in 1699 to Edinburgh, and re- 
ceived an appointment in the Advocates' 
Library. In 1714 he brought out hiswell- 
kno^vn Rudiments of the Latin Tongue, 
which at once superseded other works of 
a similar kind in Scottish schools. In 1714 
he started as a publisher and printer in 
conjunction Avith his brother Walter, and 
subsequently published for the University. 
He next became proprietor of tlie Ccde- 
donian Mercury. He was chief librarian 
in the Advocates' Library from 1730 to 
1 752, in which latter year he was succeeded 
by David Hume. Ruddiman was regarded 
in his day as a very able classical critic, 
and his edition of Livy was long spoken of 
as immaculate. 

Russia, Education in. See Law (Edu- 
cational). 

Russian TJniversities. See Univer- 
sities. 

Rustication. — In ordinary usage a 
person who lives in town during 'the 
season ' is said to ' rusticate ' in the coun- 
try when he goes there. Hence an under- 
graduate who has been ' sent down ' by 
either his college or the university au- 
thorities (vice-chancellor and proctors) is 

aa2 



356 SAFFRON" WALDEN TRAINING COLLEGE SCHMIDT, KARL 



said to have been 'rusticated.' This may- 
be for one or more terms, or ' for good.' 
The distinction between ' gone down ' and 
' sent down ' is therefore important. At 
Oxford a man ' goes down ' in the ordinary 
course at end of term of eight weeks, or 
because he is ill or has 'leave to go 



down ' ; but he is ' sent down ' as a 
punishment, which obviously must often 
fall as an expense upon the pai"ents 
rather than upon the man liimself. At 
the beginning of term men ' go wp ' on 
the day of meeting. 



Saffron Walden Training College. 
See Beitish and Foreign School So- 
ciety. 

Salle, Abbe Jean Baptiste de la, Canon 
of Rheims (who died in 1719), founded in 
France about the year 1680 an order 
known under various names, as, e.g., the 
Freres ignorantins, the School Brethren, 
or Brethren of the Christian Doctrine. 
The vocation to which the members of the 
order devoted themselves was that of ele- 
mentaiy teachei's, the education they im- 
parted being in harmony with the doc- 
trines of the Catholic Church. The order 
became closely associated with the Jesuits, 
but enjoyed sufficient popularity to save 
it from the fate of the latter when they 
were expelled from France in 1764. A 
decree, dated March 17, 1807, publicly re- 
cognised the Freres ignorantins as a law- 
ful institution. The order still possesses 
numerous schools in various parts of 
Fx'ance, and, as a congregation autorisee, 
the body was not affected by the decree 
issued by M. Jules Ferry in 1880, which 
excluded the Jesuits and other unauthorised 
religious societies from the work of edu- 
cation. 

Sanatorium. — A school infirmary or 
sanatorium should be attached to every 
boarding-school. It should preferably be 
in a separate building from the rest of the 
school, but in small schools where this is 
unattainable the top storey should be ap- 
propriated. A perfect sanatorium should 
have nui'ses' rooms, a small kitchen, bath, 
and water-closets, complete in itself and 
isolated from the rest of the school. The 
medical responsibility should be un- 
divided, one medical man attending all 
the cases of sickness in a school, otherwise 
there may be clashing of instructions, and 
thus infection may spread. The provision 
for sickness is not complete, especially for 
scarlet fever, without arrangements for the 
quarantine of doubtful cases. There should 



be rooms for distinct cases of fever, and 
other I'ooms in which doubtful cases may 
be watched until their true character be- 
coaaes evident. The schoolmaster may 
with advantage learn the use of a clinical 
thermometer, and any patient showing a 
rise of temperature (above 99° Fahr.) 
should not be allowed to sleep in the com- 
mon dormitories till lie has been examined 
by a doctor. Cex'tificates should be de- 
manded from the guardians or parents of 
children on their return after vacations,, 
stating that there has been no known ex- 
posure to infection for at least three weeks. 
When a boy returns to school without 
such a certiticate he should be placed in 
quarantine ; lie should have a warm bath, 
strong carbolic soap being used, and his 
clotlies and books sliould be disinfected. 
The best disinfecting appai-atus is Wash- 
ington Lyon's disinfecting oven, in which 
superlieated steam is employed, though 
this can only be afforded in large schools. 
Baking in an ordii\ary oven such clothes, 
as cannot be washed is quite efficacious. 

Sandhurst. See Education for the- 
Army. 

Saxony, Education in (typical of that 
of North Germany). See Law (Educa- 
tional). 

Scandinavian Universities. See Uni- 
versities. 

Schmidt, Karl (1819-1864), a German 
educationist, was educated at the Univer- 
sities of Halle and Berlin, and became in 
1846 teacher at theGymnasium atKothen. 
In 1863 he was nominated director of the 
teachers' seminary and school councillor 
at Gotha, in which latter position he was 
called upon to re-organise the school sys- 
tem of the duchy. His chief work was 
a general history of pedagogics (Gescldchte 
der Pddagogik, 1862, 4 vols.), which was 
reviewed by Wicharcl Lange in 1872. In 
1857he published his Gymnasialpddagogik. 
Schmidt's great principle was, that an- 



SCHOLARS- 



-SCHOLASTICISM 



357 



thropology, and not psychology alone, was 
the only safe and adequate foundation of 
pedagogy. Schmidt was a staunch advo- 
cate of phrenology. 

Scholars. — The term applied (1) to 
persons of high academical attainments ; 
(2) to boys and girls attending public ele- 
mentaiy or other schools ; (3) to the foun- 
dation members of endowed schools or 
colleges. Foundation scholars at Oxford 
and Cambi-idge liave their commons free, 
their rooms rent free, and certain other 
allowances ; sometimes they have fixed 
stipends. They are usually elected by 
examination. 

Scholars, Classification of. See Clas- 
sification. 

Scholarships are prizes of money (some- 
times given as remission of fees) to en- 
courage promising boys to become better 
scholars. A clever boy may by these means 
work his way from the lowest primary 
schools to university honours. This has 
been done, and the 'ladder system ' is now 
developing in many places. In some lai-ge 
towns, e.g. Liverpool, there is a 'Council 
of Education,' composed of leading citizens, 
who encourage primaiy education by pay- 
ing for scholarships. Some schools offer 
them on entrance by examination. Clever 
lioys from expensive preparatory schools 
generally get these scholarships at the great 
public schools. There are often scholar- 
ships competed for within the school, de- 
pendent mainly on place and age. If a 
parent has certain schools in his mind, it is 
best to write direct to the seci-etary or head 
master for information as to the scholar- 
ships, and then see the school. The bare 
facts relating to them are often found in 
the local directory. Brief summaries of 
scholarships, their value, (fcc, are given 
in Cassell's annual Educational Year-Book 
(6s.), or in Bisson's Our Schools and Col- 
leges. Some old schools have either close 
or preference scholarships to certain colleges 
.at Oxford, Arc. Thus Eton and King's 
College, Cambridge, Winchester and New 
College, Merchant Taylors' and St. John's 
College, Oxford, are connected. Certain 
■counties have sometimes a preference, and 
Welsh students have many such scholar- 
ships at Jesus College, Oxford. Scholar- 
ships are ofiered by the various university 
•colleges. Private trust funds supply some 
scholarships (e.g. the Tancred Studentships, 
100^. for seven years, in divinity, law, and 
medicine at Cambridge). Government 



gives many Queen's scholarships in connec- 
tion with training schools. Science and Art 
Department (see Whitworth Scholar- 
ships), the Indian Civil Service, foreign 
colleges, &c. There are also scholarships 
to the Royal Academies for Art and Music, 
to technical and other colleges. {See Bur- 
sary ; University Scholarships, and 
University Scholarships for Women.) 
Scholasticism is the name applied to 
the system of mediaeval thought in the 
departments chiefly of logic, metaphysics, 
and theology. It originated in the schools 
founded by order of Charlemagne, and its 
main object was the reconciliation of the 
philosophy of Aristotle with orthodox 
theology. The Neoplatonist, Erigena, in 
the ninth century, is regarded as its founder. 
Till the end of the twelfth century the 
main subject of discussion was the nature 
of universals. Plato had held that, besides 
the individual members of a class, there 
had existed before them from all eternity 
a universal form (tSea), of which each of 
them was an embodiment ; so that, before 
any individual man existed, there was a 
universal type of man, which was the 
model on which each man was created 
(universalia ante renn). Aristotle, while 
denying that universal forms existed before 
or apart from the individual members of a 
class, yet affirmed that these forms existed 
in the individual members {tmiversalia in 
re). Realism, in one of these forms, was 
generally accepted till the time of Roscel- 
linus (d. 1125), the founder of nominalism, 
who held that the universal had no existence 
either in things or in the mind, but was a 
mere name used by us to group together 
individual things, which in themselves had 
no real relation to one another (universalia 
jwst rein). On this theory he denied the 
unity of God, maintaining that the three 
persons of the Trinity formed three separate 
Gods, with no real relations to one another. 
This provoked a vigorous defence of realism 
from Anselm (1033-1109), who, taking for 
his motto the words ^ Credo ut intelligam^ 
endeavoured to prove the harmony of faith 
aiid reason in regard to the Trinity and 
the Incarnation. A modified realism was 
formulated by William of Champeaux 
(1071-1121), who, admitting that only 
individuals had a substantial existence, 
regarded the universal as consisting of 
those similar qualities which were common 
to all the members of a class. This 'theory 
\ of indiff'erence ' was attacked by Abelard 



358 SCHOLASTICISM SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMMITTEES 



(1079-1140), the pupil successively of Ros- 
cellinus and of William, and the founder 
of conceptualism, a ^•ia media between 
nominalism and realism, which maintains 
that the universal exists as a concept in 
the mind, but not in things (uHiversalia 
in vienfe). The application of Abelard's 
rationalistic principles to theology caused 
his condemnation for heresy. 

With the thirteenth century began a 
new period of scholasticism, marked by 
greatly wider interests. Abelard and the 
earlier schoolmen had access only to Plato's 
Timo'us, and two or three logical treatises of 
Aristotle ; but, during the twelfth century, 
the rest of Aristotle's surviving works on 
logic, ethics, psychology, etc., were trans- 
lated mainly from Arabic Aversions. The 
main subject of dispute now was the 
principle of individuation. The first results 
of the application of the new knowledge 
to theology were numerous heresies, but 
Thomas Aquinas (1227-74), the 'Angelical 
Doctor,' following mainly his master, Al- 
bertus Magnus (11 93-1 280), the 'Universal 
Doctor,' reduced the whole Aristotelian 
philosophy to a system seemingly consistent 
with the doctrines of the Cliurch. On the 
question of universals their attitude was 
that of Aristotelian realism ; but they 
maintained that universals existed also ^wsi! 
rem, inasmuch as we can think of universals 
apart from their particular manifestations, 
and ante rem, as ideas in the mind of God. 
This view became generally adopted. The 
principle of individuation, that is, the 
thing which made the individual an indi- 
vidual, was, according to Aquinas, matter. 
Against this view his great opponent,' 
Duns Scotus, the 'Subtle Master,' pointed 
out that if individuality depends on matter 
the individuality of each human soul must 
be destroyed at death. Scotus held that 
the species became the individual by the 
addition of the qualities which distinguished 
the individual from other members of the 
same species. The freedom of the will 
Aquinas regarded as consisting in the 
power to obey reason rather than instinct ; 
he held that even God's will was subject to 
I'eason, and that God commanded what was 
right simply because it was right. Scotus, 
on the other hand, maintained the most 
absolute freedom of the will ; to him free 
will was the power to act in either of 
two ways without any motive. He held 
that what was right was right simply be- 
cause God had willed it, and that tlie 



exact opposite would have been riglit had 
God willed it. The scholastic world was 
long divided into Thomists and Scotists ; 
but Thomism, which Avas the creed of 
Dante, e^'entually became the official doc- 
trine of the Roman Church. In fact, as 
in Aquinas faith and reason seemed to 
have arrived at the same conclusions 
through different paths, the climax of 
scholasticism was reached. Still, even 
Aquinas abandoned the attempt, made by 
Anselm, to defend several doctrines, such 
as the Trinity, on rational grounds. Scotus 
added the omnipotence of God, the immor- 
tality of the soul, and other doctrines to 
the class of mysteries. Finally, the last 
great schoolman, William of Occam {d. 
1347), an extreme Nominalist, denied that 
any theological doctrine was demonstrable 
by reason. The schoolmen, however, having 
proved a theological doctrine inconsistent 
Avith reason, called it a mystery, and con- 
tinued to believe it, inasmuch as they 
assumed to be as premisses, Avdthout exa- 
mination, the truth both of Aristotle's 
philosophy and the Church's doctrines. 
Their neglect of the premisses of an argu- 
ment Avas seen also in their numerous, 
subtle discussions on such points as the 
jurisdiction of archangels, and the question 
Avhetlier devils can repent, Avhich later 
philosophers haA'e abandoned for lack of 
data. In fact, ignoring the example of 
their master, Aristotle, the schoolmen en- 
deaA^oured to prove everything bydeduction, 
Avithout examiziing the facts of nature. 
As the interest in nature increased, this, 
defect Avas increasingly felt, and so at the 
beginning of the fifteenth century scholas- 
ticism practically expired. The interest 
in science began to OA^ershadoAv the interest 
in philosophy, and it Avas recognised that 
in both alike induction must take its place 
side by side Avith deduction. 

(For further details the histories of 
philosophy, especially those by Maurice,' 
Lewes, and UberAveg, should be consulted ; 
also Cousin's introduction to Ouvrages 
ineditsd' Abelard, 1836 ; Haui-eau's //^s<o^Ve• 
de la philosopliie scholastique, 1870 ; and 
Poole's Illustrations of the History of Me- 
diaeval Thouffht, 1884.) 

School Attendance and Infection. See' 
Communicable Diseases. 

School Attendance Committees. — 
School attendance committees are ap- 
pointed under the Elementary Education 
Act of 1876 (knoAvn as 'Lord Sandon's. 



I 



SCHOOL ATTENDANCE COMMITTEES SCHOOL BOARDS 359 



Act'), to compel the attendance of children 
at school in districts in which there are 
no School Boards. The whole of England 
and Wales is divided under the Elementary 
Education Act of 1870 ('Mr. Forster's 
Act') into school districts. If a district 
has not enough school accommodation for 
all the children, it must have a School 
Board; and it may have a School Board 
in any case if the ratepayers or their 
representatives in Town Council apply to 
the Education Department for an order to 
elect a School Board. In the absence of 
such a request there are no School Boards 
in districts with sufficient accommodation. 
Until 1876 such districts were wholly un- 
affected by the educational legislation of 
1870. By 1876 there was a general de- 
sire for compulsory attendance at school 
throughout the country, but the Govern- 
ment of the day were not prepared to 
force a School Board upon every district. 
Hence in the Act of 1876 Lord Sandon 
provided that in every school district with- 
out a School Board an Attendance Com- 
mittee should be formed. The Attendance 
Committee in boroughs and town districts 
is appointed by the Town Council or Urban 
Sanitary Board ; in rural districts it is 
appointed by the Board of Guardians, the 
members of the Committee being mem- 
bers of the appointing body. The Com- 
mittee is reappointed every year. It has 
nothing to do with the schools, or with 
the provision of school accommodation. Its 
business consists almost exclusively in 
compelling children to attend the voluntary 
schools, for which purpose it can demand 
of the managers of the voluntary schools 
returns and particulars of the attendance 
of children. The powers of the Committee 
to compel attendance at school exactly 
correspond with those of the School Board 
(see School Board). It appoints a chair- 
man and vice-chairman, a clerk, and at- 
tendance officers to look after the children, 
grants certificates of half-time and full- 
time, exemption, &c. It reports from 
time to time to the body which appoints 
it, but it is responsible to the Education 
Department, by whom it may be declared 
'in default,' and superseded if it neglects 
its duty. The Committee cannot incur 
expense without the sanction of the body 
by whom it is appointed. The money is 
raised by rate, by the town council, urban 
authority, or overseers. The Act of 1876, 
providing for the appointment of Atten- 



dance Committees, did not render it incum- 
bent upon the committees to make bye- 
laws for compelling children to attend 
school, but it conferred upon the com- 
mittees power to proceed against employers 
for employing children of school age during 
school hours, and powers to prosecute 
parents who 'habitually ' neglect to provide 
elementary education for their children. 
These new powers were at the same time 
conferred upon School Boards, which pre- 
viously could proceed only under the pro- 
visions of the bye-laws. But Mr. Mun- 
della's Actofl88() compelled all Attendance 
Committees and School Boards to make 
bye-laws for compulsory attendance at 
school, and from that time both School 
Boards and Attendance Committees have 
been required to compel the attendance 
of children at school as provided in the 
byelaws, and also as provided by Lord 
Sandon's Act and by the Act of 1880. 
The Attendance Committee possesses, also, 
powers similar to those vested in the 
School Board, of causing children to be 
sent to Industrial Schools (q.v.) and of pay- 
ing towards the maintenance of children 
therein ; but it cannot establish an Indus- 
trial School. 

School Boards. — The School Board 
system was instituted in England and 
Wales by the Elementary Education Act 
of 1870, and in Scotland by the Act of 
1872. A system slightly different in ma- 
chinery from that of England and Wales 
was set up in the Isle of Man in 1871. 
Under the measure of 1870, commonly 
called Mr. Forster's Act, the country was 
planned out into school districts. Cities, 
boroughs, towns, and rural parishes gene- 
rally were made into single school districts, 
but in some cases parishes and hamlets 
were grouped. Every one of these school 
districts must provide public elementary 
school accommodation for all the children 
for whom efficient elementary instruction 
was not otherwise provided. The defi- 
ciency of accommodation might be provided 
by voluntary agency ; otherwise the dis- 
trict would be compelled to elect a School 
Board, which would be required to make 
good the deficiency of accommodation by 
building Board schools. Where the dis- 
tricts could show a sufficiency of accom- 
modation the election of a School Board 
was optional. Boi^oughs could have a 
School Board in pursuance of a vote of 
the Town Council; parishes, after a vote in 



360 



SCHOOL BOARDS 



vestry to the effect that it was expedient 
that a School Board sliould be elected. 
It was also provided that in a distinct 
with sufficient school accommodation, if the 
managers of a voluntaiy school should 
inform the Education Department that 
they were unable or unwilling to continue 
the school, and that if the school Avere 
closed there would be a deficiency of school 
accommodation, the Department would or- 
der a School Board to be elected, and would 
call upon the new Board to take over the 
school in question as a Board school, or 
otherwise provide Board school accommo- 
dation. On the passing of Mr. Eorster's 
Act, a considerable number of towns and 
parishes, without waiting for an inquiry 
into the amount of their school accommo- 
dation, or for an order from the Depart- 
ment, resolved to place themselves under 
the School Board system, and in November, 
1870, the first School Board elections were 
held. Manchester had the first Board (with- 
out a contest) on November 24, and other 
Boards elected within a few days were those 
of Liverpool, Rochdale, Leeds, Birming- 
ham, Sheffield, London, Middlesborough, 
Bolton, Bootle, Bradfoi'd, Salford, Not- 
tingham, Congieton, Gateshead, Stockton- 
on-Tees, Maidstone, Bridgwater, Hanley, 
Wolverhampton, Coventry, Aberystwitla, 
and Cardigan. A few of these districts, 
of which [Manchester at the time was one, 
had sufficient voluntary school accommo- 
dation, but adopted the School Board 
ystem mainly for the sake of the power 
to compel children to attend school, which 
could not at that time be had without a 
School Boai'd. School Boards did not 
begin to be formed under a compulsory 
order from the Education Department 
until many months later ; but the London 
School Board was elected by compulsion, 
under a section of the Act requiring that 
Board to be formed forthwith. (See 
London School Board.) Within the 
first six months of the passing of the Act 
there were about two hundred School 
Boards in England and Wales; at Michael- 
mas, 1887, there were 2,225, covering a 
population of about 16,290,000, leaving 
about 9,500,000 outside the operation of 
the School Board system. In the next 
six months, to April, 1888, eight neAv 
Boards were elected in small distzdcts. 
Fi'om 1870 to 1880 no district was under 
the obligation to put itself under the law 
of compulsory attendance at school; and 



from 1870 to 1876 even the School Boards 
which had made bye-laws for compelling 
attendance were not bound to enf oi'ce their 
bye-laws. The Act of 1876, called 'Lord 
Sandon's Act,' prescribed that bye-laws 
must be enforced, and set up a new autho- 
rity called the School Attendance Com- 
mittee (q.v.) to be elected in all school dis- 
tricts without School Boa.rds, and these 
Attendance Committees had the (optional) 
power to make bye-laws, which must be 
enforced. The Act of 1880, called Mr. 
Mundella's Act, required all School Boards 
and Attendance Committees to make bye- 
laws for compelling parents to cause their 
children to attend school, and so compul- 
sory attendance was made universal. In 
school districts of less than five tliousand 
inhabitants the School Board consists of five 
members ; up to twenty thousand popula- 
tion, seven members ; up to forty thousand, 
nine members; up to seventy-five thousand, 
eleven members ; up to one hundred thou- 
sand, thirteen members ; above that popu- 
lation, fifteen members, excepting London, 
which is specially provided for. The 
School Boards are elected by the ratepayers 
once in three years. The voting is on the 
cumulative plan, each elector having as 
many votes as thei'e are members to be 
elected, with the privilege of distributing 
the votes among the candidates as he thinks 
fit. Any man or woman twenty-one years 
of age may be a candidate. At the first 
meeting of the School Board after a first 
election, and at the first meeting after 
each triennial election, a chairman and 
vice-chairman must be elected, and these 
proceedings must be reported to the Edu- 
cation Department at Whitehall. The 
foremost duty of the School Board is to 
see that there is public elementaiy school 
accommodation for all the children of the 
district between the ages of three and 
eighteen for whom instruction in public 
elementary education is needed, making 
good any deficiency of accommodation by 
establishing Board Schools. The next 
great duty of the Board is to secure the 
attendance at school of all the children 
between the ages of five and fourteen, 
subject to certain exemptions. A School 
Board clerk must be appointed, and a 
treasurer. These may be paid officers, or 
they may be members of the Boai'd, in 
which case they cannot be paid. Provision 
is also made for the appointment of atten- 
dance officers, to be engaged in the prac- 



I 



SCHOOL BOARDS 



361 



tical work of causing the children of the 
district to attend school. The Board 
usually begins its work by making a census 
of the child population of its district. Of 
the total number of children, the propor- 
tion that requires education in public 
elementary schools varies, in a limited 
degree, according to the circumstances of 
the population ; but as a general rule the 
number of children for whom public ele- 
mentary schools must be provided is about 
one sixth of the entire population. The 
•schools must be 'efficient and suitable.' 
An excess of accommodation in one part of 
the town or district must not be made to 
balance a deficiency in another quarter. 
The distance from the homes of the chil- 
dren must be taken into consideration. An 
allowance is made for the accommodation 
in private schools, unless the schools and 
the instruction are very inefficient. The 
School Board has no power to close private 
schools, however inefficient, or to insist 
upon the keeping of attendance registers 
therein, or to require the co-operation of 
private school keepers in the work of 
securing regular attendance. But if there 
is reason to believe that the private school 
is an unsuitable place for the assembly of 
children, or that the teaching is inefficient, 
the parent can be prosecuted for not 
causing his child to receive efficient ele- 
mentary instruction, and it rests with the 
parent to prove to the magistrates that 
liis child is under efficient elementary 
instruction. And though the private school 
may be efficient, if the Board's officers 
discover that the child's attendance is 
irregular, the parent can be prosecuted. 
Voluntary schools in receipt of a Govern- 
ment grant — i.e. Church of England schools, 
British schools, Wesley an, Roman Catholic, 
&c. — are fully counted in arriving at an es- 
timate of the Board School accommodation 
required. But if the voluntary school fees 
are too high for some of the children, and 
in some cases if there is anything in the 
school which tends to prevent the seats 
from being all filled, the accommodation 
is held to be 'unsuitable.' For example, 
if the only school places available for a 
number of Protestant children were in a 
Roman Catholic school, and if there ap- 
peared to be a reluctance on the part of 
the parents to send their children to such 
school, the School Board would be called 
upon to provide accommodation for those 
■children. The School Board has no power 



to enter voluntary schools, or in any way 
to interfere with the management of them ; 
but it can demand from the voluntary 
school regular returns of the attendance of 
children, and evidence of irregular attend- 
ance or absence. It is also the duty of the 
School Board to report to the Education 
Department any cases which are brought 
under its attention of children being im- 
properly excluded from, or refused admis- 
sion into, a voluntary school; for public 
elementary schools (i.e. elementary schools 
receiving Government grants) are not per- 
mitted to exclude children except on ' rea- 
sonable grounds' — of which the Education 
Department is the judge. The penalty 
for improperly excluding children is for- 
feiture of the grant. When there is a 
sufficiency of efficient and suitable accom- 
modation in a School Board District, the 
sole business of the School Board is to see 
that all the children attend school. In 
the case of a deficiency of accommodation 
the Board proceeds to provide Board 
schools. If there is a difficulty in procuring 
ground on which to build a school, the 
Board may take a site compulsorily, under 
the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act. To 
meet the cost of site and school-building, 
the Board borrows money on the security 
of the rates — generally, but not always, of 
the Public Works Loan Commissioners, 
the loan to be paid off, principal and in- 
terest, in fifty years. The loan is subject 
to the sanction of the Education Depart- 
ment; the school plans must also be 
approved by the Department ; and their 
lordships of the Department must be satis- 
fied as to the number of children requir- 
ing accommodation. There must be in the 
school, at least, ten square feet, and one 
hundred cubic feet, of space for each 
child. The teachers are appointed by the 
School Board. The head teacher must 
hold a certificate of qualification, granted 
by the Department, and there are full 
and elaborate regulations laid down by 
the Department as to the number of chil- 
dren who may be under the control of 
each certificated teacher (q.v.). The Board 
may manage the school, or may appoint 
unpaid managers not necessarily members 
of the Board. The work of the schools 
is to a large extent regulated by the ' Code' 
(q.v.), which is a body of regulations issued 
by the Education Department, revised 
more or less every year, prescribing the 
conditions under which the Government 



362 



SCHOOL BOARDS 



grant {q.v.) is paid towards tlie mainten- 
ance of the school. Board schools and 
voluntary schools are treated exactly alike 
under the Code. Her Majesty's Inspectors 
from the Education Department visit the 
schools from time to time to examine the 
children and inspect the work generally, 
and the amount of the grant depends 
upon their report to Whitehall. There is a 
grant per head for the average attendance, 
a 'merit grant' for the school as ^a whole, 
and grants per head for the children for 
passing in 'elementary subjects,' in 'class 
subjects,' and in 'specific subjects.' The 
elementary subjects are reading, writing, 
and arithmetic — these, and needle-wovk 
for girls, are compulsory. Class subjects 
and specific subjects are taught, or not, at 
the option of the managers. The recog- 
nised class subjects are singing, English, 
geography, elementary science, and history, 
with needlework for girls. Specific subjects, 
taken by children in the upper classes 
individually, are algebra, mensuration, me- 
chanics, Euclid, physiology, Latin, French, 
&c. There are grants also for instructing 
and training pupil-teachers. The average 
grant per child in the schools is a little 
under twenty shillings. 

There are three sovirces of income for 
School Boards, viz. the Government grant, 
the children's fees, and the rates. What- 
ever deficiency there is after coiinting the 
grant and the children's fees is made up 
from the school rate, and upon the school 
rate fall the establishment and admini- 
strative expenses of the School Board, the 
payment of interest and instalments of the 
principal of loans, and all other expenses 
whatever. The School Board makes an 
estimate at the beginning of the year of 
the amount that will be required from the 
ratepayers, and sends a precept for the 
amount required to the rating au^thority, 
and it is the business of the rating au- 
thority, without exercising any judgment 
or control over this amount, to collect the 
money from the ratepayers and pay it to 
the School Board. The School Board's 
accounts of income and expenditure are 
audited from time to time by auditors 
sent by the Local Government Board, 
and if any items of expenditure are not 
legal there is a surchai-ge to that amount 
upon the members of the School Board 
personally. The surcharge is subject to 
an appeal to the Local Government Board. 
The total amount drawn from the rates 



by the School Boards in England and 
Wales in 1886 was 2,-542,168/. ; the total 
paid to the Boards in the shape of grants 
to Board schools, 1,151,000/. Nearly three 
millions sterling was spent in maintenance 
of Board schools. 

Children's fees in public elementary 
schools must not exceed ninepence a week. 
More than half the children in public ele- 
mentary schools pay less than threepence 
a week ; but a very small proportion pay 
sixpence and upwards. As a general rule- 
fees in Board schools are lower than in 
voluntary schools. The scale of fees in 
Board schools must be sanctioned by the 
Department ; the fees in voluntary schools 
are not subject to the judgment of the 
Department. It has been ruled by the 
High Court of Justice that school-fees, 
should be paid for the week at the be- 
ginning of the week. If the fee is not 
paid on the Monday moi'ning the child 
may be refused admission and the parent 
may be prosecuted and convicted for ne- 
glecting to cause his child to attend school ; 
but if the child is admitted without pre- 
payment of the fee there is no means of 
recovering the fee by legal process. If the 
parent proves that he is unable, by reason 
of poverty, to pay the fee at a Board school 
the School Board may ' remit ' the fee. 
The School Board is not compelled to 
remit ; but if there is no remission, and 
the fee is not paid by the Poor Law Guar- 
dians, and if the parent can satisfy a ma- 
gistrate that he is too poor to pay the fee, 
the Board cannot compel the parent to send 
the child to school. In such a case the 
Department would call the School Board 
to account for not securing the attendance 
of the children, and the Board might be 
declared to be ' in default,' and be super- 
seded by persons appointed by the Depart- 
ment to form a School Board and to carry 
on the work. In like manner if the School 
Board fail to provide sufficient school 
accommodation it may be declared ' in de- 
fault ' and be superseded. Parents unable 
to pay school-fees may also apply to the 
Poo)' Law Guardians for payment, and it is 
the duty of the Guardians to pay children's 
school-fees in cases of poverty, whether 
in Board schools (if the School Board do 
not remit) or in voluntary schools. Volun- 
tary schools may be converted iiito Board 
schools by transfer from the managers of 
the voluntary schools to the School Boards 
by mutual agreement, subject to the sane- 



SCHOOL BOARDS SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 



363- 



tion of the Department. Transferred schools 
are in all respects in the position of Board 
schools. Compulsory attendance at school 
is provided for by bye-laws made by the 
School Board in accordance with the 74th 
section of the Act of 1870. 

Under the bye-laws children between 
the ages of 5 and 13 must attend school, 
subject to certain exemptions, or be 'under 
efficient instruction in some other manner.' 
Uj) to the age of 10 there is no exemption. 
Between the ages of 10 and 13 children 
are usually exempted under the bye-laws, 
half time on passing a certain standard of 
examination, and full time on passing a 
certain higher standard. The standards 
of exemption are to some extent within 
the option of the School Board, and they 
vary in different districts. It is the rule 
of the Department, and generally provided 
in the bye-laws, that a child shall not be 
entitled to half-time exemption from at- 
tendance at school, even on passing the 
specified standard, unless there is a ne- 
cessity for its employment in consequence 
of the poverty of the parent. In addition 
to these rules of compulsory attendance 
under the bye-laws, there is, under Lord 
Sandon's Act of 1876, compulsory atten- 
dance for children between the ages of 13 
and 1 4, unless they have passed the fourth 
standard. The remedy for neglect on the 
part of the parent to cause his child to 
attend school in accordance with the pro- 
visions of the bye-laws and the Acts is 
that he shall be summoned by the School 
Board to answer for the ofi'ence before the 
magistrates, and on conviction the fine, 
including costs, must not exceed five shil- 
lings for each offence, with proportionate 
imprisonment in default of payment of 
the fine. Since the passing of tlie Sum- 
mary Jurisdiction Act in 1879 defendants 
in these cases have not usually been com- 
mitted to prison until after the failure to 
recover the fine by distress ; but the de- 
fendant must pay the costs of the distress 
in addition to the fine and costs on the 
hearing. The defendant may plead a 
' reasonable excuse ' for not causing his 
child to attend school. The reasonable 
excuses mentioned in the Act are, that 
the child is under efficient instruction in 
some other manner; that the child has 
been prevented from attending school by 
sickness, or any unavoidable cause ; that 
there is no public elementary school open 
which the child can attend within such 



distance, not exceeding three miles, mea- 
sured according to the nearest road, from 
the residence of such child. But there 
may be other reasonable excuses, of which 
the School Board, and afterwards the- 
magistrates, must be the judges, and the 
magistrates' decision on the point is sub- 
ject to appeal to the High Court of Justice. 
Besides the penalty against the parent 
there is a penalty against the employer 
who employs a child who ought to be at 
school, the fine in tliis case not exceeding 
forty shillings. The parent who employs, 
his own child is liable to be prosecuted 
for unlawful employment. Besides carry- 
ing on Board schools the School Board 
may establish Industrial and Day-indus- 
trial Schools {q.v.) for neglected children, 
or pay towards the maintenance of children 
in voluntary industrial schools, and may 
take proceedings before the magistrates 
for causing children to be sent to indus- 
trial schools. Some Boards have esta- 
blished 'Truant Schools' {q.v.), where chil- 
dren are reclaimed from vagrant habits in 
a more temporary manner than in the case 
of industrial schools. {See School Atten- 
dance Committee.) 

School Buildings. See Architecture. 
OF Schools. 

School Furniture. See Furniture. 

School Management. — 1. External. — 
In the phraseology of the Elementary- 
Education Acts and of the Code, school 
management is the function of the body 
of men, whether the legal trustees or not, 
who are responsible in the eyes of the 
Education Department for the mainten- 
ance of the fabric and the machinery of a 
public elementary school. In this sense 
the ' managers ' correspond to the ' gover- 
nors ' or ' trustees ' of an endowed school. 
School Boards are the . managers of all 
schools provided by them, but by a special 
provision of the Education Act of 1870, 
which has been taken advantage of by 
some Boards, notably by those of London 
and Liverpool, they may delegate these 
functions, with or without conditions or- 
restrictions, to a body of managers ap- 
pointed by them, consisting of not less than 
three persons. Usually a portion only of 
the duties of management is assigned to 
such managers. It is the practice of the- 
larger School Boards to exercise the whole, 
or the undelegated part, of their functions 
as managers through a School-management 
Committee, which sees to the carrying out 



364 



SCHOOL M AN AGEMENT 



of the resi'ulatious sanctioned by the Board 
for the inanaii-iMueut of its schools, and 
periodieally reports its proceed in l;,s to the 
.Boai'd for appro\al. 

Scliool management in this sense has 
become of hite years, owing to the enor- 
mous extension of popuhir education, a 
task of great comph^xity and detail, for 
the effective dischai'ge of which large de- 
mands ai'e made on the time, judgment, 
and practical knowledge of the ladies and 
gentlemen entrusted Avith the work. How- 
ever, the experience of School Boards since 
the framing of the Education Act has ac- 
cumulated to a degree which has rendered 
it possible to lay down with some deiinite- 
ness the duties of school management 
Avhich would fall within the province of 
the managers without unduly and injuri- 
ously interfering with the internal man- 
jxgemeut of the school, which is the natural 
province of the head teacher, or with the 
prerogatives of the Board, which, as pay- 
niaster responsible to the ratepayers and 
to the Etlucation Hepartment, must re- 
tain its legal authority over all action in- 
volving a new principle or a hitherto un- 
sanctioned expeiuliture. When the hours 
and subjects of instruction, the amount and 
luiture of religious teaching, the nature 
and strength of the teaching statt", the 
school fee, and the scale of salaries have 
been determined by the Board, the chief 
duties of the school-management commit- 
tee will consist in selecting and reconi- 
mending to the Board the teachers for ap- 
pointment or proniotion, in securing the 
orticieut instruction of the pupil-teachers, 
in dealing with all matters arising out of 
H.^M.'s Inspector's report, in making regu- 
lations for the admission of scholars, and 
for the keeping of registers, stock and 
stores accounts, itc, in laying down the 
methods of enforcing discipline permissible 
to head and assistant teachers, in approv- 
ing time-tables and text-books, and tinally 
in seeing, either personally or by inspec- 
tors and other otiicials, that the Board's 
regulations are duly observed, and the 
•efficiency of the school maintained. All 
coniplaints of infringement of the regula- 
tions, of abuse of authority, of neglect of 
duties would be reported in the tirst in- 
stance to the committee, and either dealt 
with sunnnarily or taken to the Board for 
adjudication, according to the nature of 
the charge and the limit of the powers 
•entrusted to the committee. 



In the case of secondary schools, the 
amount of scliool management undertaken 
by the governing bodies is of a much more 
limited extent than in the ease of pri- 
mary schools. This has come about largely 
from long-established usage, which has re- 
cognised the almost al>solute rule of the 
head master of a public school. But the 
amount has been tlius limited recently by 
the action of the Public and Endowed 
Schools Commissioners and the Charity 
Connnissioners, who in their schemes for 
the management of endowed schools have 
legislated on the principle that, as between 
the governors and the head master, the 
latter should have a full share of respon- 
sibility and therefore an ample share of 
power. 

Tlie functions of school management 
devolving upon governing bodies under 
the schemes of the Charity Comn\issioners 
are: (1) The superxision and control of 
the income, expenditure, and property of 
the foundation, subject in certain cases to 
tlie supreme control of the Commissioners ; 
{-) the erection, enlargen\ent, or altera- 
tion of school buildings, subject to the 
consent of the Connnissioners ; (3) the 
framing of regulations for religious in- 
struction, subject to the scholar's right of 
exen\ption ; (4) the appointment and dis- 
missal of head masters and mistresses; 
(5) the fixing the number and remunera- 
tion of the teaching stati" ; (6) the deter- 
mination of the ipialitications and terms 
of appointment of the stalf ; (7) the power 
to prescribe the general subjects of in- 
struction, the relative prominence and 
value to be given to each group of sub- 
jects, and the organisation of the different 
departuients and subjects of study, the 
division of the year into tei'ms and vaca- 
tions, and the number of school hours in 
each week and of holidays to be given in 
each term, the general supervision of all 
the school buihlings and arrangements ; but 
before exercising any of these powers the 
governoi's are enjoined in all cases to con- 
sult the head nuxster or mistress ; (8) the 
determination of the number of scholars 
I to be admitted, the limits of age at admis- 
1 sion and lea\-ing, and the qualifications for 
i admission ; (9) the tixing the amount of 
I entrance and tuition fees, subject to the 
approval of the Connnissioners. 

The head nuister or mistress usually 

has the power of appointment and dis- 

i missal of all assistant teachers, and, sub- 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 



365' 



ject to any discretion of the governors, 
has under his or her control the choice of 
books, the method of teaching, the arrange- 
ment of classes and school hours, and gene- 
rally the whole internal organisation, man- 
agement, and discipline of the school. The 
power of expulsion of a scholar is also 
usually given, suljject to a full report of 
the case being made to the governors. The 
power of dismissal of assistant teachers 
has sometimes been qualified by a right of 
appeal to the governors, or by some stand- 
ing orders intended to check the caprici- 
ous or arbitrary use of that power. Public 
opinion is divided as to the wisdom of giv- 
ing this power to head masters and mis- 
tresses, but the Charity Commissioners 
have generally been in favour of 'dismissal 
without appeal.' 

2. Internal. — The principles that guide 
the internal arrangement of a school are 
common in essence to all schools alike, 
whatever may be the social class or range 
of ages of the scholars. For they assume 
the common attributes of immaturity and 
dependence in the taught, and of maturity 
of knowledge and judgment, together with 
practical and moi'al authority, in the 
teacher. School management then, in 
this sense, may be looked at in its most 
general aspect. An efficient public school 
and an efficient elementary school are alike 
produced and maintained by the faithful 
application of similar means, appliances, 
and laws of good management. To a cer- 
tain extent it is true that schools are dif- 
ferentiated in their characteristics, their 
methods of discipline, their treatment of 
individuals, by the more or less favourable 
social condition of the scholars, or by their 
greater or less youthf ulness. For instance, 
an appeal to the sense of honour or of 
es]orit de corjjs may be made with success 
in one kind of school but not in another ; 
and, the greater the average age of the 
scholars, the less need is there to rule them, 
individually or collectively, as creatures of 
mere instinct rather than of reason ; and 
the greater consequently is the range of 
action over which, under the influence of 
the teacher, principle rather than precept 
can exercise its restraining and governing 
power. But these differences are of degree, 
not of kind. For successful school man- 
agement well-planned school buildings are 
the first essential (see Architecture). 
However perfect the teacher, the ideal of 
a good school is unattainable in defective 



buildings. ' A place for everything and 
everything in its place ' reduces friction of 
all kinds — the opportunity of offending, the 
number of punishable offences, the neces- 
sity for vigilance and for fresh legislation 
— to a minimum. The few regulations 
that exist are borne in upon the scholar's 
mind as requisite for the preservation of 
his property, the peace both of his lesson- 
time and recreation-time, and his freedom 
from anxiety and irritation at every mo- 
ment of the school day ; and a greater 
percentage of the scholars are therefore 
instinctively enlisted on the side of law 
and order, and assist in maintaining them. 
But at the best of times the position of a 
school, as of any large, highly-organised^, 
and compact community, is a position of 
unstable equilibrium ; it is always liable' 
to be resolved into its naturally volatile 
and impressionable components. Hence 
an able and vigorous administrator is of 
prime importance. The qualities of a good 
head teacher are, first, belief in the value 
of knowledge ; secondly, organising and 
administrative ability ; thirdly, profes- 
sional experience. The first implies that 
the teacher is not only himself a student, 
but can create and foster the student's 
zeal in his scholars ; the second covers all 
that goes to make a good disciplinarian, 
neither a martinet nor a bully on the one 
hand, nor, on the other, one that shrinks 
from sternness when confronted with an 
ofience which, if unpunished, demoralises 
the individual and threatens the commu- 
nity ; the third includes the knowledge of 
the science of his profession as well as the 
possession of the foresight which comes 
from actual practice of the art — the latter 
enabling the teacher to measure the effects 
and defects likely to show themselves in 
a given course of action, and so making 
him prudent ; while the former assists him 
more readily to the cause, and from the 
cause to the cure, and so equips him with 
wisdom. 

The detailed points of school manage- 
ment coming under the head of Organisa- 
tion are : The cleaning of the premises, 
buildings and furniture ; the warming and 
ventilation of corridors and class-rooms ; 
the classification of the scholars and their 
re-classification for special subjects ; the 
sslection of the text-books ; the drawing 
up of the time-tables, giving in each class 
the subjects taught, the range of each sub- 
ject, the number of hours per week to be 



366 



SCHOOL MAITAGEMENT 



devoted to each subject, and the length o£ 
each lesson ; the laying down of regula- 
tions for opening and closing school, for 
the simultaneous movements of the classes 
between class-room and class-room, and 
between class-room and recreation-ground; 
the determination of the form of school 
registers (if not determined already by the 
Code, as in public elementary schools), and 
of the periodical reports to parents. Un- 
der the head of Government the most im- 
portant point is Discipline {q.v.), steady, 
certain, just, and kind. By such discip- 
line, together with careful attention to 
every detail of organisation, and a skilful 
use of the indirect means of discipline by 
which obedience becomes a matter of self- 
interest or self-choice, it is possible to 
conduct a school without any resort to 
physical force. Doubtless, it would be 
going too far to say with Mr. Wild, that 
whenever a master found it necessary to 
flog a boy he deserved to be flogged him- 
self. But the presence of corporal punish- 
ment {q.v.) in a school is a confession of 
weakness, a confession either that the 
teacher does not know how to use the best 
means of discipline, or that the scholars 
are not amenable to such means. A school 
with such a teacher or such scholars is 
not an ideal school. In the ideal school 
there would be a graduated process of 
dealing with offenders, through admoni- 
tion, warning, deprivation of privileges, 
formal reprimand to head teacher and to 
parents, and detention, leading up to the 
ultimatum — suspension and dismissal. In 
a day-school, where the parent is accessible 
to the teacher, and both parent and teacher 
are in sympathy on the subject of a cul- 
prit's reformation (as would naturally be 
the case), the mere possession of the power 
of dismissal lying behind the milder forms 
of reproof and punishment, would be suf- 
ficient to procure the submission demanded 
and the reformation sought. But offenders 
must be punished, and in the infliction of 
punishment the other object, the good of 
the school at large, must be steadily kept 
in view. The just punishment of offenders 
not only preserves a school from evils 
which might grow, but also raises its 
TQoral tone by thus emphasizing the dif- 
ference between right and wrong. 

The third element of school manage- 
ment is that of histruction -itself the end 
and object of school, towards which orga- 
nisation and good government are only the 



means. Here the tests of quality as well 
as quantity have to be applied; and a 
head teacher's primary duty — when he is 
allowed the appointment of his assistants 
— is to secure a teaching staff by whose 
handling of every subject of instruction 
the scholars will derive mental and moral 
discipline, as well as acquire knowledge. 
Next to the careful selection of teachers 
who have this capacity, who are, besides, 
in sympathy with the aim of the school, who 
are intelligently appreciative of the head 
teacher's ideals, and are prepared to accept 
and apply the routine, discipline, and 
modes of punishment which he has formu- 
lated, the most important point is for the 
whole teaching staff to come to an agree- 
ment on good general methods for the 
treatment of each subject, for the handling 
of the scholars in classes, and for the 
gauging and registering their individual 
work, so that, as far as practicable, each 
scholar may feel that he is being treated 
on definite and well-understood principles, 
both as to work and conduct, which are 
the same everywhere, at every hour, and 
with every teacher. Supervision of every 
part of the school work and periodical 
examination are essential parts of a head 
teacher's duty ; but it is all-important 
that he should teach as well. The propor- 
tion of time to be devoted to supervision 
and teaching respectively must be deter- 
mined by the age and experience of the 
assistant staff. Of the various questions 
relating to internal school management, 
too numerous to be treated of here in any 
detail, that of the mode of gauging the 
value of the work done by each scholar 
at each lesson is one of the most essential. 
It is important for the teacher to be con- 
tinually making a conscious estimate of 
each scholar's work, that he may be guided 
in his treatment of him by the more accu- 
rate knowledge thus obtained of his mental 
state ; and it is most desirable that the 
scholar — especially the young scholar — 
should have his teacher's estimate of his 
work continually presented to him side by 
side with that of his classmates', in order 
that the stimulus of emulation may be 
applied. It must be borne in mind, how- 
ever, that, in using emulation (q.v.) as. a 
stimulus, the teacher is dealing with a 
good servant but a bad master, and that 
careful bounds must be placed upon its 
use. It is quite possible for a teacher 
dexterously to employ the stimulus of 



SCHOOLMASTER ABROAD SCHOOL SURGERY 



367 



place-taking, marking, and other devices, 
so as to produce high examination results, 
and yet, at the same time, to distinctly 
lower the character of his scholars, and to 
destroy in time his own freshness, enthu- 
siasm, and influence. Of these methods, 
place-taking is, perhaps, the most danger- 
ous, from the fact that it projects emula- 
tion more immediately and more incessantly 
across every educational effort that the 
scholar makes. But this, the most time- 
honoured method of marking, is now almost 
■obsolete ; at the best, the system only did 
very rough and ready justice; it was 
noisy in process, it involved in nearly 
•every case either the standing of the class 
for the whole of the lesson, or the being 
seated on forms ; and now that single or 
dual desks are coming into general use, and 
■order and quiet are really getting to be 
understood in schools, it will die a natural 
death. No marking of any kind takes 
place as a rule in elementary schools ; and 
the teacher is thus able to employ freely 
that best of all methods of questioning, 
which consists in asking the question to 
the whole class before naming the scholar 
ivho is to answer it. But marking is 
regularly practised in secondary schools, 
and the methods adopted are various. The 
plan most prevalent (especially in junior 
classes), because it is considered most eco- 
nomical of a master's time, is that in which 
the exercises are first distributed among 
the class, so that no scholar looks over his 
own exercise, and then the correct version 
is read out, or written on the board, and 
the mistakes of each exercise are marked 
by the class. This is open to the obvious 
■objection that the mistakes of the indivi- 
dual scholars do not come under the 
teacher's eye, so that he loses touch of their 
mental condition, and much of his teaching- 
misses the mark. And yet, again, the 
teacher has constantly to guard, on the 
one hand, against a system of marking 
which makes his teaching m school dull, 
-wooden, mechanical, uninspiring, and, on 
the other, against the effect of the dreary 
routine of looking over exercises oicf of 
school, which exhausts that store of fresh- 
ness and elasticity of spirits so essential 
to his success as a teacher. 

Schoolmaster Abroad (The). — Lord 
Brougham's famous expression, in con- 
trasting coercion and education : ' There 
is another personage abroad . . . the school- 
master is abroad ; and I trust to him. 



armed with his primer, against the soldier 
in full array.' 

Schoolmen. — The name given to the 
philosophers and theologians of the Middle 
Ages who were devoted to the teaching of 
Aristotle. Dialectical subtlety was their 
distinguishing characteristic. They lec- 
tui-ed in cathedral schools, and their writ- 
ings were ' wrangled ' about or discussed 
in the University Schools (q.v.). They 
were chiefly learned theologians, and lived 
between the ninth and the sixteenth cen- 
turies. Anselm (a.d. 1050-1117) was 
' Doctor Scholasticus ' ; Epiphanius, an 
Italian scholar of the sixth century, was 
surnamed ' the scholastic' The word sur- 
vives in the phrase ' the scholastic profes- 
sion.' (See art. Scholasticism.) 

School Surgery. — Some such know- 
ledge as is obtained by attending the first 
course of lectures given in connection with 
the St. John's Ambulance Association is 
of great value to all teachers. It will be 
impossible to give in detail the first treat- 
ment of all the accidents which occur in 
school life ; a few principles and the com- 
moner examples only can be given, leaving 
the reader to refer to one of the many 
popular text-books on the subject, and 
especially in all doubtful cases to obtain 
medical aid as quickly as possible. The 
application of the following simple rules, 
when fits, or fainting, or haemorrhage, 
occur, might, however, prevent danger to 
life. Panic is generated by ignorance, and 
it is important that the teacher should 
know how to proceed until the doctor 
comes, 

Fainting is not infrequent when a 
school is overcrowded or ill-ventilated. 
The patient should be laid flat on his back, 
and all tight clothing removed from his 
neck and chest ; overcrowding round him 
should be avoided, and windows should be 
thrown wide open. Do not attempt to 
pour anything down the throat while the 
patient is unconscious, or he maybe choked. 
Smelling-salts to the nostrils are useful. 
Fits, either epileptic or hysterical, are apt 
to occur, the latter more particularly in 
girls' schools. In both, the patient should 
be laid gently on the floor, tight clothing 
loosened, and no further attem2Dt at active 
treatment made. If the fit is hysterical 
it is necessary not to allow the patient to 
attract much attention, or a repetition of 
the fit may be expected. In apparent 
drowning the patient should be placed on 



308 



SCHOOL Sl'KOKllY 



his bivolc, tho iwoutli cloausiHl from mud, 
A'O., and tho tougiu> hoUl drn.wu fm-wiird 
init. of tho moiitli. Thoti tho arms shouUl 
bo o-i-ivspod uoar tho olbows, and shouUl 
bo altorua.ti>ly ib'a.wu ovor tho patiout's 
hoad and prossod tlowu (irmly against tlio 
sidos of i\\o ohost. This mauipulatiou 
shoidd bo ropoatod tiftoou timos o\-iM'y 
minuto, and pt>rso\orod in for somi^ timo, 
even thoui;'h thori> ai-o no signs of rotnrn- 
ing lifo. During tliis timo othor porsous 
shouUl proouro hot botthvs and blank(>ts, 
and rub tho K\gs stoadily to promoto tlio 
circulation. Ohildron occasionally thrust 
/or>'i(/>t. bodies into the oar or nostril. In 
tho latter case thoy can gonerally be seized 
by a pair of tweezers or hooked down by 
a tine wire hoop ; sometimes a dose of 
smifl' will serve to dislodge them. If a 
foreign body is lodged in the oar, the only 
manipulation that is justifiable by the 
teacher is syringing out the ear with wai-m 
water. If this is unsuccessful tho patient 
should bo sent homo or to a n\odical man. 
If a. pea. is lodged in tho ear, syringing is 
bottm- ou\ittod, as the pea may swell and 
thus become more tinnly impacted. Pur- 
tides of dxsf, itc, frequently cause great 
irrit^ition in the eye. 'Pry anil invert the 
upper eyelid, and then the speck i-an 
usually be seen and ren\o\ed with tho 
coi*ner of a handkerchief. If it cannot 
be seen, drop a little castor-oil into the 
eye and keep tho eye dosed and free f rou\ 
movements by nvoaus of a wot compress 
and bandage over it. In a few hours tho 
speck gonerally works its own way down 
to tho inner corner of the eye. If a 
■)h\'dlr becomes imbedded in the skin keep 
the artectoil part tlxod in one position and 
see a. surgeon. jSpli»f('rs and thorns may 
usually be removed by cutting through the 
top skin (epidermis) carefully with a shai'p 
knife, and then seizing tho fiugmeut with 
a pair of tweezers. If the splinter is under 
the nail, it is sou\etimes necessary to cut 
down the nail. The stlnxjs of bees and 
^^^^sps and nettle-stings ai-e best relieved 
by bathing with hot water and squeezing 
out the poison, and then applying a strong 
solutioi\ of bicarlionate of soda to the 
atTeoted part. The bite of a do(f is not in 
itself serious, unless the dog is mad. If 
the dog is captured it is a gi'eat mistake 
to killit, as thus the patient niay be kept 
in painful suspense as to whether he really 
was bitten by a mad dog or not. Tho best 
plan is to keep tho dog in safe contino- 



mentand watch if any symptoms of rabies, 
tlovolop. The wound should be bathed 
with Imt water, and its blooding freely 
encouraged, if necessary by enlarging it 
with a sliarp pocket-knife. Lunar caustic 
is of little use to apply afterwards, as it 
does not penetrate deeply. IMost schools, 
have strong nitric acid on tho promises, 
and this should bo applioil, by means of a 
penhohler clipped in tlu> aicid, to tho in- 
terior of the wound. Wo/oids of varying 
dogret> and se\erity are apt to occur in 
school lifi\ Tho wound should be tho- 
roughly washed and freed from dirt or 
otlier foreign matter. Then tho edges 
should bo brought close together, and a 
pad of linen soaked in carbolised water 
applied by means of a bandage. Wounds 
of the head and all the more severe M^ounds 
should receive a surgoim's attention, uibra- 
sions in which the skin is rubbed ott' should 
be washed M'ith c^old water and then some' 
Friar's balsani or colh>dion applied. Never 
apply sticking-plaster uex.t to a wound or 
a.l)rasion ; it is almost certain to produce 
suppuration. J/<ri)io)'r/ia</e n\a.y be due 
to a wound, or may come froni the nose, 
lungs, or other parts, independently of 
external injury. Tho most serious form 
of bleeding is arterial, in which the blootl 
is bright scarlet, and comes out in inter- 
mittent jets. It is best controlled by 
pi'essing on the main artery higher up in 
the limb than the bleeiling point, or by 
ti.xing a. tirm pad over the wound and 
keeping it lirmly pressed on until a sur- 
geon can bo obtained. If coughing or 
vomiting of blood occurs tho patient should 
be kept absolutely quiet, and have only 
ice to suck. In b/eediiii/ /ro»i the nose- 
apply iced compresses to tho forehead and 
nape of neck, and if necessary syringe out- 
the nostrils with cold water. If this does 
not answer put some aUnn or tannin in 
the water to bo injected into tho nostril. 
If buni^ or sctdds occur the best iu\me- 
diate application to relie\"0 pain is a linen 
cloth soaked in a saturated solution of 
bicarbonate of soda. Fractnres of bones 
are recognised by the inability to use a 
limb and tho change in its shape. A 
splint may be in\provised by taking pieces 
of a box-lid ; or for children, brown papei* 
folded up so as to make it stitt" and rigid. 
The main point is to keep tho iiijuredpart 
tixed till a sui'goeMi arrives. Sprains should 
be bandaged immediately, kept tixed, and 
a cold lotion applied. Co)itusio)is, as from 



SCHOOLS SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



369 



a kick on the shin or a blow over the eye, 
result in an effusion of l^lood under the 
skin. A cold evaporating lotion is re- 
quired. 

Schools. — This word is used at Oxford 
in the more historic sense. At Oxford a 
man reads ' for the schools,' at Cambridge 
'for the tripos,' i.e. for 'Greats.' At 
Oxford a man may obtain his B.A. degree 
either through the Pass or Honour Schools. 
About two- thirds take a Pass Degree still. 
But the fact tliat there are about 500 
scholarships and nearly 200 exhibitions 
held by nearly one-fourth of the under- 
graduates (about 3,000) keeps up the 
Honour Schools. For some years there 
has been an increase in the percentage of 
men who read for honours in the Final 
Schools. The table will fairly well com- 
pare the two oldest English universities. 
The Oxford figures were obtained by 
counting the list of candidates in 1887, 
the Cambridge figures from the Calendar 
of 1886. The actual numbers, the per- 
centages, and the order of patronage are 
given. 



Canib. 


Oxf. 




Oxf. 


Camb. 


Oxf. 


Camb. 


1 


1 


Classics 


13G 


138 


32 


2G'3 


— 





Moral Science 





10 


— 


2 


6 


2 


History 


107 


34 


25-1 


6-4 


5 


3 


Law 


76 


54 1 


18 


10-2 


4 


4 


Theology 


62 


45 i 


14-5 


8-5 


3 


5 


Scieuce 


27 


114 ! 


6-3 


21-7 


2 


6 


Mathematics 


18 


130 : 


4-2 


24-7 








426 


525 


- 


- 



This list excludes sixty-three who took 
the Preliminary Honour Examination in 
National Science. During the ten years 
1877-88 there was an increase of 50 
per cent, in the men who took honours 
compared with an increase of 13 per 
cent. (3,062 against 2,659) of the number 
of undergraduates at Oxford. The ex- 
pansion or greater nationalisation of the 
university, as some will call it, has thus 
been favourable to the Honour Schools. 
More work is done ; but it is not so much 
purely Classics or mathematics which are 
taken up. As many, if not more men, 
take classics at Cambridge as at Oxford, 
where only one-third of the Honours men 
take up the Final Classical School. The 
fellowships and prizes are still mainly for 
classics at one place and mathematics at 
the other. But there is a strong staff of 
science professors compared with the pre- 



sent number of students (1887). At 
Oxford, especially, the science men have 
to get most of their science tuition outside 
their own college. They nearly all go to 
the university laboratories for practical 
work. The expense in new buildings at 
both places has been very great since 
1876. Their absence prevented men from 
taking up these subjects before. In 1887 
a Final Honour Oriental School was esta- 
blished. Cambridge has also started one 
in modern languages. Oxford in 1887 
prepared a scheme for one in modem 
languages and literature, and some simple 
one will probaVjly be adopted. The emo- 
luments for the newer professorships and 
readerships have generally been supplied 
by contributions made by the several col- 
leges at the instance of the last Royal Com- 
mission. The Classical School at Oxford, 
it may be noticed, is known as Literse 
Humaniores. It requires a knowledge of 
philosophy and history ; hence there is no 
moral science school at Oxford. Mathe- 
matical and physical science, jurispru- 
dence, natural science are the full titles 
of other schools at Oxford. 

The Schools at Oxford are also the 
buildings themselves in which the univer- 
sity examinations of men ' in for the 
schools ' are conducted. The 'old schools ' 
are very ancient rooms, now being utilised 
by the Bodleian Library. The names of 
the scholce can still be seen over the doors. 
The ' new schools ' in the High Street are 
palatial buildings of beautiful marbles of 
every kind, and cost over 200,000^. There 
is sometimes not room for all the candi- 
dates. The rooms, being well warmed 
and lit, are very useful for lectures, &c. 

Schools Examination Syndicate. — 
See Oxford axd Cambridge Schools 
Examination Board. 

Schools of Antiquity. — Education was 
born with the birth of children ; and its 
beginnings coincide with the dawn of the 
day on which the parents of infancy first 
awoke to the perilous blessing of a com- 
mon and dependent offspring. The earliest 
education is that of the family ; and in 
the order of nature the earliest teachers 
are the parents — the mother, in the order 
of time, slightly, yet vitally, taking pre- 
cedence. It was long before any attempt 
was made to improve generations as tliey 
succeeded each other ; and in proportion 
as education became more complicated, it 
passed from the hearth to the altar. The 

B B 



370 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



earliest schools were those of the priests ; 
and convenience, gi"ititu(le, and assiunp- 
tion long and almost universally conlirnied 
the hieratic monopoly. The Greeks were 
the first to develop a science of education 
as distinct from ecclesiastical training ; 
and to-day the world is governed not from 
the hearth alone, or from the altar alone, 
or even from the throne alon(% but from 
the desk. It is the schoolmaster who, in 
a scarcely secondary degree, imparts the 
knowledge and moulds the opinion and 
the sentiments of loyalty, honour, and 
conscience which make possible the con- 
tinuance of the social edifice. The school- 
masters of a nation hold in commission 
the paternity of the nation ; they are the 
deputy fathers of the rising generation. 
The sanctities, privileges, and responsi- 
bilities of the oi'iginators of life devolve 
xipon the men whose aim it is to make 
that life an honour, a utility, and a bless- 
ing. 

The schools of antiquity Avere in the 
nature of things the schools of the Orient ; 
and the education of the pi'imeval nations 
of the East conformed to universal ex- 
perience so far that its administration 
was an appanage of the priesthood, the 
members of which were the only men of 
learning, and, by consequence, the only 
men who possessed the power of impart- 
ing learning to others. Speaking gene- 
rally of the characteristics of tl\e know- 
ledge which was hieratically communi- 
cated, it may be said that it was in the 
main religious, ethical, prudential ; and 
that the final purpose of instruction was 
good conduct. As the matter of instruc- 
tion was knowledge bearing the sanction 
of authority, the learner was debarred 
from free inquiry, and the general atti- 
tude was one of immobility. As the know- 
ledge of the day was embodied in language, 
the process of learning consisted in the 
interpretation of books, and so involved a 
large and constant use of the memory; 
and this literal memorising of the prin- 
ciples and rules of conduct promoted fixity, 
stability, and stei-ility of character. As 
the purpose of instruction was guidance, 
there was no appearance of the conception 
that one main motive of education is 
discipline or culture. On the Avhole, edu- 
cation was administered so as to perpetu- 
ate class distinctions. There was little or 
no suggestion of the idea that education 
is a universal right and a universal jjood. 



Assi/ria, Bahylonia, Chnldira. — The 
precedence of the nations who are in a 
position to enter into the candidature for 
the honoui'S of the primacy of civilisation 
is not to be definitely settled by any par- 
tial master of etlmologieal ceremonies, or 
any prejudiced marshal of chronological 
events. No one can deny the propriety 
of placing Assyria, Babylonia, and Chal- 
da\x — wliich, witli regard to the rest of 
tlie world, and for the pi-esent purpose, 
are as nearly as possible convertible terms 
— in the identical places for which they 
are alphabetically designated ; for there 
is little doubt that Babylonia is the oldest 
civilised country in Asia, and that even 
outside that continent, only Egypt can 
rival it in this respect. But the history 
of Babylonia has an interest beyond that 
of Egypt on account of its more intimate 
connection with our own civilisation ; for 
Babylonia was the centre from which 
civilisation spread into Assyria, from 
thence to Asia Minor and Phoenicia, 
from these again to Greece and Rome, 
and from Rome to modern Europe. As 
the latest particular illustration of this 
radiation of cultui'e, it is now beginning 
to be understood how great an inflvience 
the Babylonian laws and customs have 
exercised on those of other nations ; an 
influence which is to be recognised on the 
laws and customs of the Greeks, for in- 
stance, just as the influence of Babylonian 
pi'ecedents and conceptions has recently 
been recognised upon Hellenic art, lite- 
rature, religion, and philosophy. An ex- 
amination of tlie legal tablets of Baby- 
lonia reveals the existence of statutes and 
customs which have been continued, as 
transmitted by other peoples as instru- 
ments or intermediaries, among the Greeks 
and Romans, and through the latter have 
affected the principles and practice of 
our own jurisprudence. The same con- 
siderations which determine our lawyers 
to a study of the Justinian Code are also 
valid to attract them to follow up the de- 
vious stream of formulated justice to 
the source beyond which it cannot be 
traced, in Mesopotamia. Our astronomi- 
cal system came originally fi-om the plains 
of Chald!>?a, where also mathematics, mea- 
sures of time and capacity, weights and 
scales, and all the sciences of ancient 
times received study and attention, and 
where the arts of building, sculpture, 
painting, gem-engraving, metal-work, 



SCH00L8 OF ANTIQUITY 



371 



Aveaving, and many others made propor- | 
tionate progress. Assyria possessed but [ 
little native literature, but was essentially 
a land of soldiers ; while tlie more peace- 
ful pursuits Iiad their home in Babylonia, 
where tlie scribe caste comprised many of 
the highest in the land, and where tlie , 
universities of Erech and Borsippa were | 
renowned down to classical times. It 
was not till the reign of Assur-bani-pal 
that any attempt was made to rival Baby- 
lon in learning ; then for the first time | 
original compositions came from the pens 
of Assyrian scholars, and works were even 
written in the dead language of Accad. 
In the palace of Assur-bani-pal at Nine- 
veh lias been discovered a large library 
consisting of many thousand tablets, large 
numbers of which are now stored in the | 
British ]Museum. This library, in all ' 
probability, owes its origin to the keen 
political foresight of Esar-haddon, but was 
completed by his son Assur-bani-pal, , 
whose name occurs on most of the tablets. ; 
Primitively, it may be stated par paren- \ 
tlifise, the Babylonians appear to have used 1 
for writing materials papyrus, bark, and 
other vegetable suhistances. Considering, ' 
however, that all documents of so fragile 
and, comparatively speaking, of so ephe- , 
meral a nature have long since perished, 
it is fortunate that the Babylonians at an 
early period of their history adopted for 
the purpose of receiving their inscriptions 
•small cakes of clay varying in size from a 
square inch to that of a page or a sheet 
of note-paper. These clay tablets were, 
in fact, their paper, and on them, with a 
wooden style, all their documents were 
written ; which had thus the advantage 
of being able to resist the atmospheric 
influences of the damp climate of tlie 
country of their production better than 
the Egyptian papyri or the leather rolls 
of the Jews. At a certain period, about 
B.C. 2000, the BaVjylonians even took the 
precaution of covering the tablets, after 
they had been written upon, with a coat- 
ing of clay, on which the documents were 
re-written. These are what Assyriolo- 
gists call case-tablets. A careful study 
of the taljlets of the library of Assur- 
h»ani-pal has made it evident that it was 
chiefly composed of copies made from 
more ancient originals in the temple- 
liVjraries of Chaldtea ; the Assyrians, before 
the closing period of their empire, having 
been chiefly satisfied to translate the an- 



cient Accadian literature, or to re-edit the 
contents of Babylonian liVjraries. The 
library was evidently founded to prevent 
the youth of Assyria from going to be 
taught at Babylon or Borsippa, where 
they might be subjected to dangerous po- 
litical influences. Its educational charac- 
ter is shown by the discovery of a number 
of syllabaries, grammars, dictionaries, and 
reading-books of Assyrian and Accadian, 
together with lists of Semitic synonyms — 
a collection in which lay the germ of 
comparative philology. Thus the inscrip- 
tions found in the royal library of Assur- 
bani-pal at Nineveh, which first revealed 
to us the important fact that Assyria was 
possessed of a most extensive literature, 
having another than a merely monumen- 
tal character, also afforded a clear indica- 
tion that there was a definite system of 
public instruction in use among the As- 
syrians. This system, the principal details 
of which are now accessible to us, was not 
of native origin ; but, like the literature 
which the kings stored in their temple 
and palace libraries, was based upon, and 
indeed almost entirely copied from, the 
older system of the more southern mother- 
land of Babylonia. 

Before passing in review some of the 
details of the older system which is now 
to be studied with astonishing fulness of 
information derived from works originally 
belonging to the great libraries of Baby- 
lon, it is necessary to ascertain upon 
what basis the statement rests of the 
existence of a system of public instruc- 
tion in Assyria. In the library at Nine- 
veh, which we now know to have been 
formed in the early part of the seventh 
century before the Christian era by Esar- 
haddon or Assur-bani-pal, there were 
found a number of tablets of an educa- 
tional character carefully compiled and 
edited. These tablets were arranged in 
a, series ; and this series, again, was so 
constructed as to offer a progressive 
sequence to the reading of the student. 
First and foremost, we have the sylla- 
haries or spelling-books which contain tlie 
explanations of the most common of the 
cuneiform characters. The standard tablet- 
book of this class is known as Syllabary 
A, and contains the explanations of about 
two hundred of the most ordinary signs. It 
is well here to mention that every cunei- 
form character had a dual use, first as a 
phonetic and then as an ideogram repre- 

B B 2 



372 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



senting a whole word ; and in this list 
only the most frequent ideogrammatic 
and phonetic values are selected. The 
next works in the series. were tablets con- 
taining short phrases arranged in the 
manner of Ollendorf with the old Baby- 
lonian or Sumerian in the left-hand 
column, and the Semitic translation in 
the other. It is these works which aiFord 
evidence of the fact that the tablets were 
but Assyrian editions of older Babylonian 
productions. This class of tablets were 
called ana itti su, ' to be with him ' ; and 
were companion or haind-books for the 
student. Tablets of this series have a 
colophon or title page, as it were, attached 
to them, which affords important infor- 
mation. Each document is said to be 
' like its old copy.' Now, as no tablet of 
a literary character as distinguished from 
historical records has been found older 
than the time of Esar-haddon, or at the 
earliest of Sennacherib, it is evident that 
the more ancient editions must have been 
Babylonian — a circumstance which is still 
further proved by the statement in some 
cases that the tablets are like the old 
tablets of Sumer and Accad, that is, of 
North and South Babylonia. The facts 
revealed by tlie Assyrian tablets are am- 
ply substantiated by the discovery of 
duplicate copies of these works in the 
libraries at Borsippa and Babylon. A 
second fact to be learned from these tab- 
lets is that the library was for public 
instruction ; for the king states, ' on tab- 
lets I wrote, I engraved, I made clear, 
and for the inspection of my subjects 
within my palace I placed.' It is evident, 
therefore, that to understand the system 
of education in practice in Western Asia 
in ancient times, we must study the docu- 
ments of the temple schools of Babylonia. 
The tablets discovered in the ruins of the 
ancient cities of Babylonia now very 
clearly set before us the nature and sys- 
tem of the education in use in that coun- 
try in early times. From these we learn 
that all the youth of any station above 
that of the lowest and poorest wei'e edu- 
cated in reading and writing at least ; 
and this is substantiated by the variety 
of the handwritings which are found in 
the documents of a popular character. 
An old text-book, dating back from the 
earliest period of the Babylonian mon- 
archy, gives special information, inter alia, 
upon this subject. It enjoins that when 



a child is born the father must receive 
him ; and it was by this act that he re- 
cognised the relation and the obligations 
of paternity. When the child had arrived 
at the proper age, the father was bound 
to teach him how to read the inscriptions, 
and to provide him with suitable food 
and clothing. Contracts and legal docu- 
ments as early as the twenty-first cen- 
tury before the Christian era, and deeds 
of the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- 
ries, exhibit many varied handwritings ; 
and as the documents become more and 
more numerous, reaching their most pro- 
lific period in the time of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, B.C. 606, and his successors, the evi- 
dence of the knowledge of writing becomes 
most ample. The system we know was 
that in use to the present day in Oriental 
schools. Certain standard texts, such as 
the table of laws, the table of precedents, 
and certain hymns of the highest class, 
were copied over and over again by the 
pupils until they were thoroughly ac- 
quired ; and many rough copies bear on 
their surface the marks of the master's 
corrections. In like inanner, tables of 
kings, short epitomes of history, lists of 
stars and of the principal gods of the 
Pantheon, were learned. Attached to all 
temples were schools corresponding to the 
Madrasah of the mosques of Islam, and 
presided over by the talmudai, or teachers. 
Most of these edifices were small shrines 
placed under the protection of Nebo, the 
Hermes of Chaldfea, who bore the epithet 
of the Teacher. These small schools were 
the elementary schools feeding the larger 
colleges attached to the great temples. 
In a land where literature held so high a 
position as in Babylonia, there naturally 
grew up certain centres of intellectual 
development. Thus in Borsippa medicine 
and astronomy were chiefly studied ; in 
Larrak, the Laranchse of Berosus, a city 
where the king held his court who sent 
Memnon to the siege of Troy, mathematics 
and mensuration were the ruling pursuits; 
Nipur, known at the present day as Nif- 
fer, and to be probably identified with the 
Calneh of Moses and the Calno of Isaiah, 
characteristically affected magic and divi- 
nation ; while Cuthah was celebrated for 
its devotion to the studies of eschatology ■> 
and philology. The great centre of learn- l| 
ing, however, was certainly Borsippa, the 
site of the important temple of Merodach, 
which was entirely rebuilt by Nebuchad- 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



373 



nezzar, and from which a part of our Baby- 
lonian educational tablets are derived. It 
is not only evident that the system of in- 
struction was of a most liberal kind, but 
it is moreover clear that it was prolonged 
to a much later period than was formerly 
imagined : for tablets are found dated as 
late as B.C. 215, which are copies of older 
works. The tablets were arranged accord- 
ing to a catalogue, portions of which have 
been found, and were to be asked for by 
definite titles and numbers. It is curious 
to note that this system of cataloguing is 
the same as that of arranging the Hebrew 
books by the first word or line, and may 
have given rise to that mode of arrange- 
ment ; as also to observe that great at- 
tention was paid to the study of prece- 
dents in the schools of law — a system 
which we know to lie at the basis of 
Talmudic teaching. 

China. — China has been civilised and 
educated from time immemorial, and at the 
pi'esent day it is probable, on the testimony 
of enlightened and impartial foreigners, 
that primary education is more widely 
spread among the male population of the 
'Middle Kingdom' than in any other 
country of the world. The society of 
thousands of years ago is photographed in 
the description of a German historian of 
education, who afiirms that in China there 
is no village so miserable, no hamlet so 
unpretending, as not to be provided with 
a school of some kind. The importance 
of the difiusion of instruction amongst the 
masses was recognised at a period long an- 
terior to that of Confucius (b.c. 551-479), 
and a certain system of elementary edu- 
cation prevailed for generations before 
other nations had awakened to a conscious- 
ness of its political and social advantages. 
Even in the early feudal times the way 
was open for talent and character to rise 
from the lower ranks in the social scale, 
and to be admitted to official employment. 
The system of competitive examinations 
was even then casting a shadow before, 
and although offices and rank were not 
attainable in the same manner as they 
afterwards came to be, yet magistrates 
and noblemen considered it necessary to 
have a sound acquaintance with their 
ancient writings. It is said in the Li Kt, 
or Book of Rites (about B.C. 1200), ' that, 
for purposes of education amongst the 
ancients, villages had their schools, districts 
their academies, departments their colleges, 



and principalities their universities.' This, 
so far as can be ascertained, was altogether 
superior to what obtained among the Jews, 
Persians, and Syrians of the same period. 
Towards the sixth century B.C. two 
reformers appeared in China, Lao-tsze and 
Khung-tsze, or Confucius. According to 
the legends attaching to his name, Lao-tsze, 
the founder of the sect of the Rationalists 
of China and other regions of the far East, 
and of the system of Taoism —the system 
of the Path or Road, of Reason or Doctrine 
— was born B.C. 604, more than half a 
century before the birth of Confucius. He 
was the representative of the spirit of 
emancipation, of progress, of the pui-suit 
of the ideal, and of protest against routine 
and the tyranny of custom. He was an 
ardent and enlightened advocate of popular 
education. ' Certain bad rulex's,' he said,. 
' would have us believe that the heart and 
the spirit of man should be left empty, 
but that instead his stomach should be 
filled ; that his bones should be strengthened 
rather than the power of his will ; that 
we shoul^ always desire to have the people 
remain in a state of ignorance, for then 
their demands would be few. It is difficult, 
they say, to govern a people that are too 
wise. These doctrines are directly opposed 
to what is due to humanity. Those in 
authority should come to the aid of the 
people by means of oral and written in- 
struction ; so far from oppressing them 
and treating them as slaves, they should 
do them good in every possible way.' In 
other words, it is by enlightening the people 
and by an honest devotion to their inte- 
rests, that a ruler becomes worthy to govern 
them. The career of Lao-tsze was com- 
paratively a failure, or a mere succes 
d'estime ; for his nominal adherents have 
long since, for the most part, degraded into 
the lowest idolatry, and the priests of his 
system into jugglers and necromancers, 
among whom scarcely a trace of the pure 
spirit of their master can be discovered. 

The fate of Confucius, the younger 
contemporary of Lao-tsze, the apostle of 
the idea of practical utilitarian morality, 
founded upon the authority of the State 
and that of the family, as well as upon the 
interest of the individual, to whom tradi- 
tion ascribes more than three thousand 
personal disciples, has been happier in the 
actual potency of his principles, and in the 
extent and perduration of their authority 
and acceptance. Confucius, indeed, has 



374 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



enjoyed a continued renown, aii ever- 
repeated triumph, nioi-e extended than any 
other member of the human x-aee. Through 
all the changes of Chinese dynasties, by 
whatever causes brought about, his descen- 
dants have received peculiar honours. At 
this day they number more than eleven 
tliousand males, and are said to constitute 
the only hereditary nobility in China. 
From his own time to the present the 
writings of Confucius have been the prin- 
cipal objects of study in all the schools of 
that vast empire. It has, however, been 
observed, not unjustly, that the aim and 
scope of the Confucian philosophy were 
limited to the present life, and none of liis 
sayings indicate that he had any definite 
belief in a continued existence after death. 
His life and teachings tended to the pro- 
motion of the useful and practical only ; 
and combined — even after an admiring 
allowance is made for his beautiful con- 
ception of tilial piety — to form the expres- 
sion of an ele'S'ated and refined secularism. 

The formal institution of the competi- 
tive examinations which have been from 
age to age so nearly omnipotent in their 
influence on Chinese life and society, and 
a predetermination to which may be de- 
tected in the national institutions many 
centuries before, took place about a.d. 600, 
when Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty, es- 
tablished the still existing plan of preparing 
and selecting the servants of the State by 
means of study and degrees, founding his 
system on the facts tliat education" had 
always been esteemed, and tliat the ancient 
writings were accepted by all as the best 
instructors of the manners and tastes of 
the people. Centralisation and conserva- 
tism were the leading features in the 
teachings of Confucius which first recom- 
mended them to the rulers, and have de- 
cided the course of public examinations in 
selecting officers who would readily uphold 
these principles. The efiect has been that 
the literary class in China has uniformly 
held the functions of both nobles and 
priests, a perpetual association, gens (rterna 
ill qua nemo nascitur, holding in its hands 
public opinion and the legal power to main- 
tain it. The geographical isolation of the 
people, the nature of the language, which 
is regarded as the most ditiicult known to 
the speech of articulating men, and the 
absence of a landed aristocracy, combined 
to add efliciency to the system. 

Dr. Martin exhibits the safeguards of 



this competitive system, the incidental 
advantages of which may be comprehended 
under three heads. In the first place, it 
served the State as a safety-valve, pro- 
viding a career for those ambitious spirits 
who might otherwise foment disturbances 
or excite re^■olutions ; in the second place, 
it operates — or operated, for in the history 
of a country like China, where traditions, 
once established, survive for ever, the past 
and present are nearly convertible — as a 
counterpoise to the power of an absolute 
monarchy, as without it the great ofiices 
would be tilled by hereditary nobles, and 
the minor ofiices would be farmed out 
by thousands to imperial favourites ; and 
thirdly, it gives the Government a liold on 
the educated gentry, and binds them to 
the support of existing institutions, whilst 
at the same time it renders the literary 
class eminently conservative. 

Education, as the only high road to 
place, honour, and emolument, has always 
been, in consequence, largely sought after 
by all who were desirous of following an 
ofiicial career ; while the uni^'ersal respect 
for letters has encouraged all of eveiy de- 
gree to gain at least a smattering of learn- 
ing — except the women, upon whom no 
prospects of ofiice, the reward of literary 
distinction, have ever smiled. 

Hitherto, therefore, ^ery little trouble 
has been taken with regard to the education 
of girls, from whom little more was to be 
required than that they should be good 
needlewomen and expert cooks, and that 
they should learn to act modestly, and to 
show due deference to their superiors. 
With the men the case was different indeed, 
for as no one could hold any State prefer- 
ment unless he had passed the first of the 
three great literary competitive examina- 
tions, the whole education of boys was. 
arranged with the object of enabling them 
to pass successively through these ordeals. 
Unfortunately for the real education of 
the aspirants to ofiice, the only subject 
required of them was, as it still is, a know- 
ledge of the Nine Classics, concluding with 
the Shili King, or Book of Odes, and the 
Lt Kt, or Book of Bites — the ultima Thule 
of Chinese learning. The result is that 
from childhood upwards these works are 
the only text-books which are put into 
the hands of Chinese schoolboys. These 
they are taught to regard as the supreme 
models of excellence, and any deviation, 
either from the opinions they contain or 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



375 



from the style in which they are written, 
would be looked upon as heretical. Year 
after year these form the subjects of the 
study of every aspii-ing scholar, until every 
character and every phrase is, or should be, 
indelibly engraved on the memory. This 
course of instruction has been exactly fol- 
lowed in every school in the empire for 
many centuries, and the result is that there 
are annually turned out a vast number of 
lads all cast in the same mould, all pos- 
sessed of a certain amount of ready-made 
knowledge, and with their memories unduly 
exercised at the expense of their thinking 
powers. The minds of the scholars are 
not symmetrically trained, and they are 
encouraged superciliously to disparage all 
requirements which are not of direct utility 
to their advancement as candidates and 
place-holders. China has produced gene- 
ration after generation of men who have 
learned to elevate mere memory above 
genius, and whose intellectual faculties 
have been damaged by servile imitation, 
and by the paltry literalism of the schools. 
It is a corollary from the veneration 
paid to learning in all the stages of Chinese 
history, that the person and the vocation 
of the teacher have been proportionately 
venerable. Boys commenced their studies 
at the age of seven with a teacher ; for, even 
if the father were a literary man, he seldom 
instructed his sons, and very few mothers 
were able to teach their offspring to read. 
One of the most authoritative treatises for 
the guidance of teachers, when establishing 
the elements of education, advises fathers 
to choose from among their concubines 
those who are fit for nurses, seeking such 
as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, bene- 
volent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, 
and reserved and careful in their conversa- 
tion, whom they will make governesses 
over their children. The treatise in ques- 
tion is the Nei-tsze, forming the tenth book 
of the LI Ki, and its title, which means 
the Pattern of the Family, is given to it, 
as Kang Hsiian says, because it records 
the rules for sons and daughters in serving 
their parents, and for sons and their wives 
in serving their parents-in-law in the family 
home. Among the other treatises of the 
Lt Ki it may thus be differenced as giving 
the rules for children. And because the 
observances of the harem are worthy of 
imitation, it is called the Pattern of the 
Interior. Ku Hsi says that ' it is a book 
which was taught to the people in the an- 



cient schools, an ancient classic or sacred 
text.' After giving the directions about 
the selection of a likely nurse for an ex- 
pected infant, the Nei-tsze proceeds, in the 
form of a didactic narrative, to give other 
directions. ' When the child,' it says, 
' was able to take its own food it was 
taught to use the right hand. When it 
was able to speak, a boy was taught to 
respond boldly and clearly ; a girl, submis- 
sively and low. The former was fitted 
with a girdle of leather, the latter with 
one of silk. At six yeax^s, they were taught 
the numbers and the names of the cardinal 
points ; at the age of seven, boys and girls 
did not occupy the same mat nor eat to- 
gether ; at eight, when going out or coming 
in at a gate or door, and going to their 
mats to eat and drink, they were required 
to follow their elders : — the teaching of 
yielding to others was now begun ; at nine, 
they were taught how to number the days. 
At ten, (the boy) went to a master outside, 
and stayed with him (even) over the night. 
He learned the (different classes of) cha- 
racters and calculation ; he did not wear 
his jacket or trousers of silk ; in his man- 
ners he followed his early lessons ; morning 
and evening he learned the behaviour of 
a youth ; he would ask to be exercised in 
(reading) the tablets, and in the forms of 
polite conversation. At thirteen, he learned 
music, and to repeat the odes, and to dance 
the Ko (of the duke of Kau).i When a 
full-grown lad, he danced the hsiang (of 
King Wu). He learned archery and 
chariot-driving. At twenty, he was capped, 
and first learned the (different classes of) 
ceremonies, and might wear furs and silk. 
He danced the ta hsia (of Yii), and attended 
sedulously to filial and fraternal duties. 
He might become very learned, but did not 
teach others ; — (his object being still) to 
receive and not to give out. At thirty, he 
had a wife, and began to attend to the 
business proper to a man. He extended 
his learning, without confining it to par- 
ticular subjects. He was deferential to 
his friends, having regard to the aims 
(which they displayed). At forty, he was 
first appointed to ofiice, and according to 
the business of it brought out his plans 

1 It is difficult to describe exactly, amid the con- 
flict of different views, these several dances. Dances 
were of two kinds, the civil and military. The Ko 
was perhaps the first of the civil dances, ascribed to 
the duke of Kau ; and the hsiang, the first of the 
martial. The two are said to have been combined in 
the ta hsia. 



376 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



and communicated his thoughts. If the 
ways (which he proposed) wore suitable, 
he followed them out ; if they wei-e not, 
he abandoned them. At tifty, lie was ap- 
pointed a great otiicer, and laboured in the 
administration of his tlepartment. At 
seventy he retired from his duties. In all 
salutations of males, the upper place was 
given to the left hand. 

' A girl at the age of ten ceased to go 
out (from the women's apartments). Her 
governess taught her (the arts of) pleasing 
speech and manners, to be docile and obe- 
dient, to handle the hempen fibres, to deal 
with the cocoons, to weave silks and form 
fillets, to learn (all) woman's work, how to 
furnisli garments, to watch the sacrifices, 
to supply the liquors and sauces, to till 
the various stands and dishes with pickle 
and brine, and to assist in setting fortli 
the appurtenances for the ceremonies. At 
fifteen, she assumed the hair-pin ; at 
twenty, she M'as married, or, if there were 
occasion for the delay, at twenty-three. If 
there were the betrothal rites, she became 
a wife ; and if she went without these, a 
concubine. In all salutations of females 
the upper place was given to the right 
hand.' 

With reference to the numbering of 
the days, in which children were instructed 
at nine years of age. Dr. Legge observes 
that ' to number the days was, and is, a 
more complicated atiair in China, than in 
this country, requiring an acquaintance 
with all the terms of the cycle of sixty, as 
well as the more compendious method by 
decades for each month.' With reference 
to what is enjoined as to the education of 
girls. Dr. Legge remarks that ' tliere is 
nothing in what is said of the daughters 
to indicate that they received any literary 
training. They were taught simply the 
household duties that would devolve on 
them in their station in society ; though 
among them, be it observed, were tlie 
forms and provision for sacrifice and wor- 
ship. It will be observed, also, at how 
early an age all close intercourse between 
them and their brothers came to an end, 
and that at ten they ceased to go out from 
the women's apartments." That this with- 
holding of literary culture from the educa- 
tion of women M-as not felt by the sex 
universally as a hardship or an injustice, 
is shown on the authority of Pan-Hwui- 
pan, also known asPan-Chao, perhaps the 
most celebrated female writer of China, 



who flourished in the first century of the 
Christian era, and who devoted her life 
and talents to the elevation of the character 
and position of women, and to their ad- 
vancement in all the virtues. 'The virtue 
of a female,' says this accomplished lady, 
' does not consist altogether in extraordi- 
nary abilities or intelligence, but in being 
modestly grave and inviolably chaste, 
observing the requirements of virtuous 
widowhood, and in being tidy in her person 
and e^'ery thing about her ; in whatever she 
does to be unassuming, and whenever she 
moves or sits to be decorous. This is female 
virtue.' On the whole it may be concluded, 
i with the slight necessary reserve, with 
j Professor Compayre, that at eveiy period 
j of her long history China ' has preserved 
j her national peculiai'ities. For move than 
three thousand years an absolute unifor- 
mity has characterised this immobile peo- 
ple. Everything is regulated by tradi- 
tion. Education is mechanical and formal. 
The pre-occupation of teachers is to cause 
their pupils to acquire a mechanical ability, 
a regular and sure routine. They care 
more for appearances, for a decorous man- 
ner of conduct, than for a searching and 
profound morality. Life is but a ceremo- 
nial, minutely determined and punctually 
followed. Tliere is no liberty, no glow of 
spontaneity. Their art is characterised 
by conventional refinement, and by a 
prettiness that seems mean ; there is 
nothing of the grand or imposing. By 
their formalism, the Chinese educators are 
the Jesuits of the East.' 

Egypt. — It is one of the marvels of 
Egypt and its early civilisation, that it 
starts already full gi-own into life in the 
valley of the Nile, as a nation highly 
advanced in language, painting, and sculp- 
ture, and ofiers the enigma as to whence it 
attained so high a point of development. 
There is no monumental nation which can 
compare with it for antiquity, except 
perhaps Babylonia ; and evidence is yet 
required to determine which of the two 
empires is the older. The arts of Egypt 
exercised an all-powerful influence on the 
ancient world. The Phoenicians copied 
their types, and Greece adopted the early 
Oriental style of architecture, for the Doric 
style came from Egypt, the Ionic from 
Assyria, the later Corinthian again from 
Egypt. If Phaniieia conferred an alphabet 
on Greece, Egypt suggested the use of 
such characters to Phoenicia. Already in 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



377 



the seventh century B.C., the hieroglyphs 
represented a dead form of the Egyptian 
language, one which had ceased to be 
spoken ; and Egyptians introduced a con- 
ventional mode of writing simpler than 
the older forms, and better adapted for 
the pui'poses of vernacular idiom. Egyp- 
tian philosophy, the transmigration doc- 
trine of Pythagoras, that of the immor- 
tality of the soul of Plato, pervaded the 
Hellenic mind from the colleges of Thebes. 
The wisdom of the Egyptians was em- 
bodied in ethical works of proverbs and 
maxims as old as the Pyramids, and as 
venerable for their hoar antiquity as the 
days of the Exodus. The frail papyrus, 
the living rock, the temple, and the tomb, 
have all preserved an extent of literature 
found nowhere else. The motive was a 
i-eligion which looked forward to an eter- 
nal duration, or the return of the past 
to the future. The national psalm of 
Pentaur is found on the walls of Thebes, 
and the papyrus of SalHer. The Book of 
the Dead was alike sculptured on the 
tombs and written on the roll ; it em- 
bodied much of the symbolic, though less 
of the esoteric, doctrine. The Elysian 
fields, the streams of Styx, burning Phle- 
gethon, the judges of the dead, are Egyp- 
tian conceptions ; the sun-worship is 
Egyptian ; medicine and astronomy, geo- 
metry, truthful history, and romantic fic- 
tions are found in the extensive literature. 
Many dogmas and practices of an Egyp- 
tian origin have descended to the present 
■day, and exercise more influence than is 
generally supposed on modern religious 
thought. 

The schools of Egypt, like those of 
Judea, were ecclesiastical ; but whilst the 
Jews had but little efiect on the progress 
of science, the obligations of the rest of 
the world to the priests of the Nile Yalley 
were, as has just been indicated, more 
than considerable. Much of their learn- 
ing is obscure to us, and their methods of 
instruction, in spite of the fairly rewarded 
efibrts of recent enquirers, and especially 
those of Professor Georg Ebers, who in 
his learned romances, and otherwise, has 
sought to realise and to reproduce the 
student life of the temple-schools of the 
country, are to a provoking extent still 
unascertained. Sufiicient is known, how- 
ever, to justify the reasonable conclusion 
of scholars, as stated by Mr. Oscar Brown- 
ing, that ' there is no branch of science 



in which they did not progress at least so 
far as observation and careful registration 
of facts could carry them. They were a 
source of enlightenment to surrounding 
nations. ISTot only the great lawgiver of 
the Jews, but those who were most active 
in stimulating the nascent energies of 
Hellas, were careful to train themselves in 
the wisdom of the Egyptians. Greece, in 
giving an undying name to the literature 
of Alexandria, was only repaying the debt 
which she had incurred centuries before.' 
In the dearth of details as to the actual 
methods of imparting instruction in a 
country the reputation of whose learning 
is as extended as it is perennial, every 
glimpse which can be gained is precious 
beyond what would otherwise be its pro- 
portionate value. Such a glimpse is af- 
forded in the Maxims of Ani, one of the 
several collections of precepts and maxims 
on the conduct of life which have descended 
to this generation from what is colourably 
the remotest antiquity which can be ap- 
proached within the limits of the literature 
or civilisation of mankind. Of these col- 
lections are the Maxims of Ptahhotep con- 
tained in the Prisse Papyrus, the Instruc- 
tions of Amenemhat, and the Maxims of 
Ani, just mentioned ; whilst fragments of 
other important works are preserved in the 
museums of Paris, Leyden, and St. Peters- 
burg. The most venerable of them is the 
work of Ptahhotep, which dates from the 
age of the Pyramids, and yet appeals to 
the authority of the ancients. It is almost 
certainly, as M. Chabas called it, in the 
title of the memorable essay in which its 
contents were first made known (Eevtie 
Archeologique, 1857), 'le plus ancien livre 
du monde.' The manuscript at Paris 
which contains it was written centuries 
before the Hebrew lawgiver was born ; 
but the author of the work lived as far 
back as the reign of King Assa Tatkara 
of the fifth dynasty. The Maxiins of Ani, 
in the matter of antiquity, may be said to 
rank with, but after the collection of Ptah- 
hotep ; and they comprise a section upon 
maternal love, which describes the self- 
sacrifice of an affectionate mother from 
the earliest moments of the child's exist- 
ence, and continues as follows : — ' Thou 
wast put to school, and whilst thou wast 
being taught letters she came punctually 
to thy master, bringing thee the bread and 
the drink of her house. Thou art now 
come to man's estate ; thou art married 



378 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



and hast a house ; but nevex" do thou forget 
the painful labour which thy mother en- 
dured, nor all the salutary care which she 
has taken of thee. Take heed lest she 
have cause to complain of thee, for fear 
that she should raise her hands to God, 
and He should listen to her prayer.' 

The social restrictions and disabilities, 
which less or more prevailed amongst the 
most cultured nations of antiquity, have 
been recently shown not to have attached 
in any purely prohibitive degree to the 
liberal and aspiring youth of Egypt. Un- 
til lately it was believed without reserve, 
and asserted without misgiving, that, 
while of all the Oriental nations Egypt is 
the one in which intellectual achievement 
seems to have reached its highest point, 
the attainment of scientific eminence, with 
the rewards of official distinction, autho- 
rity, and emolument which scientific emin- 
ence involved, was limited to persons only 
of a favoured class and of high hereditary 
function. The hierarchy was supposed not 
merely to have appropriated, but to have 
monopolised, the learning of the day, and 
to have jealously guarded from vulgar 
intrusion the stores of the mysterious 
knowledge which was communicated or 
communicable only to the sovereign and 
the nobility. The common people, who 
were by the same hypothesis inevitably 
destined from father to son to an identi- 
cal social status, learned scarcely more 
than was necessary in order to practise 
their ancestral trades or handicrafts, and 
to be initiated into the religious beliefs 
which became their station. Moi-e hap- 
pily conducted researches into the subject, 
however, have practically demonstrated 
the fact that the hereditary tendency, 
which, without doubt, powerfully existed, 
to the adoption by the son of the paternal 
calling, was so susceptible of modification 
or solution as to be frequently inoperative 
— so frequently, indeed, as to invalidate 
the long-current accusation. Dr. Hein- 
rich Brugsch-Bey has some vivid and 
suggestive words with regard to the elas- 
ticity and generosity, in this respect, of 
ancient Egyptian institutions : — ' In the 
schools where the poor scribe's child sat 
on the saroe bench beside the offspring of 
the rich, to be trained in discipline and 
wise learning, the masters knew how by 
timely words to goad on the lagging dili- 
gence of the ambitious scholars, holding- 
out to them the future reward which 



awaited youths skilled in knowledge 
and lettei-s. Thus the slumbering spark 
of self-esteem was stii-red to a flame in 
the youthful breast, and emulation was 
stimulated among the boys. Even the- 
clever son of the poor man might hope by 
his knowledge to climb the ladder of the 
higher offices, for neither his birth nor 
position in life raised any barrier, if only 
the youth's mental power justified fair 
hopes for the future. In this sense the 
restraints of caste did not exist, and 
neither descent nor family hampered the 
rising career of the clever. Many a monu- 
ment consecrated to the memory of some 
nobleman gone to his long home, who 
during life had held high rank at the 
court of Pharaoh, is decorated with the 
simple but laudatory inscription, " His 
ancestors were unknown people." It is a 
satisfaction to avow that the training and 
instruction of the young interested the 
Egyptians in the highest degree. For 
they fully recognised in this the sole means 
of elevating their national life, and of ful- 
filling the high civilising mission which 
Providence seemed to have placed in their 
hands. But above all things they regarded 
justice, and virtue had the highest value 
in their eyes. The law which ordered 
them " to pray to the gods, to honour 
the dead, to give bread to the hungry, 
water to the thirsty, clothing to the 
naked," reveals to us one of the finest 
qualities of the old Egyptian character, 
pity towards the unfortunate. The forty - 
two commandments of the Egyptian reli- 
gion which are contained in the 125th 
chapter of the Book of the Dead, are in nO' 
way inferior to the precepts of Christianity; 
and, in reading the old Egyptian inscrip- 
tions concerning morality and the fear of 
God, we are tempted to believe that the 
Jewish lawgiver Moses modelled his teach- 
ings on the patterns given by the old 
Egyptian sages.' 

In another connection Brugsch-Bey 
carries his optimism with reference to the 
affairs of Egypt to the extent of posing 
as an apologist for the misrepresented 
Cambyses, whom he couples with Darius I. 
as being benevolently disposed towards 
the interests of Egyptian education. In 
one of the inscriptions he records that 
' Cambyses appears in a totally different 
light from that in which school-learning 
places him. He takes care for the gods- 
and their temples, and has himself crowned 



1 

a 1! 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



37^ 



in Sais after the old Egyptian manner. 
Darius I., whom the Egyptian XJza-hor- 
en-pi-ris had accompanied to Elam (Ely- 
mais), took particular pleasure in rescuing 
the Egyptian temple-learning from its 
threatened extinction. He provided for 
the training of the energetic and gifted 
youth in the schools of the priests, to be 
the future maintainers and teachers of the 
lost wisdom of the Egyptians.' 

The question of the existence of caste 
— varying, as it may do, from an iron and 
unbending tyranny to an expediency so 
unjDretentious as scarcely to assert, or even 
to seek, a sanction external to itself — is of 
such vital and characteristic importance 
in the working of any system of education 
that it is convenient in this connection to 
quote the judicial generalisation of one of 
our most trusted masters in Egyptology. 

'As long,' says M. P. Le Page Renouf, 
' as our information depended upon the 
classical Greek authors, the existence of 
castes among the Egyptians was admitted 
as certain. The error was detected as soon 
as the sense of the inscriptions could be 
made out, A very slight knowledge of the 
language was sufficient to demonstrate 
the truth to the late M. Ampere. Among 
ourselves many men may be found whose 
ancestors have for several generations fol- 
lowed the same calling, either the army or 
the Church, or some branch of industry or 
trade. The Egyptians were no doubt even 
more conservative than ourselves in this 
respect. But there was no impassable 
barrier between two professions. The son 
or the brother of a wai-rior might be a 
priest. It was perhaps more difficult to 
rise in the world than it is with us ; but a 
man of education, a scribe, was eligible to 
any office, civil, military, or sacei-dotal, to 
which his talents or the chances of fortune 
might lead him, and nothing prevented 
his marriage with the daughter of a man 
of a different profession. 

Not less interesting are the words of 
the Pev. Canon Rawlinson, in regard to 
the chances open to youth of talent ir- 
respective of their social position, words 
which lose nothing of their weight because 
they manifest some hesitation in accepting 
as proved the position which Brugsch-Bey 
has so uncompromisingly assumed. Canon 
Rawlinson introduces the words to which 
we now dii'ectly refer by a passage de- 
scribing the respect with which the young, 
with whom was the future, treated the 



aged, with whom was the past. 'The 
consideration shown to age in Egypt was 
remarkable, and, though perhaps a rem- 
nant of antique manners, must be regarded 
as a point in which their customs were 
more advanced than those of most ancient 
peoples. "Their young men, when they 
met their elders in the street," we are told 
(Herodotus, ii. 80), " made way for them 
and stepped aside ; and if an old man 
came in where young men were present, 
the latter rose from their seats out of re- 
spect for him." In arrangements with re- 
spect to education, the ancient Egyptians, 
seem also to have attained a point not 
often reached by the nations of antiquity. 
If the schools wherein scribes obtained 
their instruction were really open to all 
{see Brugsch, Geschiclite Aegyptens, p. 24), 
and the career of scribe might be pursued 
by any one, whatever his birth, then it 
must be said that Egypt, notwithstanding 
the general rigidity of her institutions, 
provided an open career for talent such 
as scarcely existed elsewhere in the old 
world, and such as few modern communi- 
ties can be said even yet to furnish. It 
was always possible, under despotic go- 
vernments, that the capricious favour of 
the sovereign should raise to a high, or 
even to the highest, position the lowest per- 
son in the kingdom. But in Egypt alone^ 
of all ancient States, does a system seem 
to have been established whereby persons 
of all ranks, even the lowest, were invited 
to compete for the royal favour, and, by 
distinguishing themselves in the public 
schools, to establish a claim for employ- 
ment in the public service. That em- 
ployment once obtained, their future de- 
pended on themselves. Merit secured 
promotion ; and it would seem that the 
efficient scribe had only to show himself 
superior to his fellows in order to rise to 
the highest position but one in the empire.' 
India. — Hindu civilisation is im- 
mensely old ; and, with regard to the bulk 
of the population of India, may be said to 
have changed so little in the course of 
ages that if an ancestor of a thousand 
years ago could visit a descendant of the 
thirtieth degree, there would not be much 
to suggest to either a wider secular chasm 
than if one had followed the other in the 
way of direct and immediate succession. 
For as soon as we look below the SLirface, 
as soon as we pass from the large towns 
to the country, it is found that the cur- 



380 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



rent of Hindu life and manners has been 
but slightly affected by Western influence. 
The upper crust of society may have 
altered, but the movement has scarcely 
penetrated to the great mass below. 
English law and English customs are, no 
doubt, gradually working a change, but 
generations will have to pass before the 
change will have penetrated very deeply. 
Even railways have failed to produce 
more than a superficial effect, and the 
majority of the most highly 'Europeanised' 
of the natives still cling to the system of 
caste. This last alone is sufficient to ac- 
count for the still deathless perpetuation 
of customs in general, and of educational 
subjects and matters in particular, along- 
side of the aggressive vigour of foreign 
institutions which have been introduced 
into the Indian system on the principle 
of inoculation rather than that of incor- 
poration. 

The indigenous culture of India goes 
back to a period when the Greeks had not 
yet entered upon their heroic age ; and 
it is possible to trace its origin and growth, 
with the aid of contemporaneous litera- 
ture, almost from the fifteenth century 
before the Christian era. This, at least, 
is the probable date of that wonderful 
collection of hymns known as the Veda, or, 
more strictly, the Rig- Veda, which con- 
stitutes the oldest literary monument of 
the great Aryan race. Some of the poems, 
indeed, are later than others ; but the 
whole collection cannot well be regarded 
as less than three thousand years old. It 
is upon this ancient collection of poems 
that Hindu civilisation rests ; it forms 
the starting-point not only of Hindu the- 
ology, but of Hindu philosophy, Hindu 
law, and Hindu art and science as well. 
To understand the Rig- Veda is to under- 
stand the history of Hindu thought and 
civilisation. But the language, as well 
as the life and belief, of the Hindu has 
changed more than once since the times 
when the hymns of the Rig- Veda were 
composed. They are written in an archaic 
form of Sanskrit, which differs very con- 
siderably from the classical Sanskrit of a 
later period both in vocabulary and in 
grammar. It brings us nearer to the 
common Aryan language spoken by the 
ancestors of the Hindus and the Persians, 
of the Greeks and the Italians, of the 
Slavs and the Celts, before they set out 
on their long wanderings. It is true that 



a traditional interpretation of the hymns 
has been handed down along with the 
hymns themselves, and that, four or five 
centuries before the Christian era, the 
more obscure words and forms had been 
discussed in treatises Avhich display the 
most profound acquaintance with the 
principles of phonology and grammar ; 
but it is also true that the tradition is 
not uniformly correct, and that the real 
force and meaning of much of the Vedic 
language can only be discovered by a 
minute examination of the text, and the 
assistance of comparative philology. One 
of the most important of the Hindu 
writings for purely linguistic purposes is 
the Prdtisdkhya of Saunaka, a treatise 
on Vedic phonology, which seems to be 
as old as the fifth century B.C. This par- 
ticular Prdtisdkhya is only one out of 
many which once existed, and were de- 
signed to preserve the pronunciation of 
the sacred hymns from being corrupted. 
The practical aim, however, is attained 
by means of a marvellously minute and 
accurate investigation of phonetic utter- 
ance; indeed, so thoroughly scientific is 
the analysis and classification of sounds as 
to have been made the basis of modern 
researches into phonology. 

Considering that the education of In- 
dia was effected in, by, and for the Vedas, 
and that its primary and ultimate aim 
was their safe transmission, a few words of 
more particular desci-iption of these sacred 
books may here be profitably supplied. 
The Veda, or knowledge, was invested 
with divine authority ; its mere words, 
apart from any meaning they might con- 
vey, were believed to have a religious 
efficacy, and the theory of inspiration 
invented to support their sacred charac- 
ter goes much beyond the most extreme 
theoiy of verbal inspiration ever held in 
the Christian or the Jewish Church. The 
Rig- Veda, or Veda of Praise, which con- 
tains prayers and hymns in verse, had to 
share its place of honour with three other 
collections, two of which, the Yajur-Veda 
and the Sama-Veda, contain little be- 
sides what is found in the Rig- Veda. 
They are, in fact, only prayer-books com- 
piled from the older collection of hymns, 
and were intended for the use of choristers 
and ministers of the priests at the sacri- 
fices, just as the Rig- Veda was assigned 
to the Hotri, or the priest proper. The 
fourth, or Atharva-Veda, is of later origin 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



381 



than the rest, which were peculiarly- 
termed the Trayi, or Triad, and consists 
of a number of poems mixed up with 
popular sayings, medical advice, magical 
formulfB, and the like. In process of time, 
commentaries on the Vedas were called 
into existence, on which, under the title 
of Brahmanas, the sacredness of the Vedas 
came to be reflected : so that they also, 
in the long run, began to be regarded as 
authoritative, and to be superseded in their 
original ancillary position by the Sutras, 
the ' Sti'ings ' or manuals of the gramma- 
rians. It is to this, the Alexandrine age 
of the Hindu literature, that the Pratisa- 
khyas, already referred to, belong ; and 
the results of the labours of the period are 
truly astonishing. Not only were the 
very syllables of the Rig- Veda counted 
with absolute accuracy, and lists of obso- 
lete words and synonyms drawn up, but 
one of the most perfect systems of phon- 
ology and grammar ever known was ela- 
borated — a system which has been taken 
as the foundation of the scientific gram- 
matical investigations of our own day. 
Grammar, or Vyakarana, however, was 
only one of the six Vedangas, or branches 
of Vedic doctrine, that were studied, and 
which comprised also Siksha (pronuncia- 
tion), Chhandas (meti^e), Nirukta (ex- 
planation of words), Jyotisha (astronomy), 
and Kalpa (ceremonial). Indeed, all the 
other subjects of enquiry were but sub- 
sidiary to the last ; it was to prevent 
mistakes being made in the performance 
of divine worship, and to preserve the 
Key of Knowledge, sacred and profane, 
in the jealous keeping of a learned priestly 
caste that both Vedas and Brahmanas 
were so closely investigated. 

The ultimate aim, then, of Hindu 
education — ^to repeat more emphatically 
what has already been incidentally men- 
tioned — was to produce mnemonic custo- 
dians of the Vedas, and of other sacred 
books in the order of their production, 
who should ensure, by the power of mutual 
checks, the purity and integrity of the 
treasures committed to them, whether by 
oral or literary transmission. This exact 
and perfect memory of sacred words and 
sacred things was all the more necessary 
in the ages that preceded the art of writ- 
ing, of which there is no evidence that 
it was known in India much before the 
beginning of Buddhism, or the very end 
of the ancient Vedic literature. From 



the earliest times, as far back as we know 
anything of India, we find that the years 
which we spend at school and the uni- 
versity, were spent by the sons of the 
higher classes in acquiring, from the mouth 
of a teacher, their sacred learning. This 
was a solemn duty, the neglect of which 
entailed social degradation, and the most 
minute rules were laid down as to the 
mnemonic systems that had to be followed. 
Before the invention of writing, there 
was, indeed, no other way of preserving 
literature, whether sacred or profane; and, 
in consequence, every precaution was taken 
against accidents. 'Those Brahmans,' 
says Professor Max Miiller, ' who even in 
this Kali age, and during the ascendency 
of the Mlekkhas, uphold the sacred tra- 
ditions of the past, are not to be met with 
in the drawing-rooms of Calcutta. They 
depend on the alms of the people, and live 
in villages, either by themselves, or in 
colleges. These men, and I know it as a 
fact, know the whole Rig- Veda by heart, 
just as their ancestors did, three or four 
thousand years ago ; and though they 
have MSS., and though they have now 
a printed text, they do not learn their 
sacred lore from them. They learn it, as 
their ancestors learnt it thousands of years 
ago, from the mouth of a teacher, so that 
the Vedic succession should never be 
broken. The oral teaching and learning 
become, in the eyes of the Brahmans, one 
of the " Great Sacrifices," and though the 
number of those who still keep it up is 
smaller than it used to be, their influence, 
their position, their sacred authority are 
as great as ever.' To the same efiect the 
editor of the Indian Antiquary, writing 
in 1878, says that, 'there are thousands 
of Brahmans who know the Rig- Veda by 
heart, and can repeat it in Sanhita, Pada, 
Jata, Ghana, and Krama, without making 
any mistakes ' — the Sanhita and others 
being five dififerent methods of learning 
the Veda, by either reciting each word 
separately, or by repeating the words in 
various complicated ways. The Rig- Veda, 
it may be stated, consists of 1,017 or 1,028 
hymns, each on an average of ten verses. 
The total number of words, if we may 
trust native scholars, amounts to 153,826. 
' They,' says Professor Max Miiller, mean- 
ing the Vedic students of the present 
time, which also includes all time, even 
to the remotest antiquity — •' they learn 
a few lines every day, repeat them for 



382 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



hours, so that the whole house resounds 
with the noise, and they thus strengthen 
their memory to that degree that, when 
their apprenticeship is finished, you can 
open them like a book, and find any pas- 
sage you like, any word, any accent.' 
Professor Max Miiller proceeds to picture 
a ' half-naked Hindu repeating under an 
Indian sky the sacred hymns which have 
been handed down for three or four thou- 
sand years by oral tradition. If writing 
had never been invented, if India had 
never been occupied by England, that 
young Brahman, and thousands and thou- 
sands of his countrymen, would probably 
have been engaged just the same in learn- 
ing and saying by heart the simple prayers 
first uttered on the Sarasvati and the 
other rivers of the Penjab by Vasishtha, 
Visvamitra, Syavasva, and others.' 

The method of oral teaching followed 
in the schools of ancient India is care- 
fully described in the fifteenth chapter of 
the Pratisakhya of the Rig-Yeda, that is, 
probably, in the fifth or sixth century 
B.C. It is constantly alluded to in the 
Brahmanas, but it must have existed even 
during the earlier period, for in one of the 
hymns of the Rig-Yeda, in which the re- 
turn of the rainy season, and the delight 
and croaking of frogs are described, we 
read : — ' One repeats the speech of the 
other, as the pupil repeats the words of the 
teacher.' In the description of the method 
of oral teaching in the Pratisakhya in 
question, ' the teacher, we are told, must 
himself have passed through the recognised 
curriculum, and have fulfilled all the 
duties of a Brahmanical student (brah- 
makarin), before he is allowed to become 
a teacher, and he must teach such stu- 
dents only as submit to all the rules of 
studentship. He should settle down in a 
proper place. If he has only one pupil 
or two, they sliovild sit on his right side ; 
if more, they must sit as there is room 
for them. At the beginning of each lec- 
ture the pupils embrace the feet of their 
teacher and say, "Read, Sir." The teacher 
answers, "Om, Yes," and then pronounces 
two words, or, if it is a compound, one. 
When the teacher has pronounced one 
word or two, the first pupil repeats the 
first word, but if there is anything that 
requires explanation, the pupil says "Sir; " 
and after it has been explained to him 
(the teacher says), " Om, Yes, Sir." 

' In this manner they go on till they 



have finished a prasna (question), which 
consists of three verses, or, if they are 
verses of more than forty to forty-two 
syllables, of two verses. If they are 
pankti- verses of forty to forty -two sylla- 
bles each, a prasna may comprise either 
two or three ; and if a hymn consists 
of one verse only, that is supposed to 
form a prasna. After the prasna is 
finished, they have all to repeat it once 
more, and then to go on learning it by 
heart, pronouncing every syllable with 
the high accent. After the teacher has 
first told a prasna to his pupil on the 
right, the others go round him to the 
right, and this goes on till the whole 
adhyaya or lecture is finished : a lecture 
consisting generally of sixty prasnas. At 
the end of the last half- verse the teacher 
says, " Sir," and the pupil replies, " Om, 
Yes, Sir," repeating all the verses required 
at the end of a lecture. The pupils then 
embrace the feet of their teacher, and are 
dismissed.' These are the general fea- 
tures of a lesson, but the Pratisakhya 
contains some minute rules besides. Por 
instance, in order to prevent small words 
from being neglected, the teacher is to 
repeat twice every woi-d which has but 
one high accent, or consists of one vowel 
only. A number of small words are to be 
followed by the particle ' iti,' thus, others 
are to be followed by iti, and then to be 
repeated again, e.g. ka-iti ka. These lec- 
tures continued during about half the year, 
the term beginning generally with the 
rainy season. There were, however, many 
holidays on which no lectures were given ; 
and on these points also the most minute 
regulations are given both in the Grihya 
and Dharma-sutras. 

The syllable ' Om,' which occupies so 
prominent a position in the conversation 
which is prescribed between pupil and 
Guru, or teacher, as a preliminary and a 
concomitant of Yedic instruction, is defined 
as being ' the door of heaven. Therefore,' 
says Apastamba, representatively for him- 
self and other commentators on the Sacred 
Laws, ' he who is about to study the Yeda 
shall begin (his lesson) by (pronouncing) 
it. If he has spoken anything else (than 
what refers to the lesson, he shall resume 
his reading by repeating the word " Om "). 
Thu.s the Yeda is separated from profane 
speech. And at sacrifices the orders (given 
to the priests) are headed by this word. 
And in common life, at the occasion of 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



383 



ceremonies performed for the sake of wel- 
fare, the sentences shall be headed by this 
word, as, for instance, " (Om) an auspicious 
day," " (Om) welfare," " (Om) prosperity." 
Without a vow of obedience (a pupil) shall 
not study (nor a teacher teach) a difficult 
(new book) with the exception of (the 
texts called) Trihsravana and Trihsahava- 
kana.' 

There are several series of canons still 
extant which were formulated by various 
sages of old to regulate the status of stu- 
dentship. These, as exemplified in the 
Institutes of Vishnu, enjoin that students, 
after initiation — a rite, ceremony, or sacra- 
ment, which, in the case of Brahmanas, 
should take place ' in the eighth year after 
conception,' and must not be delayed be- 
yond the sixteenth year — should dwell 
at the house of their Guru, or spiritual 
teacher. They must recite their morning 
and evening prayers, and each student 
' shall mutter the morning prayer standing, 
and the evening prayer sitting.' Twice a 
day he is to perform the religious acts of 
sprinkling the ground (round the altar) 
and of jDutting fuel on the fire. ' He must 
plunge into the waters like a stick,' and is 
to study when called upon to do so by his 
teacher, to whom he is to be serviceable 
in every respect. The institutes proceed 
to regulate the garments and the diet of 
the student ; to restrict and define his 
mendicancy, and to prescribe the acts of 
■courtesy and reverence he is to render to 
his teacher, whom, whether in gait, manner, 
speech, or any other particular, he is for- 
bidden to mimic, and whose reputation is 
to be precious to him. In the practice of 
such exercises the student is to ' acquire 
by heart one Yeda, or two Vedas, or (all) 
the Yedas. Thereupon, the Vedangas 
(that treating of phonetics and the rest). 
He who, not having studied the Yeda, 
applies himself to another study, will de- 
grade himself, and his progeny with him, 
to the state of a Sudra. From the mother 
is the first birth ; the second, from the gird- 
insf with the sacrificial string. In the 
latter the Savitri hymn is his mother, and 
the teacher his father. It is this which 
entitles members of the three higher castes 
to the designation of the " twice-born." 
Previous to his being girded with the 
sacrificial string a member of these castes 
is similar to a Sudra (and not allowed to 
study the Yeda). ... A Brahmana who 
passes without tiring (of the discharge of 



his duties) the time of his studentship will 
attain to the most exalted heavenly abode 
(that of Brahman) after his death, and 
will not be born again in this world.' A 
Guru must not admit to his teaching one 
whom he does not know ; neither may he 
initiate such a one. ' If by instructing a 
pupil neither religious merit nor wealth is 
acquired, and if no sufficient attention is 
to be obtained from him (for his teacher's 
words), in such soil divine knowledge must 
not be sown : it would perish like fine 
seed in bai-ren soil. The deity of sacred 
knowledge approached a Brahmana (and 
said to him), " Preserve me, I am thy 
treasure, reveal me not to a scorner, nor 
to a wicked man, nor to one of uncontrolled 
passions : thus I shall be strong. Reveal me 
to him, as to a keeper of thy gem, O Brah- 
mana, whom thou shalt know to be pure, 
attentive, possessed of a good memory, and 
chaste, who will not grieve thee, nor re- 
vile thee." ' The Institutes go on to pre- 
scribe conditions, sometimes fantastic, 
under which the pupil may not study. 
' Let him avoid studying at times when 
there ought to be an intermission of study, 
even though a question has been put to 
him (by his teacher) ; ' a regulation which 
is especially to be understood by remem- 
bering that every lesson consisted of ques- 
tions put by the teacher and the student's 
answer to them. The sanction of this so- 
lution of the habit and course of study is 
based on the circumstance that to study 
on forbidden days does not advantage 
any one in this or in the other world ; 
and that, indeed, to study on such days 
destroys the life of both teacher and 
pupil. ' Therefore should a teacher, who 
wishes to obtain the world of Brahman, 
avoid improper days, and sow (on proper 
days) the seed of sacred knowledge on 
soil consisting of virtuous pupils.' It 
would be difficult to conceive of a more 
exalted estimate of the vocation of the 
Guru — of which the injunctions for the 
student to embrace his feet on all suitable 
occasions, and to perform other acts of 
service and veneration, are ordinary ex- 
pressions — -than is contained in the follow- 
ing verses of the Institutes, which place 
the teacher, once for all, on the most ele- 
vated plane of dignity which it is possible 
for one human being to occupy in relation 
to another. ' Let (a student) never grieve 
that man from whom he has obtained 
worldly knowledge (relating to poetry, 



384 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



rhetoric, and the like subjects), sacred 
knowledge (relating to the Vedas and 
Vedangas), or knowledge of the Supreme 
Spirit. Of the natural progenitor and the 
teacher who imparts the Veda to him, the 
giver of the Yeda is the more venerable 
father ; for it is the new existence ac- 
quired by his initiation in the Veda which 
will last him both in this life and the next. 
Let him consider as a merely human exist- 
ence that which he owes to his father and 
mother uniting from carnal desire and to 
his being born from his mother's womb. 
That existence which his teacher, who 
knows all the Vedas, effects for him through 
the prescribed rites of initiation with (his 
divine mother) the Gayatri, is a true exist- 
ence ; that existence is exempt from age 
and death. He who fills his ears with 
holy truths, who frees him from all pain 
(in this world and the next), and confers 
immortality (or final liberation) upon him, 
that man let the student consider as his 
(true) father and mother : gratefully ac- 
knowledging the debt he owes him, he 
must never grieve him.' 

Further light is thrown on the method 
of the Vedic studies of antiquity, in an 
interesting account of the state of native 
learning which appears in the Indian An- 
tiquary for May 1874, to which it was 
contributed, with the title of The Veda in 
India, by Professor Ram Krishna Gopal 
Bhandarkar. This account is to the effect 
that every Brahmanic family is devoted 
to the study of a particular Veda, and a 
particular sdkhd, or recension of a Veda ; 
and the domestic rites of a family are per- 
formed according to the ritual prescribed 
in the sutra connected with that Veda. 
The study consists in getting by heart the 
books forming the particular Veda. In 
Northern India, where the predominant 
Veda is the White Yajush, and the sakha 
Madhyandina, this study has almost died 
out, except at Banaras, where Brahma- 
nic families from all parts of India are 
settled. 

'It prevails to some extent in Gujarat, 
but to a much greater extent in the Ma- 
ratha country, and in Tailangana there is 
a large number of Brahmans who still 
devote their life to this study. Numbers 
of these go about to all parts of the country 
in search of dakshind (fee, alms), and all 
well-to-do natives patronise them accoixling 
to their means, by getting them to repeat 
portions of their Veda, which is mostly the 



leir I 



Black Yajitsh, with Apastamba for their 
sutra. Hardly a week passes here in 
Bombay in which no Tailanga BrPdiman 
comes to me to ask for dakshind. On each 
occasion I get the men to repeat what 
they have learned, and compare it with 
the printed texts in my possession. With 
reference to their occupation, Brahmans of 
each Veda are generally divided into two 
classes, Grihasthas and Bikshukas. The 
former devote themselves to a worldly 
avocation, while the latter spend their 
time in the study of their sacred books 
and the practice of their religious rites. 
Both these classes have to repeat (daily) 
the Sandhyd- Vanda7ia, or twilight prayers,, 
the forms of which are somewhat different 
for the different Vedas. But the repetition 
of the Gayatri-mantra Tat Savitur varen- 
yam, &c., five, ten, twenty-eight, or a 
hundred and eight times, which forms the 
principal portion of the ceremony, is com- 
mon to all.' 

The Vedic learning of the Grihasthas is 
limited as compared with that of the Bhik- 
shukas, some of whom are what are called 
Yajnikas, who follow a priestly occupation 
and ai'e skilled in the performance of the 
sacred rites ; whilst a more important class 
still are the Vaidikas, some of whom are 
Yajnikas as well. Learning the Vedas by 
heart, and repeating them in a manner 
never to make a single mistake, even in 
the accents, is the occupation of their life. 
The best Rigvedi Vaidika knows by heart 
the Sanhitd, Pada, Krama, Jatd, and 
Ghana of the hymns or inantra portion of 
the Veda, and the Aitareya BrdJimana and 
Aranyaka, the Kalpa and Grihya Sutra- 
of Asvalayana, the Nighantu, Nirukta, 
Chhandas, Jyotish, and Sikshd, and Pani- 
ni's Ashtddhyayt on Gravimar. A Vaidika 
is thus a living Vedic library. The San- 
hitd, Pada, Kraraa, Jatd, and Ghana, it 
may be repeated, are different names for 
peculiar arrangements of the text of the 
mantras, or hymns. The object of these 
different arrangements, with all their diffi- 
culties and intricacies, is simply the most 
accurate presei^vation of the sacred text ;. 
and the triumph of a Vaidika consists in 
i-epeating his Veda fluently, in all the 
ways just indicated, without a single mis- 
take in the letters or accents. 

The Vaidikas support themselves gene- 
rally on the gifts or dakshinds of those of 
their countrymen who are charitably dis- 
posed. Often I'ecital-meetings, known by 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



385 



the name of mantra-jdrgaras, are held 
by rich Grihasthas in their houses, to which 
the principal Vaidikas in the town or vil- 
lage are invited. The Veda-reciters are 
also patronised by native princes ; the more 
munificent of whom have occasionally es- 
tablished regular boards of examiners, by 
whom every candidate coming up from 
any part of India was to be examined and 
recommended for dakshind according to 
his deserts. ' But with all these sources 
of income, the Vaidika is hardly in easy 
circumstances. Hence the class, ' according 
to Professor Bhandarkar, ' is gradually 
dying out, and the sons of the best Vaidikas 
in Puna or the Konkan now attend Govern- 
"nient English schools — a result not to be 
much deplored. Though the time and 
energy wasted in transmitting the Vedas in 
this manner, from the times of Katyayana 
and other ancient editors of the Vedas, 
has been immense, we should not forget 
that this class of Vaidikas has rendered 
one important service to philology. I 
think the purity of our Vedic texts is to 
be wholly attributed to this system of get- 
ting them up by heart, and to the great 
importance attached by the reciters to 
perfect accuracy, even to a syllable or an 
accent.' 

Thus the great practical result of the 
venerable system of mnemonic education 
in India is to be recognised in the precise 
and jealously preserved purity and integ- 
rity of its sacred books — a result of which 
Professor Max Miiller is not inclined to 
underrate the importance. ' The texts of 
the Veda,' he says, when expatiating on 
the triumph of memory as instrumental to 
the preservation of an ancient literature, 
'have been handed down to us with such 
accuracy that there is hardly a various 
reading, in the proper sense of the woi"d, 
or even an uncertain accent, in the whole 
of the Rig- Veda. There are corruptions 
in the text, which can be discovered by 
critical investigation ; but even these cor- 
ruptions must have formed part of the 
recognised text since it was finally settled. 
Some of them belong to different Sakhas, 
or recensions, and are discussed in their 
bearing by ancient authorities. The autho- 
rity of the Veda, in respect to all religious 
questions, is as great in India now as it 
has ever been. It never was uncontested 
any more than the authority of any other 
sacred book has been. But to the vast 
majority of orthodox believers the Veda 



forms still the highest and only infallible 
authority, quite as much as the Bible with 
us, or the Koran with the Mohammedans.' 

Some comprehensive, suggestive, and 
pi'actical words of Sir W. W. Hunter may 
aptly conclude these remarks upon the 
schools of India and their peculiar erudi- 
tion, the details of which are set forth 
very amply in chapters of the Institutes oj 
Vishmi, and other ancient treatises which 
have recently been made accessible to the 
English reader. ' Through all changes of 
government,' writes Sir W. W. Hunter, 
' vernacular instruction in its simplest 
form has always been given, at least to 
the children of respectable classes, in every 
large village. On the one hand, the tols, 
or seminaries for teaching Sanskrit philo- 
sophy at Benares and Nadiya, recall the 
schools of Athens and Alexandria ; on the 
other, the importance attached to instruc- 
tion in accounts reminds us of the picture 
which Horace has left of a Roman educa- 
tion. Even at the present day knowledge 
of reading and writing is, owing to the 
teaching of Buddhist monks, as widely 
diffused throughout Burma as it is in 
some countries of Europe. English efibrts 
to stimulate education have ever been 
most successful when based upon existing 
indigenous institutions.' Still a last word, 
in order to render to India the tribute of 
having successfully practised the method 
of mutual instruction from the remotest 
antiquity ; for it was from India, in fact, 
that Andrew Bell, at the close of the 
eighteenth century, borrowed the idea of 
this particular instrument of education. 

Persia. — The schools of the ancient 
Persians, who were a military rather than 
a theocratic nation, were schools in which 
the moral and intellectual virtues and 
faculties were built up chiefly through a 
course of bodily training, in which cha- 
racter was nobly formed by physical exer- 
cise, endurance, frugality, abstinence, self- 
denial, and self-control. Having regard 
to the instruments and the aims of their 
culture, it is scai-cely surprising to find 
the Persians making considerable advances 
in the direction of a general education, 
and their State, of all the governments in 
the world, appearing amongst the first as 
a distinct "agency in its promotion. Their 
religion — a typical and exemplary expres- 
sion of that dualism the central idea of 
which maybe strictly defuied as the deifica- 
tion of two co-ordinate but antagonistic 

c c 



386 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



principles of good and evil, .and the spirit 
of which asserts itself in every system that 
refuses to recognise a dynamic God only, 
of whom may be predicted ethically an 
absolute exclusion and neutrality, or an 
absolute comprehension and indiflerence — 
their religion incited them to make it the 
duty of each man to contribute to the final 
victory of Ormuzd over Ahriman, of good 
over evil, by devoting himself to a life of 
virtue, to a continued and consistent endea- 
vour after physical and moral perfection. 
To certain Greek writers tlie education of 
the Persians, and the quality of the career 
and character which it formed or fostered, 
seemed to approach, if not to realise, the 
heroic ; and Xenophon in particular, in his 
scorn for the institutions and the corrupt 
administration of his native State, essayed, 
in his Ci/ropa'dla, tlie composition of a 
tableau, the foremost figure of which as- 
sumed to be historical, and the others to 
bo living in conditions that had a basis in 
existing institutions. Upon this work the 
author impressed so deeply the stamp of 
feasibility as to leave it debateable whether 
it was intended for a romance or a history. 
Of course, the purely romantic side of the 
argument has had its supporters, and 
Cicero, for one, says the Cyropcedia was 
written, not to suit historical fidelity, but 
to exhibit a repi'esentation (rffigies) of an 
excellent government. In many important 
respects it fails of the truth of history ; 
chronology, for instance, is disregarded, 
and the sequence of events anticipated by 
a development not short of the miraculous. 
Tlie political afiinities of Xenophon, an 
Athenian of high rank, were with the 
moi'e aristocratic economy of Sparta, and 
he has set the idealised institutions of this 
State to work themselves out in unison 
with those of Persia, and in the latter 
country as an arena. Whilst serving un- 
der the younger Cyrus he had enjoyed an 
opportuiiity of gaining an insight into the 
actual and the possible of the Persian 
r('</ime, and had assumed, by making the 
elder Cyrus his hero, to add to that mon- 
arch's military glory the more subdued 
and mellowed hues of justice and modera- 
tion. In the first book of the Gyropa'dla 
are laid down the institutions in and by 
which Cyrus was formed and educated 
preparatory to his high career ; which 
career, it is to be remembered, is also 
worked out in the spirit of these institu- 
tions. The Persian laws seem to beuin 



with a provident care for the common 1 
good, and by anticipation forestall the 
possible bad effects of imperfect training 
in any particular family by extending over 
all education a State control. Witliin a 
free agora — not for traffic — are arranged 
in their several courts the four classes of 
a representative city : the boys, the youth, 
the full-grown men, and the elders. To 
each of these classes belong its appropriate 
duties of routine and contingency, and 
each higher or older class has proportional 
privileges and immunities. The idea of 
the education generally is military ; the 
boys are overlooked by presidents taken 
from the elders ; the youths are superin- 
tended by the full-grown men ; and the 
presidents are themselves regulated by a 
superior presidency. No individual amongst 
the Persians is excluded by law from 
honours and magistracies, but all are at 
liberty to send their boys to the public 
schools. Here they pass through a course 
of practical justice, and learn to acquire 
self-conti'ol, temperance, obedience, and 
above all to detest the crime of ingrati- 
tude. This vice, as evidencing a profane 
carelessness with regard to the demands 
of religion and filial piety, and the calls 
of patriotism and friendship, is an offence 
obnoxious and punishable by law. The 
second class, of young men, pass their 
time by day and night in a round of duties, 
of which the armed guardianship of the 
State is typical. Having discharged all 
the duties of this class they pass into that 
of the full-grown men, upon whom devolves 
the burden of foreign military service, and 
who are eligible to honours and magistra- 
cies. After passing through this class 
unexceptionably, they are enrolled amongst 
the elders, an order which stands composed 
of approved and excellent men. These, 
freed from the claims of military service, 
dispense public and private justice ; with 
them rest the election of all magistrates, 
and the power of life and death. There 
is a nicely-graduated reverence of class to 
class, youth to age, subjects to rulers, and 
all to law. The Laconising attitude of 
Xenophon is discoverable in the military- 
like organisation of his States, and tlie 
gradual working up to honours by means 
of seniority. Conservatism was pretty 
well assured, and innovation discouraged, 
by an age-standard of admission to the 
Spartan Gerousia, and of eligibility to the 
rulinc class or council of the Persians. 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



387 



Such is a description in brief of the 
educational code of the Persians according 
to the Gyrojya^dia, for which Xenophon 
alone is responsible. But with his version 
of the system he extols, it is pertinent to 
compare the account of the same which is 
arrived at by the incorporation with the 
picture by Xenophon of touches inciden 
tally supplied by Herodotus, Plato, Strabo, 
and others. This incorporation is pre- 
sented in convenient epitome by Canon 
Rawlinson, who, in his account of Persian 
education, is careful to note that ' a small 
part only rests upon the unsupported autho- 
rity of the Athenian romancer.' Canon 
Rawlinson says : 'All the best authorities 
are agreed that great pains were taken by 
the Persians — or, at any rate, by those of 
the leading clans — in the education of their 
sons. During the first five years of his 
life the boy remained wholly with the 
women, and w-as scarcely, if at all, seen by 
his father. After that time his training 
commenced. He was expected to rise 
before dawn, and to appear at a certain 
spot, where he was exercised with other 
boys of his age in running, slinging stones, 
shooting with the bow, and throwing the 
javelin. At seven he was taught to ride, 
and soon afterwards he was allowed to 
begin to hunt. The riding included, not 
only the ordinary management of the horse, 
but the power of jumping on and off his 
back when he was at speed, and of shooting 
with the bow and throwing the javelin 
with unerring aim while the horse was 
still at full gallop. The hunting was con- 
ducted by State officers, who aimed at form- 
ing by its means in the youths committed 
to their charge all the qualities needed in 
war. The boys were made to bear extremes 
of heat and cold, to perform long marches, 
to cross rivers without wetting their 
weapons, to sleep in the open air at night, 
to be content with a single meal in two 
days, and to support themselves occa- 
sionally on the wild products of the country, 
acorns, wild pears, and the fruit of the 
terebinth tree. On days when there was 
no hunting they passed their mornings 
in athletic exercises, and contests with 
the bow or the javelin, after which they 
dined simply on the plain food of the men ' 
in the early times, and then employed 
themselves during the afternoon in occu- 
pations regarded as not illiberal — for in- 
stance, in the pursuits of agriculture, 
planting, digging for roots, and the like, 



or in the construction of arms and hunting 
implements, such as nets and springes. 
Hardy and temperate habits being secured 
by this training, the point of morals on 
which their preceptors mainly insisted was 
the rigid observance of truth. Of intellec- 
tual education they had but little. It 
seems to have been no part of the regular 
training of a Persian youth that he should 
learn to read. He was given religious 
notions, and a certain artiount of moral 
knowledge by means of legendary poems, in 
which the deeds of gods and heroes were set 
before him by his teachers, who recited or 
sung them in his presence, and afterwards 
required him to repeat what he had heard, 
or, at any rate, to give some account of it. 
This education continued for fifteen years, 
commencing when the boy was five, and 
terminating when he reached the age of 
twenty. 

' The effect of this training was to ren- 
der the Persian an excellent soldier, and a 
most accomplished horseman. Accustomed 
from early boyhood to pass the greater part 
of every day in the saddle, he never felt so 
much at home as when mounted upon a 
prancing steed. On horseback he pursued 
the stag, the boar, the antelope, even occa- 
sionally the bear or the lion, and shot his 
arrows, or slung his stones, or hurled his 
javelin at them with deadly aim, never 
pausing for a moment in his career. Only 
when the brute turned on his pursuers, and 
stood at bay, or charged them in its furious 
despair, they would sometimes descend 
from their coursers, and receive the attack 
or deal the coup de grace on foot, using 
for the purpose a short but strong hunting- 
spear. The chase was the principal delight 
of the upper class of Persians, so long as 
the ancient manners were kept up, and 
continued an occupation in which the bolder 
spirits loved to indulge long after decline 
had set in, and the advance of luxury had 
changed to a great extent the character of 
the nation. 

' At fifteen years of age the Persian 
was considered to have attained to man- 
hood, and was enrolled in the ranks of the 
army, continuing liable to military service 
from that time till he reached the age of 
fifty. Those of the highest rank became 
the body-guard of the king, and these 
formed the garrison of the capital. They 
were a force of not less than fourteen or 
fifteen thousand men. Others, though 
liable to military service, did not adopt 

c c 2 



388 



SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY 



arms as their profession, but attached 
themselves to the court, and looked to civil 
employment as satraps, secretaries, atten- 
dants, ushers, judges, inspectors, messen- 
gers. A portion, no doubt, remained in 
the country districts, and there followed 
those agricultural pursuits which the Zo- 
roastrian religion regarded as in the highest 
degree honourable.' Persian education 
has found a modern admirer in the person 
of Canon Farrar, who has shaped his opi- 
nion in words of eulogy to the following 
effect : — 'We boast of our educational ideal. 
Is it nearly as high in some essentials as 
that even of some ancient and heathen 
nations long centuries before Christ came ? 
The ancient Persians were worshippers of 
fire and of the sun ; most of their children 
would have been probably unal)le to pass 
the most elementary examination in phy- 
siology, but assuredly the Persian ideal 
might be worthy of our study. At the 
age of fourteen — the age when ■ we turn 
our children adrift from school, and do 
nothing more for them — the Persians gave 
their young nobles the four best masters 
whom they could find to teach their boys 
wisdom, justice, temperance, and courage — 
wisdom including worship, justice including 
the duty of unswerving truthfulness through 
life, temperance including mastery over 
sensual temptations, courage including a 
free mind opposed to all things coupled 
with guilt.' 

For Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldeea, 
consult Canon Rawlinson's Five Great 
Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, 
2nd edit. 1871 ; Mr. George Smith's ^s- 
syria, from the Earliest Titnes to the Fall 
of Nineveh, 1875, in series of Ancient 
History from the Monuments, and History 
of Babylonia, editedhj A. H. Sayce, 1877 ; 
Professor A. H. Sayce's Babylonian Lite- 
rature, 1877, and the same author's Hib- 
bert Lectures on the Origin and Groioth 
of Religion as illustrated by the Religion 
of the Ancient Babylonians, 1887 ; Lec- 
tures (unpublished) delivered at the British 
Museum by Mr. W. St. Chad Boscawen 
and by Mr. George Bertin in 1887' and 
1888 ; and others. For China : M. 
Edouard Biot's Essai sur VHistoire de 
V Instruction publique en Chine, 1865 ; 
Professor Terrien de Lacouperie's Early 
History of Chinese Civilisation, 1880 ; Dr. 
W. A. P. Martin's The Chinese: their 
Education, Philosophy, and Letters, 1881 ; 
Professor Robert K. Douglas's China, 



1882 ; Dr. S. Wells Williams's The Middle 
Kingdom,, revised edition, 1883 ; The Sa- 
cred Books of China, 1885, in the. series 
of The Sacred Books of the East, in pro- 
gress ; and others. For Egypt : Canon 
Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies, 1871, 
and his History of Ancient Egypt, 1881 ; 
Prof essor Georg Ebers's JJarda: Roman aus 
dem alten Aegypten, 1877 ; Brugsch-Bey's 
Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pharaonen, 
1877-8 ; M. P. Le Page Renouf's Hib- 
bert Lectures, 1879, on the Origin and 
Growth of Religion as illustrated by the 
Religion of Ancient Egypt, 1880 ; Mr. 
E. A. W. Budge's Dwellers on the Nile, 
in By-paths of Bible Knoioledge, vol. viii. 
1885; and others. For India : Professor 
Max Miiller's Preface to the Rig- Veda- 
Sanhita, The Sacred Hymns of the Brah- 
mans translated and explained, vol. i. 1869 ; 
Professor R. G. Bhandarkar's The Veda 
in India, in the Indian Antiquary for 
May, 1874 ; 17ie Sacred Laws of the Ar- 
yas, 1879, Institutes of Vishnu, 1880, and 
the Laws of Manu, 1886, in the Sacred 
Books of the East, in progress ; Sir W. W. 
Hunter's India, in the Encyclopcedia Bri- 
tannica, 9th edit., vol. xii. 1881 ; Professor 
Max Miiller's Hibbert Lectures for 1878, 
on the Origin and Growth of Religion as 
illustrated by the Religiotis of India, new 
edit. 1882 ; and others. For Persia : He- 
rodotus ; Xenophon's Cyropasdia ; Canon 
Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies of the 
Ancient Eastern World, 2nd edit. 1871 ; 
Professor Compayre's Histoire de la Peda- 
gogic, 1883 ; and others. 

Schools of Music. — No more direct evi- 
dence of the rapid growth during later 
years of music in the cities and towns of 
the United Kingdom could be furnished 
than the great increase of schools and aca- 
demies wholly devoted to the cultivation 
of the art. But a little more than a 
couple of decades back the Royal Aca- 
demy of Music in Tenterden Street, Han- 
over Square, was almost the only insti- 
tution of the kind to which metropolitan 
students could resort for practice and in- 
struction in the several branches of the 
science. The Academy no longer stands 
alone, but, thanks to a perception by the 
directorate and committee of management 
of modern desires and requirements, it 
fully maintains its influence and impor- 
tance. Instituted in 1822 and incorporated 
by royal charter in 1830, the Academy has 
been identified with the life labours of 



SCHOOLS OF MUSIC SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 389 



many eminent composers, vocalists, and 
instrumentalists of the past as well as of 
the present time. The privileges apper- 
taining to King's scholars and to Men- 
delssohn scholars have been enjoyed by 
Miss Agnes Zimmermann, Miss Maude 
Valerie White, Messrs. Henry Weist Hill 
(now the principal of the Guildhall School 
of Music), John Francis Barnett, William 
G. Cusins, Alexander Campbell Macken- 
zie (now principal of the Academy), 
Arthur Seymour Sullivan, and Eaton 
Faning, to enumerate only a few well- 
known names figuring in the list. The 
Potter exhibition, founded in 1860 as a 
testimonial to Cipriani Potter, who was 
principal of the Academy from 1832 to 
1859 ; the Westmorland scholarship, es- 
tablished in 1861 in memory of John Fane, 
the eleventh Earl of Westmorland, founder 
of the Academy, who died in 1859 ; the 
Sterndale Bennett scholarship ; the Sir 
John Goss scholarship, for candidates under 
eighteen years of age, who have been mem- 
bers of church choirs and intend to make 
organ-playing their chief subject of study ; 
the Thalberg scholarship, for pianists of 
both sexes ; the Henry Stuart scholar- 
ship ; the Sainton-Dolby scholarship ; the 
Balfe scholarship ; the Sir Michael Costa 
scholarships, bequeathed by the late fa- 
mous conductor ; and the Liszt scholar- 
ship, founded in honour of the visit to this 
country in 1886, a few months before his 
death, of the distinguished composer and 
pianist, with many others, are woi^th the 
winning and are a great incentive to the 
development of youthful talent. The com- 
petition for the prizes and exhibitions is 
generally active, and invariably evokes 
the utmost interest. The Royal College of 
Music, in the establishment of which the 
Prince of Wales was particularly promi- 
nent, is located at South Kensington, and 
may be said to have been raised upon the 
foundation of another school, under the 
most influential patronage, which termi- 
nated its existence a few months previous. 
The College is of recent formation, but 
the service it has rendered to the cause of 
music is noticeable. It can boast of a 
large number of exhibitions, and is likely 
to gain in prosperity the more its benefits 
offered to students become known. The 
Guildhall School of Music has been re- 
markably successful under the direction 
of Mr. Weist Hill. Its promotion is due 
to the Corporation of the City of London, 



but not long did it require the assistance 
of such a powerful advocate. The students 
were soon so numerous as to put the re- 
sources of the original premises in Buck- 
lersbury to the severest test. Enlargement 
seemed of no avail, so it was determined 
to erect a building specially adapted to 
the school on vacant ground on the Thames 
Embankment, near Blackfriars Bridge. 
The corporation has behaved with charac- 
teristic liberality to the school in the 
matter of prizes, the catalogue of which 
has been considerably augmented by pri- 
vate donors. In its new quarters the 
Guildhall School is certain to prove an im- 
portant factor to musical progress among 
those sections of the community hitherto 
debarred from the particular advantages 
of study and tuition. There are several 
other schools of music in the metropolis, 
but as the majority are based upon the 
principles of the three great establishments 
already mentioned, it is scarcely necessaiy 
to describe them in detail. {See Music, 
Singing, Sol-faing, and Tonic Sol-fa.) 

Schools of the Middle Ages. See 
Middle Ages (Schools of the). 
. Schwarz, Christian Friedrich (1726- 
1798), Protestant minister, born at Son- 
nenburg, was educated in his native home 
and at Kiistrin and Halle (1747). From 
1750 to 1766 he laboured at Tranquebar, 
on the Coromandel coast, in the service of 
the Danish mission there. In 1776 he was 
sent by the Society for Promoting Chris- 
tian Knowledge to Trichinopoly, where he 
had already founded a church and a school 
in 1765. In 1785 Schwarz engaged in a 
scheme for establishing schools throughout 
India in which the natives might be taught 
the English language. This scheme was 
carried out with success at Tanjore and 
in many other places. 

Science and Art Department of the 
Committee of Council on Education. — 
In the year 1835 a Select Committee of 
the House pf Commons was appointed on 
the motion of Mr. William Ewart, M.P. 
■for Liverpool, ' to inquire into the best 
means of extending a knowledge of the 
Arts and of the Principles of Design 
among the people, especially the manufac- 
turing population of the country.' The 
inquiry was" continued in the session of 
1836, and the Committee recommended 
the establishment of schools of design. 
In accordance with this recommendation 
a proposal was made to the Treasury by 



390 



SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 



the Lords of the Committee of Privy 
Council for Trade that a sum of 1,500/. 
should be taken in the Estimates for the 
establishment of a normal school of de- 
sign, with a museum and lectures. The 
Treasury having consented, the President 
of the Board of Trade (Mr. Poulett 
Thomson) presided at a meeting held on 
December 19, 1836, at the Board of Trade, 
of certain Royal Academicians and others 
interested in art, which provisional body, 
early in 1837, was constituted the 'Council 
of the Government School of Design,' the 
members being unpaid, and the vice-presi- 
dent of the Board of Trade being an ex 
officio member of the Council. Rooms in 
Somerset House were granted, and the 
School opened on June 1, 1837. In 1841 
the Government decided to afford assist- 
ance towards the formation and mainten- 
ance of schools of design in the manufac- 
turing districts, giving an annual grant 
for the training and payment of teachers, 
for the purchase of casts, and the prepa- 
ration of models for the use of those 
schools. In 1842 the Board of Trade re- 
constituted the Council, and placed the 
School of Design under the- management 
of a director, controlled by the Council, 
which body was itself to be controlled by 
the Board of Trade. The Parliamentary 
vote for ' schools of design ' which was ad- 
ministered by that Department had in- 
creased in 1851-2 to 15,055/. ; the branch 
schools in such centres of industry as 
Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds, 
and Paisley were then seventeen in num- 
ber, the expenditure on them absorbing 
nearly one half of the vote. An inquiry into 
these schools by a Select Committee of the 
House of Commons in 1849 showed that 
they were not working satisfactorily. New 
principles of management were therefore 
adopted in 1852 by the President of the 
Board of Trade, Mr. Labouchere, and subse- 
quently Mr. Henley. The Council was 
abolished, and a ' Department of Practical 
Art' was constituted, with a general super- 
intendent (Mr. Cole) and an art adviser (Mr. 
Redgrave). The scope of this Department 
was enlarged in 1853. In the Speech from 
the Throne at the opening of Parliament 
that year her Majesty stated that ' The 
advancement of the fine arts and of prac- 
tical science will be readily recognised by 
you as worthy the attention of a great and 
enlightened nation. I have directed that 
a comprehensive scheme shall be laid be- 



1 of I! 



fore you, having in view the promotion 
these objects, towards which I invite your 
aid and co-operation.' A science division 
was added, and the ' Department of Science 
and Art ' was created. The Department 
remained under the control of the Board 
of Trade until 1856, when the Education 
Department was constituted, to include 
' («) The Education Establishment of the 
Privy Council Office ; (6) the establish- 
ment for the encouragement of science 
and art, now under the direction of the 
Board of Trade and called the Department 
of Science and Art,' and these two depart- 
ments were placed under the Lord Presi- 
dent of the Council, who was to be assisted 
by a vice-president of the Committee of 
Council on Education. The Parliamen- 
tary Vote for 1856-7 was 64,675/., while 
that for 1882-3 was 351,400/. 

The Science Division of the Depart- 
ment. — When the Department was en- 
larged in 1853, so as to embrace science as 
well as art, the Board of Trade submitted 
to the Treasury a detailed scheme for 
carrying into effect the announcement in 
the Queen's Speech above quoted. The 
scheme provided for an extension of a sys- 
tem of encouragement to local institu- 
tions for practical science similar to that 
already commenced for schools of practical 
art, by the creation in ' the metropolis of 
a science school of the highest class cap- 
able of affording the best instruction and 
the most perfect training,' and by aiding 
in the establishment of local institutions for 
science instruction. It also united in one 
Department, under the Board of Trade, the 
Government School of Mines and of Science 
applied to the Arts, the Museum of Prac- 
tical Geology, the Geological Survey, the 
Museum of Irish Industry, and the Royal 
Dublin Society; all these institutions being 
in the receipt of parliamentary grants. 
Until the end of 1854 there was a sepa- 
rate secretary for Science (Dr. Lyon Play- 
fair), who discharged also the functions of 
inspector of local schools. Though the 
principle of granting aid to Science Schools 
and Classes was established in 1853 no 
general system, applicable to the whole 
country, for making grants was formulated 
until 1859. Experiments were made and 
schools were established by special minutes 
applicable to each case after negotiation 
with the locality. The general arrange- 
ments were that the teacher or teachers 
received an allowance in the nature of a 



SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 



391 



certificate allowance ; and their incomes 
from fees, subscriptions, &c., were gua- 
ranteed by the Depai'tment for a certain 
number of years at amounts which varied 
in different cases. In this way classes 
were opened at various places, but after 
a time many of them fell through. In 
1859 the first general science minute was 
passed. This enabled any place to esta- 
blish Science classes and to obtain State 
aid according to certain fixed rules. The 
teachers were required to have passed the 
examination of the Department, and ob- 
tained a certificate of competency to teach. 
The aid consisted of certificate allowances, 
earned by passing a certain number of 
pupils ; additional payments for pupils 
who obtained prizes ; grants towards the 
purchase of apparatus, books, &c.; and 
prizes and medals to the students. The 
first examination for teachers was held in 
November 1859, and a number of new 
schools and classes were rapidly formed. 
The payments on results in 1872 amounted 
to 25,20U., and in 1882 to 49,908/., or at 
the rate respectively of 13s. 8d. and 13s. 3d. 
per student under instruction. Payments 
were made to committees on account of 
the instruction given by 1,857 teachers. 
In 1867 the special examination for 
teachers' certificates was abolished, and it 
was decided that any person who passed 
in the advanced stage, or in honours, at 
the ordinary general examination in May 
should be qualified to earn payments on 
results. Sir Joseph Whitworth, in 1868, 
founded thirty scholarships of the total 
value of 3,000/. a year, and vested them 
in the Lord President or other minister of 
public instruction for the time being, for 
the purpose of promoting the mechanical 
industry of this country by aiding young 
men in acquii'ing proficiency in engineer- 
ing. Scholarships and local exhibitions in 
aid of local efforts had been founded by 
the Department in the previous year with 
a view to assist students who showed an 
aptitude for scientific instruction. Build- 
ing grants were first extended to Science 
Schools in 1 868. In 1 870 the Department 
commenced the system of special grants 
towards laboratory instruction, with extra 
payments on account of the practical work 
of students. These are now given in 
Chemistry and Metallurgy. Under the 
present system of aid, payments are made 
on the results of instruction as tested by 
the May examinations of the Department. 



The papers of questions for this examina- 
tion are prepared by a stafi" of examiners, 
and the answers are examined by them 
with the aid of assistants, who are paid 
by piece-work on a scale approved by the 
Treasury. The examinations in each sub- 
ject are held simultaneously, and super- 
vised as far as possible by the local com- 
mittees. As the number of classes and 
examinations multiplied rapidly it was 
found that tliis was too great a strain on 
local voluntary effort in the large centres, 
and a system of paid special local secre- 
taries and assistants, nominated by the 
local committees, was commenced in 1870. 
This has been found to work well, the 
payment being provided half by the lo- 
cality and half by the Department. In 
1 878 it was considered desirable for various 
reasons to separate the examination of the 
students in Training Colleges from the 
ordinary May examiiaations. Special rules 
and payments were made for these, and 
the first December examination was held 
in 1878. (For the arrangements made for 
the training of Science teachers see Nor- 
mal School of Science and Royal 
School of Mines.) The rules under which 
grants are made to Science Schools, each 
of which must be under a properly consti- 
tuted and approved local committee, are 
contained in the Science Directory (Eyre 
& Spottiswoode, price ^d.) The following 
are the Sciences towards instruction in 
wliich aid is given : — Practical, plane, and 
solid geometry ; machine construction and 
drawing; building construction; naval 
arcliitecture and drawing; pure mathe- 
matics ; theoretical mechanics ; applied 
mechanics; sound, light, and heat; mag 
netism and electricity ; inorganic che- 
mistry (theoretical) ; inorganic chemistry 
(practical) ; organic chemistry (theoreti- 
cal) ; organic chemistry (practical) ; geo- 
logy ; mineralogy ; animal physiology ; 
elementary botany ; biology, including 
animal and vegetable morphology and 
physiology ; principles of mining ; metal- 
lurgy (theoretical) ; metallurgy (practical) ; 
navigation ; nautical astronomy ; steam ; 
physiography; principles of agriculture. 
Each subject is subdivided into thi'ee stages 
or courses — the elementary, the advanced, 
and honours — except mathematics, which 
is subdivided into seven stages, with 
' honours ' in three groups of stages. 

The assistance granted by the Science 
and Art Department is in the form of 



392 



SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 



(1) public examinations, in which Queen's 
prizes and medals are awarded, held at all 
places complying with certain conditions ; 

(2) payments on the results of examina- 
tion and on attendance ; (3) scholarships 
and exhibitions ; (4) building gi-ants and 
grants towards tlie purchase of apparatus, 
&c. ; (5) supplementary grants in certain 
subjects; and (6) aid to teachers and stu- 
dents in attending the Normal School of 
Science and Royal Scliool of Mines, South 
Kensington. Payments are made on the 
results of tlie May examination on account 
of the instruction of students of the in- 
dustrial classes or of their cluldren. The 
payments are 21. for a first class and 11. 
for a second class in the elementary and 
advanced stage, and 21. and il. for a second 
or first class respectively in honours. Extra 
payments are made for attendance in or- 
ganised Science Schools. Special pay- 
ments are also made for practical clie- 
niistry and for practical metallurgy. The 
teacher must have given at least twenty- 
eight lessons to the class, and each student 
must have received twenty lessons at least. 

Art Division. — On the- reoi^ganisation 
of Schools of Design in 1852 as the De- 
partment of Practical Art the minute 
states that tlie three principal objects of 
the Department were (a) tlic promotion 
of elementary instruction in drawing and 
modelling ; (b) special instruction in the 
knowledge and practice of ornamental 
ai't ; (c) the practical application of such 
knowledge to the improvement of manu- 
factures. The country was, according to 
the minute, to be encouraged to establish 
a new class of Schools of Art, which were 
to be maintained by local effort with con- 
ditional aid from the Department, which 
was granted wherever a local committee 
was found willing to establish day and 
evening classes, to appoint a certificated 
master, and to assign to him part of the 
fees of the school, and to engage him to 
teach drawing in at least three elementary 
schools. The aid from the Department 
coiTsisted in payments of 1 0^. on each cer- 
tificate held by the master, and in grants 
towards the cost of examples, and in 
medals and prizes awarded on a selection 
of the works sent to London for examina- 
tion. In 1853 the Central Training School 
was moved from Somerset House to Marl- 
borough House, wjiere temporary school- 
rooms were evocted. In 1854 teachers 
and pupil-teachers of elementary schools 



were encouraged to pass examinations in 
drawing by the offer of payments on the Ij 
results of their instruction when given to f! 
puj)il-teachers in elementary schools. The 
pupil-teacher system was extended to 
Schools of Art, a payment of 15^. a year 
being allowed for each pupil-teacher. In 

1855 the Department gave prizes to chil- 
dren in Elementary Schools taught draw- 
ing by masters of Schools of Art. In 

1856 these schools were collectively ex- 
amined at Schools of Art by the inspectors 
of the Department, and in 1857 a pay- 
ment of 3s. for every child who obtained 
a prize was authorised to be made to the 
art master who had tauglit him. In 1857, 
also, teachers of Elementary Schools were 
authorised to receive an additional aug- 
mentation, not exceeding 5^., to their 
salaries, provided they had passed exami- 
nations in Drawing, and taught the sub- 
ject satisfactorily in their schools. In 

1857 the Department and Central Art 
Training Schools removed from Marlbo- 
rough House to South Kensington. In 
this year also the inspection of Art Schools 
was completely organised, so that once in 
the year each school was visited by an in- 
spector, who awarded local medals, and 
selected the best of the students' works to 
be sent up to liOndon to the national 
competition to compete for one hundred 
national medallions and prizes. In 1856 
the Training Colleges for Teachers under 
the Education Department, Whitehall, 
were examined by the Department in 
drawing for the first time. The examina- 
tions were at first conducted by her 
Majesty's insj^ectors, but afterwards by 
officers of the Department. In the same 
year the system of ' building grants ' for 
Schools of Art was commenced. In 1862 
the system of payments on certificates to 
the teacher's of Elementaiy Schools was 
abolished, and the wliole of the payments 
to the school made dependent on results 
tested by examination. Minutes were 
passed in 1863 extending this principle to. 
the existing masterships of the Schools of 
Design and other Schools of Art. The 
masters of Schools of Design who had held 
direct appointments from the Board of 
Trade were superannuated. At the same 
time local scholarships and national scholar- 
ships tenable for one year were establislied, 
the latter, fifteen in number, to enable ad- 
vanced students intending to be designers' 
or manufacturers' draughtsmen to prose- 



SCIENCE AND ART MUSEUMS 



393 



cute their sttidies in the Central School 
and Museum. In 1865 provision was 
made for night classes for instruction in 
drawing, as distinguished from Schools of 
Art. In 1876 it was decided to remove 
the limitation by which aid to ' Night 
Classes ' was restricted to classes held after 
six p.m., and to extend the same aid to 
Art classes held in any school or other in- 
stitution complying with the rules of the 
Department. Aid is now given towards 
the promotion of Art instruction under 
the following heads : (a) to Elementary 
Day Schools where drawing is taught con- 
currently with reading and writing ; (b) 
to Training Colleges for the teachers of 
Elementary Schools ; (c) to Art Classes 
for young persons above twelve years of 
age, and older students of the industrial 
classes ; (d) to Schools of Art which are 
devoted entirely to Art instruction, and 
where the student can obtain a complete 
course of instruction in Art in the various 
stages laid down in the Art Directory 
(Eyre & Spottiswoode) ; (e) to the National 
Art Training School {q. v. ', which is main- 
tained for training Art teachers, designers, 
and Art workmen, who are aided by scho- 
larships gained in Schools of Art. 

Science and Art Museums. — After the 
revival of learning in Europe, the first 
museum contained principally coins, gems, 
and sculptures, and Cosmo de Medici in 
the beginning of the sixteenth century 
founded that at Florence now in the 
Palazzo Vecchio. Subsequently Pope 
Leo X. collected that in the Vatican, 
which was followed at Rome by those of 
the Capitol, the Lateran, and others, the 
galleries of which are the richest in Roman 
sculpture in the world. Another, the 
Museo Borbonico at Naples, dating from 
last century, consists chiefly of the objects 
found at Pompeii and Herculaneum, and 
the Graeco-Italian vases of Southern Italy. 
The museum of Turin, comprising prin- 
cipally Egyptian antiquities and remark- 
able for valuable papyri, especially for 
one with a list of Egyptian kings, was 
founded in 1832. In France, the prin- 
cipal museum, that of the Louvre, founded 
during the French Directory, in 1793, 
comprising Egyptian, Assyrian, Phoeni- 
cian, Greek, Roman, and Mexican anti- 
quities, is one of the richest in Europe for 
sculpture of all periods. Besides the 
Louvre there are many other museums 
in France of recent foundation, and Ger- 



many abounds in such institutions. The 
museum at Berlin, founded in 1828, com- 
prises Egyptian antiquities acquired from 
Passalacqua and valuable monuments 
transported from Egypt by Lepsius, many 
valuable sculptures, and Grseco-Italian 
vases. The Dresden Library, as well as 
most of its galleries of art and science, 
owes its origin to the Elector Augustus I. 
(1526-1586) ; and the museum in that 
capital, called the Augusteum, after the 
dissolute and munificent Augustus the 
Strong (1670-1733), has also some fine 
Roman sculptures ; whilst two museums 
at Munich, which are of a comparatively 
recent period, contain fine specimens of 
ancient sculpture and pictures. Museums 
of minor importance also occur at Bonn, 
Prague, Breslau, and Frankfort ; whilst 
those of Vienna, from collections com- 
menced by Rudolph II. (1576), are cele- 
brated for their large and magnificent 
Roman camei and cabinets of medals. 

In Russia there are museums contain- 
ing sculptures and pictures at St. Peters- 
burg, Moscow, Dorpat, and Mithau. In 
fact, the whole world of modern civilisa- 
tion is alive with these repositories which 
are the collections principally of the 
achievements of the dead. In England 
the first formed was that of Tradescant, 
a merchant in the reign of Charles I., 
which was followed by that of Elias Ash- 
mole, in 1679, built at Oxford in 1683, 
and named after him the Ashmolean Col- 
lection. Small in extent, it contains some- 
remarkable objects— an Egyptian bas- 
relief of the second dynasty, and the jewel 
of King Alfred (a.d. 872). Other private 
collections, as that of the Duchess of Port- 
land, sold in 1786, and that of Lever in 
1779, were formed in the eighteenth cen- 
tury. The largest public collection is the 
British Museum, founded in 1753, and 
originally placed in Montague House, still 
the site of its head-quarters, and opened 
in 1759 ; it was gradually replaced be- 
tween 1828 and 1845 by the present 
stately edifice. There are also in London 
other museums of a more special and 
professional character, whether belonging 
to the nation or to learned and scientific 
corporations ; as, for instance, those at 
South Kensington, at the College of Sur- 
geons, and others. Guildhall is also to 
be very honourably mentioned. 

The great educational object of mu- 
seums, by which is to be understood 



394 



SCIENCE AND ART MUSEUMS 



general museums, and not those restricted 
to scieutilic specialities, as of geology, 
surgery, or the industrial arts, is to bind 
together the world of all antecedent 
periods in the intelligence and sympathy 
of man. They supply, or are calculated 
to supply, the caicjui of humanity, placing 
men eii, rapport with their fellows of all 
ages, countries, and conditions. They do 
more, they place him in contact with the 
entire terrestrial creation ; not only as 
that is differenced as human, animal, or 
vegetable, but as it comprises every ob- 
ject which is at the least endowed with 
the humble faculty of occupying space. 
Meth are revealed in them chietly in cun- 
ning representations and imitations ; and 
more frequently still iu their productions 
and the instruments and phenomena they 
have fashioned around their life. Animals, 
vegetables, and minera.ls are themselves 
I'epresented in fact, in preparation, or by 
the art of the taxidermist. In the words 
of Mr. Ruskin, 'the right function of 
every museum to simple persons is the 
manifestation to them of which is lovely 
in the life of Nature, and heroic iu the life 
of Man.' He would have these conditions 
most rigidly defined and most religiously 
— not to say rather fancifully or fastidi- 
ously — respected. For ' the museum,' he 
says again, ' is to manifest to these simple 
persons the beauty and life of all things 
and creatures in their perfectness. Not 
their modes of corruption, disease, or 
death . . . not even their modes of nourish- 
ment, if destructive ; you must not stuff 
a blackbird pulling up a worm, nor ex- 
hibit in a glass case a crocodile crunching 
a baby. . . If you wish your children to 
be surgeons, send them to Surgeons' Col- 
lege ; if jugglers or necromancers, to 
Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke ; and if 
butchers, to the shambles ; but if you 
want them to live the calm life of country 
gentlemen and gentlewomen, manservants 
and maidservants, let them seek none of 
Death's secrets till they die.' 

Mr. Ruskin's precise repetition of the 
phrase 'simple persons,' as distinguished 
especially from professional students, gives 
us the opportunity of declaring that the 
desire of advancing science is very dif- 
ferent from that of advancing the know- 
ledge of the non-seientitic people. And 
it is conceded to experience and enlight- 
ened opinioii that both these objects can- 
not be attended to at the same time, and 



with the same means and instruments, 
without hindrance and injury to one or 
the other. 

In the Hew Atlantis of Lord Bacon, 
which the learned author takes advantage 
of the lustihood of maritime adventure in 
his day to tix in ' the midst of the greatest 
wilderness of Avaters iu the world,' in the 
far, fair solitudes of the deep-bosomed 
Pacitic, we have fancifully shadowed forth 
an institution for the interpreting of na- 
ture, and the producing of great and mar- 
vellous works for the benetit of man. 
This institution bears the quaint name of 
Solomon's House, or the College of the 
Six Days' Works, a university which in 
its ramitications embraces State and people. 
Here society was based upon Plato's un- 
hopeful aspiration ; for the rulers laere 
philosophers. The end of their founda- 
tion was, in words imputed to the presi- 
dent or father of the house, ' the knowledge 
of causes and secret notions of things, 
and the enlarging of the bounds of human 
empire to the effecting of all things pos- 
sible.' The fellows of the college were 
employed severally as travelling fellows, 
called merchants of light, as depredators, 
mystery men, pioneers or miners, com- 
pilers, downy men or benefactors, lamps, 
inoculators, and interpreters of nature. 

These fellows of Solomon's House are 
the experts, the specialists, the officials of 
our museum, who diffuse the light which 
they have gained with love and labour. 
It is they who acquii'e the secrets of each 
in order to group as a whole. It is they 
who discover for themselves and for others 
the thread in what would otherwise be a 
clueless labyrinth. It is their care that 
the mighty maze should not be without a 
plan. They show the then and the 7iow 
of the ages, with their sequence and suc- 
cession, the here and the there of place, 
and the relation of each to the other. 
Their daily prerogative is the elucidation 
of unity in multiplicity. They are at war 
with chaos, whose vanquished and dis- 
cordant elements they reconstruct to 
I'hythm and a microcosm. 

But these masters and controllers of 
the educational powers of museums, two 
or three of whose able representatives we 
are happy to see on the present occasion, 
may be excluded with this bare but most 
honourable mention. They are venerable 
because they are indispensable. For it is 
not enough for the educational use of mu- 



SCIENCE AND ART MUSEUMS 



395- 



seums that they should be mere reposito- 
ries of curiosities, they must be ordered re- 
positories, on which liave been brought to 
bccar the princij)les of relativity and classi- 
fication. The most ordinary of. visitors, 
the ' simple persons ' of Mr. Ruskin, upon 
whom the influence of museums is the 
real and crucial test of their educational 
value, are not to be precipitated into a 
wilderness of specimens and left there, 
like babes in a wood, as the helpless vic- 
tims at once of objective confusion and 
subjective bewilderment. Their wonder 
is to be approximately satisfied, so that its 
quality may be purified and its range ex- 
tended ; their taste is to be elevated ; 
their discrimination of likenesses, identi- 
ties, and differences is to be directed and 
developed. The small homestead and 
peculium of their knowledge is to be 
fenced and defended in the face of the 
arid and measureless stretches of an igno- 
rance which, in the nature of things, must 
be for ever invincible and inviolate. 

'The first function of a museum,' says 
Mr. Ruskin, in words which regard art 
and natural history as alike cared for iia 
an ideal institution, ' is to give example 
of perfect order and perfect elegance, in 
the true sense of that test-word, to the 
disorderly and rude populace.' ' The word 
elegance contemplates chiefly architecture 
and fittings. These should not only be 
perfect in stateliness, durability, and com- 
fort, but beautiful to the utmost point 
consistent with due subordination to the 
objects displayed. To enter a room in the 
Louvre is an education in itself.' But 
Mr. Ruskin has a meed of praise for our 
own British Museum, which, he says, ' is 
on the whole the best ordered and plea- 
santest institution in England, and the 
grandest concentration of the means of 
human knowledge in the world.' ' In the 
British Museum,' to quote an American 
tribute to the same institution, ' are in- 
scriptions and monuments of art arranged 
in groups, and representing Egypt and 
Mesopotamia, Attica, Assyria, Ionia, 
Rhodes, Cyprus, and Cyrene, so that the 
visitor walks from hall to hall as from city 
to city, and from century to century, and 
sees all forms and features of past civili- 
sation face to face.' 

The great desire of the people to learn 
is proved by the numbers which crowd the 
galleries of this and our other museums. 
If not all the good possible be produced 



by these visits, the result falls short of 
the efiect to be desired, partly from the 
circumstance that the minds of the visitors 
have not received that training which is 
required to make them impressible, recep- 
tive or retentive of the truths which they 
survey. This is the great objection to the 
wholesale or habitual introduction of lec- 
tures or demonstrations in our galleries — 
a kind of exercise which it would seem ex- 
pedient to limit to audiences already se- 
lected and prepared for them by special 
study, aptitude, or afiinity. 

On the other hand, there seems little 
objection to the plan proposed by some 
advocates of museum extension, by which 
museums should be occasionally converted 
into schoolrooms, where teachers could 
bring their zoological, geological, and other 
natural science classes, and find well- 
arranged material for illustrating their 
lessons. 

Mr. Ruskin advocates the covering of 
a certain proportion of the current cost of 
museums by ' small entrance fees, not,' he 
says, ' for any miserly helping out of the 
floor-keepers' salaries, but for the sake of 
the visitors themselves, that the rooms 
may not be encumbered by the idle, or 
disgraced by the disreputable.' 

This, however, is a matter of detail, 
which, with others of a miscellaneous kind, 
it is well at least to mention at the con- 
clusion of this article, in order to bring 
them formally within the consideration to 
which they are amenable. They include 
the educational use of those temporary or 
fugitive museums which we call expositions 
or exhibitions, the mobilising of museums, 
the temporary alienation of specimens, for 
the advantage of others, from the collec- 
tions to which they belong ; and the ex- 
pediency or morality of opening museums 
on Sundays. 

These are vexed questions, for the 
settlement of which, and of others of an 
administrative character, a writer in ]^a- 
tiore a few years ago proposed the institu- 
tion of a conference of curators and others 
interested in the efficiency of our museums. 

' In order,' he said, 'that all the impor- 
tant matters connected with the work of 
museums may receive full and careful con- 
sideration, we would suggest that an asso- 
ciation be formed to consist of curators 
and others engaged in the management of 
museums. . . . By holding periodical meet- 
ings, and constantly changing the place of 



396 



SCIENCE TEACHING 



meeting from town to town, the various 
museums of the kingdom could be in- 
spected, and their contents and plan of ar- 
rangement discussed and civilised. Friendly- 
communications would thus be opened 
among all museums, and changes could be 
arranged for their general advantage.' 

Science Teaching. — As the object of 
education is to prepare the student for 
the adequate discharge of the duties which 
fall to his lot in maturity as a member of 
a civilised community, those subjects are 
best fitted to form the educational curri- 
culum whicli either serve as direct culti- 
vators of the intellectual faculties or yield 
knowledge utilisable in later life. The 
exclusive attention erstwhile devoted in 
' a polite education ' to the study of the 
dead languages {see Classical Culture) 
was defended on the ground of their su- 
preme excellence as moulders and trainers 
of the mental abilities. Mathematics and 
logic, the only sciences admitted in the 
older system, were extolled for their edu- 
cative influence on the ratiocinative fa- 
culty, for their sharpening of the power 
of detecting flaws in a chain of reasoning. 
Regarded as an instrument of education, 
science is now defended by the advanced 
school of educational reformers, notably 
by Mr. Herbert Spencer, as ofiering advan- 
tages greater than any other subject can 
possibly confer. It cultivates the eye and 
the hand, giving manual dexterity, deli- 
cacy of touch, swiftness and neatness in 
manipulation — qualities invaluable to the 
workman and workwoman. It trains the 
perceptive faculties, cultivates the habit of 
keen and accurate observation, teaching 
the observer to distinguish similarity amid 
differences, difference amid similarities, to 
grasp the significant facts while disregard- 
ing their irrelevant concomitants. It ex- 
ercises the reason and the judgment in its 
inductive and deductive processes, while 
it at once encourages and disciplines the 
imagination by calling upon it to suggest 
hypotheses which shall be based on ana- 
logy and subjected to rigorous verifica- 
tion. Nor does it leave untouched the 
moral qualities, for it demands for its suc- 
cessful prosecution unwearying patience, 
absolute candour, strict accui'acy, courage- 
ous acceptance of facts. The scientific 
student learns the great truth that ' na- 
ture is conquered by obedience.' It is not 
necessary to do more than allude to the 
utility of scientific knowledge in later life. 



whether in its applications to the supply 
of human necessities or as a source of 
aesthetic and rational pleasures. 

Science teaching, then, should be of a 
kind which should secure to the student 
this educative and disciplinary effect, its 
aim being the training of the pupil's intel- 
lect even more than the storing of his 
memory with facts. To this end it must 
be, above all else, practical, and the teacher 
must liave gained his knowledge at first 
hand from nature, as well as at second 
hand from books. The statements of facts 
made by the teacher must be substantiated 
by experiment, and the experiments made 
in class by the teacher should be repeated 
by the students severally in the labora- 
tory practice, which should invariably suc- 
ceed the teaching in the lecture-hall. Ela- 
borate apparatus should not be supplied, 
but the pupil should be taught, as far as 
possible, to construct his apparatus for 
himself. The extraordinary and embar- 
rassing results which follow from care- 
lessly constructed apparatus, improperly 
adjusted tubes, soiled glasses, &c., carry 
to the student instruction other than that 
conveyed directly by his experiments. The 
value of accuracy, cleanliness, patience, 
and order becomes vividly real to him 
when he sees the smooth successes in the 
lecture-hall followed by his own failures 
in the laboratory. Unless science-teach- 
ing be thus made practical it had better 
not be attempted. The extraordinary 
blunders made by students at science ex 
aminations would be impossible had the 
students ever seen the things they de- 
scribe, and a mass of ill-apprehencled facts 
shovelled into the memory from text- 
books is worse than useless from the edu- 
cational point of view. 

Next in importance to the practical 
nature of the teaching comes the wise 
selection of the things taught. Science- 
teaching in schools is not intended to 
make specialists, and it is . necessary to 
avoid the danger, so impressed by Pro- 
fessor Huxley on science-teachers, of fail- 
ing to make the students ' see the wood 
because of the ti^ees.' In elementaiy teach- 
ing the main principles of a science should 
be laid down and illustrated by experi- 
ment — e.g. in chemistry, the differences be- 
tween elements, compounds, and mixtures; 
the indestructibility of matter ; the chang- 
ing of one form of matter into another, as 
of solids into liquids and gases, liquids into 



SCIENCE TEACHING SELFISHNESS 



397 



solids and gases, gases into liquids and 
solids ; the laws of chemical combination, 
as illustrated by the preparation of typi- 
cal compounds ; and so on. The relations 
of the sciences to each other should be 
pointed out, and they should be taken up 
in the order of their growing complexity. 
An elementary acquaintance with mathe- 
matics, physics, and chemistry should pre- 
cede the study of the biological sciences. 

The method of teaching must vary with 
the age and acquirements of the students. 
With advanced and soundly-trained pupils 
there is probably no better method than 
that of the lecture, supplemented by the 
private study of well-selected text-books, 
and, of course, by practical work. The 
student may be left to take his own notes 
as the lecture proceeds, and some hours 
later he should rewrite the lecture from 
his notes, and thus make himself a text- 
book on the subject of study. But this 
method is inapplicable to classes of young 
students, or to classes of adults who have 
not had previous scientific tz'aining. For 
such the following method has been found 
most successful. Each student is provided 
^vith a rough note-book and a second book 
for full notes ; the teacher explains and 
illustrates his subject for a short time, 
wherever possible interpolating questions, 
so as to keep the attention of his pupils 
on the alert and ensuring their under- 
standing of his discourse ; during this time 
no notes are to be taken, but the undivided 
attention of the student is to be given to 
the teacher. When the teacher reaches 
a convenient break in his subject he stops, 
and gives out headnotes which cover the 
ground over which he has travelled ; these, 
and only these, are written down in their 
rough note-books by the students. Dur- 
ing the interval which elapses between 
two lessons in class the students write 
out under each headnote, in their second 
books, as much as they can remember of 
the subject dealt with under that note, 
and at the next lesson these notes are 
read out in order by one student after 
another, each student following in his 
own notes the several readers, and cor- 
recting his notes as he goes along by the 
better notes of his fellows and the com- 
ments of the teacher. With children it 
is necessary for the teacher to read and 
correct the notes. In this fashion the 
student obtains facility of expression as 
well as acquaintance with facts, and if he 



is preparing for an examination this prac- 
tice is of the greatest utility. 

It is of importance to provide the stu- 
dent with a skeleton system into which 
he can insert his facts, and so have them 
in order for mental reference. Thus, in 
teaching Biology, all the facts relating to 
an organism may be classified under the 
following heads : 1, structure ; 2, diges- 
tion ; 3, absorption ; 4, circulation ; 5, re- 
spiration ; 6, secretion; 7, nervous system ; 
8, sense organs ; 9, motor organs; 10, re- 
production ; 11, development ; 12, classifi- 
cation. This methodical system of study- 
ing an organism assists the memory, and 
enables the student, on demand, to write 
out a coherent and intelligible account of 
it. A similar skeleton may be formed for 
other sciences. {See also articles Normal 
School op Science, Science and Art 
Department, and Technical Education.) 

Scotland, Education in. See Law 
(Educational), Universities (section 
Scotland), and Educational Institute 
OF Scotland. 

Secondary Schools. See Classifica- 
tion, Grammar Schools, and Public 
Schools. 

Selfishness, Self-Love.— By self-love 
or self-regard moralists indicate that in- 
stinctive concern for one's own safety and 
happiness which is common to all men. 
This feeling has its roots in the impulse 
of self-preservation which is necessary to 
the conservation of individual life, and 
which, in an articulate or an inarticulate 
form, is an endowment of all sentient 
creatures. When this feeling exists in 
moderation, and does not render the sub- 
ject of it callous to the interests and 
needs of others, it is spoken of as rational 
self-love. When, however, it is excessive, 
leading to an habitual preoccupation of the 
thoughts and desires about personal in- 
terests and to the disregard of others' 
happiness, it becomes what we all know 
as selfishness. Selfishness is commonly 
said to be a characteristic of childhood. 
Children are apt to be greedy, insatiable 
in their demands, jealous of other children, 
indifferent to the trouble they cause their 
parents, and so forth. Such childish self- 
ishness is to be explained by the circum- 
stance that social feelings are later in de- 
velopment than the egoistic. The appear- 
ance of selfishness in young children that 
arises from heedlessness and weakness of 
the sympathetic feelings must be distin- 



398 



SELF-COMMAND SELF-EDUCATION 



guislunl from (lint uumv bam^ful t'oriu of 
ogoisui M-hioh is apt to sliow itsolf in oor- 
taiu ohiUltvn later on, and Nvliioh invohos 
!i cool preference of self to others. In 
dealing with the ehilds egoistic feelings 
the educator nuist not seek to uproot them, 
Init, recognising the valuable and neces- 
sary element in them, aim at making this 
the basis of a reasonable regard for self 
and a sense of pei'sonal worth. The ten- 
dency to seltishnoss must be early cor- 
rected, before it luvnlens into a habit, by 
drawing out antl educating the love and 
sympathy of children. If children are 
st>ltish they are niostly disposed tobeatlec- 
tionate if only the etlucator can disco\er 
the way of toui'hing and drawing forth 
their love (cf. art. SvMPATnY). (^^■<' Fere/, 
I.\Editcafi(Ui dts /t'Jicnraii, vi. i. ; Wait/., 
Alhj. rddtu/0(fil,\ p. 171 and following ; 
Dittes, Onmdniis der Erzifhionjs- mtd 
Unterrii'JifsIrJir*', '^ GO.) 

Self- Command. Self- Control.- These 
terms refer to the higher exercise of the 
will in restraining and controlling the- 
natural impulses and propensities. Thus, 
when a child makes an etlbrt to abstain 
from a forbidden action, or to master a 
feeling of anger, it is exercising self-con- 
trol. This self-regulation shows itself in 
three directions answering to the three 
domains of the mental life, viz. the con- 
trol of the thoughts, of the feelings, and 
of the actions. The perfect control of the 
whole mind by a. good and rational will is 
the highest result of mei\tal de\clopment, 
and sliould be the end of education {s>r 
INIoKAL Education). Such complete self- 
mastery involves a tinnly-tixed habit, the 
establishment of which is a long and ditli- 
eult process, especially in the case of im- 
pulsive and passionate children. The edu- 
cator must early begin to exercise the 
child's will in an etVort at self-command. 
Thus intellectual instruction reqxiires aj\ 
etlbrt of attention, a restraint of the im- 
pulses to bodily n\ovement aiul wandering 
thoughts. Again, the moral educator has 
from the tirst to encourage the child to 
restrain its feelings, and more especially 
to govern its temper. The moral educator 
is further concerned with the dcvelopuuM\t 
of that species of self-control which con- 
sists in denying ourselves the satisfactioi^ 
of our own desires, an exercise in which, 
according to Locke, the principle of all 
virtue and excellency lies (cf. article 
Tkmpek). {Sec Locke, 2''Iuni(/hts, § 107 ; 



Bain, ^fetital and i]f()rid Scirjice, *Tho 
AVill,' chaps, iii. and ix. ; Sully, Teacher's 
J/aiidhoo/K-, p. '[i\'2 and following.) 

Self-Education is that part of the work 
of mental development which the indi- 
vidual carries out for hin\self. It is a 
necessary supplement to the early school 
education, in which the learner is sur- 
rounded by external incentives and aids. 
While, hoAvever, it is customary to divide 
the process of ediu-ation into these two 
stages, it must not be forgotten that the 
undei'lying motives of self-education — the 
desire to gain knowledge and to improve 
character — must be appealed teas soon as 
the child's intelligence and will are suf- 
ticiently dcNeloped to citable it to appre- 
ciate and co-operato with the teacher's 
aims. The teat-her's etlorts too often fail 
to be followed up in later y(\vrs by the 
independent exertions of the pupil, just 
because the desires and aspirations which 
prompt to and sustain self-education have 
not been dcAcloped. Thus the methods 
of intellectual instruction adopted have 
not succeeded in kii\dling a love of know- 
ledge which would burn on when the years 
of school are over. In moral training, 
too, it should be the edxicator's aim, as 
Kant athrms, to exercise the wall in a 
pursuit of virtue for its own sake, and in a 
conscious etVort at self-development and 
self-improvement. While the work of self- 
education is necessary in every case, it tills 
an exceptionally large place in the case of 
the few, endowed with a preternatural 
degree of intellectual capability or force 
of will, who have been to a large extent 
self-taught and self-made (cf. article Oiu- 
GiNALiTv). In a certain sense all educa- 
tion is self-education. The acquirement 
of knowledge is made, the power to 
use knowledge — to think, to feel, and to 
will— is developed by, and in proportion 
to, the activity of oneself. The term, 
howevel", is generally applied, in a some- 
what ditl'erent sense, to the etlorts of a 
person who, having passed the usual 
school age, tinds himself without the 
means of external help and guidance, and 
seeks by his own unaided or but slightly 
aided exertions to continue or to com- 
mence his education. It is in this sense 
that we shall consider the expression. 
Now, what is the service which a skilful 
teacher renders to a learner ? He selects 
the subjects to be studied, and the parts 
of each subject ; and he decides how part 



SELF-EDUCATION SENSES, EDUCATION OF THE 



399 



shall follow part, and subject subject. 
He chooses the method or manner of 
study — so that the right faculties shall be 
exercised — and by his wide knowledge 
and constant suggestivencss he exhibits 
and maintains a living connectedness not 
only between the parts of each subject, 
but also between the subjects themselves. 
He guides and stimulates the learner to 
make use of, and to test by use, the 
knowledge acquired ; and is ever on the 
watch to regulate and direct exertion, to 
supply explanations where needed, and to 
recall the learner's attention to any know- 
ledge which ceems likely to slip away. 
This service of the skilled teacher is of 
vital importance to the young beginner ; 
but, except in suggesting connectedness 
and in general guidance and stimulation, 
it tends to grow of less and less import- 
ance as the learner himself grows in 
knowledge and in development of power 
to use knowledge. To one who has been 
properly educated during the school period 
it would seem sufficient to give advice, 
following as nearly as may be the practice 
of the teacher. Do not choose too many 
subjects ; select in preference _;?rs^ subjects 
of which you already know something 
and which have a bearing of some kind 
on the work of your everyday life, and 
tlten those which grow out of these ; 
having ascertained from some competent 
authority the best text-books, seek to 
master the main points first, and fill in 
the lesser matters later ; constantly test 
your knowledge by employing it in every 
available way — not only knowledge newly 
acquired, but also old knowledge with it — 
and, when the chance offers itself, at 
times test its amount and readiness also 
by entering some good public competition. 
By every means in your power maintain 
a connectedness in all that you learn, do 
not let old knowledge slip away, and 
always endeavour to gain knowledge by 
personal experience rather than at second- 
hand ; always try to see how the new 
knowledge just gained aff'ects what you 
already know. Ally yourself with other 
students when you can, although their 
subjects may not be yours. What they 
learn and care about will often prove 
unexpectedly suggestive with regard to 
your own knowledge ; and community in 
study is always stimulative and refreshing. 
Lastly, remember that the best education 
is one which enables you to live out your 



life effectively in many directions, and 
does not consist in the mere accumulation 
of facts ; it is tlie result of well-mingled 
knowledge which you know how to em- 
ploy, and is not the knowledge itself. 

A person who has had no school edu- 
cation is now so rare a being that it 
seems hardly necessary to offer him ad- 
vice. This, ho.wever, may be said : Choose 
some subject of observation such as you 
have the best means of studying practi- 
cally; and work from it as a centre 
gradually outwards in different directions, 
never losing the connection with your 
central subject ; observe, classify, experi- 
ment, reason, and then again observe. 
Your best central subject will be one of 
the following : botany, natural history, 
physiography, or perhaps geology. Do 
not, at any rate for some considerable 
time, attempt to make any but your 
central subject a special study ; and fol- 
low up your other subjects which branch 
from it simply for the sake of that cen- 
tral subject. For the rest note the ad- 
vice already given to the more instructed 
student. {See Professor Blackie's work, 
Self- Education, and art. 'Selbsterziehung ' 
in Schmidt's Encycloijddie.) 

Seminaries. — This is one of the terms 
used in Germany for training colleges for 
teachers. 

Senses, Education of the. — In its widest 
and ordinary meaning this phrase includes 
both the exercise and strength eniiag of the 
organs of sense, and the training of the 
mind in the perfect use of these. It is 
important, however, to distinguish the 
education of the senses as the mechanism 
by which external impressions are received, 
from that of the observing f acidly as the 
power of combining and interpreting such 
impressions. In the present article only 
the former will be dealt with. The senses 
claiming attention are the higher intellec- 
tual senses, sight and hearing, together 
with touch and the muscular sense. The 
object of training these senses as above 
defined is to render them quick and exact 
in transmitting or reporting the impressions 
received from without. This presupposes, 
first of all, an exercise of the organs 
themselves, as the eyes and the hand, and 
a perfect command of the muscular actions 
necessary to the reception of clear impres- 
sions, e.g. the adjustive movements of the 
two eyes necessary to distinct and rapid 
seeing. This training of the physical 



400 



SENSIBILITY SEX IN RELATION TO SCHOOL-LIFE 



organs connects itself with physical educa- 
tion as a whole ; for the organs of sense, 
and particularly the eye, are the most 
delicate of the bodily structures, -and easily 
aifected by excessive stimulation as well 
as by disturbances of bodily health. With 
this exercise of the organs must be con- 
joined the calling forth of the activity of 
the child's mind in attending to the im- 
pressions received from without, so as to 
note accurately their precise character. The 
child only exercises his sense of sight when 
he discriminates degrees of light and shade, 
varieties of colour, length of line, and so 
forth. Such discrimination is a gradually 
acquired attainment. The infant, though 
endowed with normal powers of vision, 
cannot distinguish the finer nuances of 
colour. Hence the training of the sense 
rightly begins with placing objects in 
juxtaposition, so that impressions may be 
compared and discriminated. In conjunc- 
tion with this, the child must be exercised 
in recognising impressions when they recur. 
Thus, in training the colour sense, the 
instructor should lead the child to identify 
the several colours by name. In addition 
to this training of the senses on the intel- 
lectual side, there is a cultivation of them 
on the side of {esthetic sensibility. Thus 
the child can be exercised in appreciating 
and delighting in the beauties of colours 
and musical tones, and their relations. 
Such exercises form the first step in {esthe- 
tic culture. Of. articles Discrimination, 
Eye, Ear, Touch, and Perception. {See 
H. Spencer, Education, chap. ii. ; Bain, 
Educatio7i as a Science, p. 16 and follow- 
ing, and 170 and following ; Sully, Teacher's 
Handbook, chap. vii. ; Schmidt's Encyclo- 
pddie, article ' Sinneniibung ' ; Buisson's 
Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, ai'ticle 'Sens.') 
Sensibility, Sensitiveness. — By the 
term sensibility is meant first of all the 
susceptibility of the organism (or rather 
certain portions of it known as 'sentient ') 
to the action of stimuli. Sensibility is an 
endowment of all animal organisms, but 
differs greatly in its forms. In its simplest 
phase it involves merely the capacity of 
being affected by the pleasurableness or 
painfulness of impressions. This is the 
emotional side of sensibility. In its higher 
manifestations it includes the capacity 
of distinguishing impi^essions according to 
their intensity and their qtiality, e.g. the 
particular strength or louclness and pitch 
of a sound. This is the intellectual side 



of sensibility, and must be carefully dis- 
tinguished from the emotional side. In- 
tellectual sensibility, or discriminativeness, 
varies greatly among individuals, ranging 
from extreme incapacity, as illustrated in 
colour-blindness, up to the most delicate 
discriminativeness as seen in the artist's 
finely graduated colour- vocabulary. It is 
on the degree of discriminativeness pos- 
sessed by a sense that its intellectual 
value immediately depends ; and a child's 
whole range of knowledge is limited by 
the discriminativeness of its senses. On 
its emotional side sensibility means prima- 
rily the capability of being affected agree- 
ably or disagreeably by sense-stimuli, as 
pressure, sound, &c. In a secondary 
manner it refers to the mind's emotional 
susceptibility, or the capability of feeling 
sorrow and joy, fear, anger, &c. In this 
sense it forms the basis of the life of feeling 
or emotion. It is important to bear in 
mind that there is no uniform connection 
between the degrees of intellectual and 
of emotional sensibility. Thus a child 
may be very discriminative of sounds, but 
not necessarily susceptible to the disturbing 
effects of sounds in the same degree. The 
more acute degrees of sensibility on its 
emotional side are often marked off" by the 
term Sensitiveness. A sensitive eye is one 
that is quickly affected by the pleasurable 
and painful aspects of light and colour. 
A sensitive child responds quickly to emo- 
tional excitements, is moved to fear dis- 
pleasure &c. by slight causes which others 
would not feel. (See Sully, Teacher's Hand- 
book, p. 122 &c.; Galton, Inquiries into 
Hitman Faculty, p. 27 &c.) 

Sessions. See Terms. 

Sex in Relation to School-Life.— An 
impoi'tant physical distinction between 
boys and girls is commonly lost sight of. 
It is that while the growth of boys con- 
tinues fairly steadily up to manhood, girls 
concentrate a large share of their growth 
in a few years, especially between the age 
of twelve and a half and fifteen years. 
For this and other reasons the age of 
puberty is a more critical time for girls 
than boys, and schooling requires to be 
carefully regulated at this period. Another 
fact bearing on the same question is that 
girls, as a rule, have fewer games and less 
muscular exercise of any kind than boys, 
and for this reason are much more apt to 
suffer in consequence ,chool-work. It 

is only fair to say that tho Jl effects ascribed 



SHAKSPERE IN SCHOOLS SHORTHAND 



401 



to school- work are oftener due to the ex- 
citement of novels or other forms of dissi- 
pation, to late hours and impure atmo- 
sphere, or to defective exercise. Undue 
devotion to music seems to have a specially 
exciting influence on some girls, acting on 
their emotional faculties. Similarly, emu- 
lation in connection with examinations is 
more likely to be injurious to girls than 
boys. "With due care for the physical 
system, however, there can be no doubt 
that girls are quite as competent for the 
higher branches of study as boys, and may 
pass on to university life without any de- 
triment to their general health. 

Shakspere in Schools. — Shakspere 
may be used in schools for reading aloud, 
in which case the plays may very well be 
abridged, so as to bring each of them 
within the scope of two, or at most three, 
lessons. The plays are chiefly used, how- 
ever, as the subject-matter of literature 
lessons— at least of lessons which go by 
that name, though in fact they are anything 
but literary. There are certain things 
necessary for making the study of these 
plays as literature thoroughly effective. 
They should not be the first literature 
which school children study. They are 
not simple enough in subject, feeling, or 
expression. Quite young children may 
read them for their interesting stories, 
but they cannot study them as literature. 
Let children begin with something as 
simpl as John Gilpin, and be led up 
gradual. ^ through two or three stages to 
the plays. Then, and not till then, will 
they get a full and valuable training and 
delight from the plays. Children should 
not have their study of the plays over- 
whelmed with dates, and grammar, and 
archaeology, and antiquarianism, and philo- 
logy. Just so much of these should be 
used as really enlighten the learners as to 
the text and its full meaning — just so 
much and no more. The plays should be 
treated as plays, and as masterpieces of 
literature ; as works of art, that is, not 
as mere stalking-horses for pedants. The 
introductions should throw light upon the 
art of the plays, their human value, and 
beauty — not merely upon dates of compo- 
sition and original sources. They should 
put the learner in the right position and 
give him the right point of view for tho- 
roughly understanding and appreciating 
what is before him. In studying the 
plays the learners should be led to see 



and feel the value and force of speeches 
as indications and revelations of character ; 
and they should be enabled to appreciate 
the language for its skilful expression of 
thought and its beauty of sound ; and 
hence they must also understand the 
thought itself, and the mode in which it 
expresses itself, as well as the meanings of 
the words used. These are some of the 
chief points to be attended to. For the 
rest see the article on English Litera- 
ture. 

Shame. — By the feeling of shame is 
meant the painful emotion which we ex- 
perience in presence of or at the thought 
of another's ill-ppinion, and more particu- 
larly moral condemnation. It answers as 
a pain to the pleasurable feeling indicated 
in the expression love of approbation, the 
two together being the source of the value 
set upon praise and blame. The feeling 
of shame implies a distinct form of self- 
consciousness, and is in ordinary cases an 
accompaniment of the state of remorse 
and self-condemnation {see Penitence). 
It is a feeling to which bashful children, 
preternaturally sensitive to others' opi- 
nion, are peculiarly liable. It is excited 
in its most intense form by public ex- 
posure, as when a child is severely rebuked 
or punished before the whole school. As a 
form of punishment which tells unjustly 
on sensitive children, and is apt by repe- 
tition to blunt some of the best feelings 
of the child, the humiliating exposure of 
faults is open to grave objections. (Cf. 
articles Bashpulness, Praise, and Blame.) 
{See Locke, Thoughts on Education, § 60 
and following ; Miss Edgeworth, Prac- 
tical Education, vol. i. p. 372.) 

Shorthand. — The first system of short- 
hand is attributed to Cicero, but from the 
decline of the Roman empire there is an 
interval of about a thousand years during 
which nothing is heard of that or of any 
other system. The credit of reviving 
stenography belongs to an Englishman, 
Timothy Bright, who in 1588 published 
Characterie, the Art of Short, Swift, and 
Secret Writing by Character. Only one 
copy (that in the Bodleian Library) is 
known to exist. An examination of it 
shows that, compared with any recent 
system, Characterie was very cumbrous, 
difficult, and uncertain. Of the eighteen 
signs which formed its alphabet seventeen 
were compound, and hundreds of words 
were represented by signs purely arbi- 

D D 



402 



SHORTHAND 



trary. Since Bright's day nearly two 
hundred English systems have appeared, 
but to describe or even name a twentieth 
of them would be foreign to the purpose 
of this article. It will be enough to men- 
tion those only which have found any con- 
siderable number of students. The Art of 
Stenography . . . invented by John Willis, 
Bachelor in Divinity, was published in 
1602, and reached a tenth edition. In 
1654 was issued Sernigraphy, or Art's 
Rarity, by Jeremiah Rich, but the real 
author was William Cartwright, who was 
Rich's uncle. After Rich's death appeared 
an exposition of his system by another 
hand. For many years this was the chief 
system. ' Pepys wrote his diary in it, and 
Locke commended it in his Treatise on 
Education. Rich's method, however, was 
not so good as Mason's, published in 1672, 
and still written in a modified form, under 
the name of Gurney's (Thomas Gurney 
having adopted and improved the system 
early in the eighteenth century), by the 
official shoi'thand writer to the Houses of 
Parliament. About 1720 John Byrom 
completed a system which was an improve- 
ment on anything that had yet been seen. 
Till the death of an elder brother made 
him a man of property he lived by teaching 
his method, which consequently was not 
made public till after his own death. In 
1786 Taylor's system appeared. It was as 
brief as Byrom's, simpler, and more success- 
ful. Three years later appeared Dr. Ma- 
vor's, which, though not quite so successful 
as Taylor's, passed through many editions. 
In 1815 James Henry Lewis published his 
successful Ready Writer, or neplus ultra of 
Shorthand, being the onost easy, exact, lineal, 
sjjeedy, and legible method yet discovered. 
The author, speaking of it in his very use- 
ful Historical Account of Shorthand, says : 
' The unparalleled success which has at- 
tended the dissemination of the above 
system precludes the necessity of descant- 
ing on its peculiar advantages ; it is amply 
sufficient to observe that it has completely 
superseded all others,' &c., &c. The last 
system which need be noticed is Pit- 
man's Phonography, which has found more 
writers than all other English systems 
combmed. The first edition appeared in 
1837. 

The characteristics of a good system 
are : (1) The alphabet is simple. The 
simplest elements are the straight line and 
the curve, and unless most letters consist 



of these the system must necessarily be 
long, and therefore useless for the pur- 
poses of the reporter. A straight line 
may be perpendicular, horizontal, oblique 
with a right slant, or oblique with a left 
slant. A curve may be written in the 
same four directions^ and in each direction 
may face two ways. We have thus twelve 
characters consisting of a simple straight 
or curved stroke, but these are manifestly 
insufficient for an alphabet, and various 
devices have been adopted to increase 
them, such as writing them of two thick- 
nesses or of two lengths. 

(2) Allied sounds are represented by 
allied signs. In writing quickly the proper 
slope, or length, or thickness may not 
always be observed, but the possibility of 
a serious mistake in reading is greatly re- 
duced if the principle indicated be ob- 
served. Thus |j)ai^, bail, fail, and vail, 
each beginning with a labial, differ only 
in the initial, but if the characters of 
these initials be somewhat similar the most 
likely error is the transposition of two of 
them, and the context will suggest the 
right word, if, for instance, pail be written 
for hail. 

(3) The vowels are detached from the 
consonants. In following a speaker it is 
absolutely impossible to write every letter 
of every word he utters, and in all sys- 
tems most of the vowels are omitted. If, 
as in the older systems, the vowels are an 
integral part of the word, its appearance 
will be completely changed by their omis- 
sion, and in its brief form it will be hard 
to recognise. If, on the other hand, the 
vov/els are detached, the ' outline ' of the 
word is the same whether they be written 
or omitted. Thus in Phonography com- 
munication is written in full -.jy^ and 
without the prefix and vowel signs .^^-^ , 
and an experienced writer recognises the 
second as rapidly as the first. 

(4) Provision is made against the con- 
fusion which would be caused if all the 
words having the same consonants were 
written with the same outline. Pair, peer, 
appear, poor, pyre, pure, pray, prow, parry, 
and perry, for instance, are by no means 
all the words in which p and r are the 
only consonants. 

(5) There are few or no awkward joins 
between the letters. In some systems the 
joins are so awkward that words can only 
be written correctly by being written very 
slowly. 



SHORTHAND- 



-SINGING 



403 



(6) No word goes so far above or 
below its own line as to interfere with the 
words in the next. The confusion which 
would ensue were this rule disregarded is 
evident. 

Apart from its immense practical value 
shorthand has a high educative worth 
which should commend it to all good 
teachers. The first point which a prin- 
cipal, thinking of introducing shorthand 
into his school, has to decide is the system 
to be adopted, and no hesitation need be 
felt in recommending Pitman's Phono- 
graphy, • because it is easy to write, easy 
to read, and easy to learn. Even those 
who deny that it is the best system admit 
that it is a good one. It is, moreover, the 
most popular system. This popularity is 
of advantage in several ways. The sym- 
pathy of numbei's is in itself helpful. The 
learner is certain to find phonographers 
everywhere ; his chances of being able, to 
use the system for correspondence are in- 
finitely greater than if he wrote any other, 
and there are hundreds of enthusiasts who 
will correct his exercises free of charge. 
For the learner, practice in reading is as 
important as practice in writing. The 
instruction books must be supplemented 
by a study of the best models for writing, 
and no system can furnish a twentieth 
part as many of these as Phonography. 
The New Testament, Bible, the Psalms, 
the Common Prayer, The Vicar of Wcoke- 
Jield, Pilgrim' s Progress, Gulliver's Travels, 
and Tom Brown's School Days are only a 
few of the books published in it ; there 
are five monthly periodicals printed en- 
tirely in it, and the Phonetic Journal 
gives sevei'al pages of shorthand every 
week. 

It has been suggested that Phono- 
graphy being, as the name implies, a pho- 
netic system, the practice of it tends to 
injure the writer's spelling ; but this ob- 
jection is groundless. Correct orthography 
is a matter of the eye, and so long as words 
have to be represented in one way it is 
dangerous to make the eye familiar with 
any other way. Thus if we habitually 
saw rong we might write the word so when 
wrong was required ; but although in pho- 
nography the 10 is omitted, what the stu- 
dent sees is not rong but /"^ and this 
cannot affect his spelling. 

A principal who is about to introduce 

^ It should be stated that the writer of this article 
is a Fhonographer. 



the study should be careful that the in- 
structor he employs is competent. If the 
system be Phonography let him insist upon, 
a certificate of proficiency from Mr. Pit- 
man, and a speed certificate up to at least a 
hundred and twenty words a minute from 
the Society of Arts or from Mr. Pitman. 

The following note has been added by 
a member of the Parliamentary Reporters' 
gallery (not a phonographer) : — 

Besides phonography, the following 
systems have at the present time (1888) 
adherents among professional shorthand 
writers practising in London : — Gurney's, 
Taylor's, Lewis's, and Mavor's, already re- 
ferred to ; and Purton's, which is sup- 
posed to have originated with William 
Purton, known to have been a school 
master in London in 1819. 

Nearly two hundred systems have been 
published since 1837. Most of these have 
disappeared. But the great position which 
phonography has gained is now (1888) 
challenged by several authors. An active 
propaganda is carried on by J. M. Sloan, 
an adapter to English of the popular 
French system of Duploye,inwhich vowels 
and consonants are joined in their natural 
order. J. D. Everett, Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in Queen's College, Belfast, is 
the author of a system in which there is 
great representation of vowels. What 
may be termed the school of Alexander 
Melville Bell (1854), in which the presence 
or absence of vowels is inferred from the 
writing of the consonants, is represented 
by ' Legible Shorthand,' the invention of 
E. Pocknell, a London shorthand writer, 
and ' Audeography,' by F. Valpy. Of a 
cognate character is the system of A. M. 
Browne. A system by E. Guest repre- 
sents the ' compendious ' school. A. Janes's 
' Shorthand without Complications ' goes 
more upon the old lines, but it is notice- 
able as the first system in which thick and 
thin characters have been combined in the 
alphabet with the ' looped ' characters of 
Taylor. Script systems have been revived, 
and among authors who are working in 
this direction may be mentioned P. Kings- 
ford, who entitles his method ' The Ox- 
ford Shorthand.' The general character- 
istic of the new systems, with the excep- 
tion of Janes's, may be said to be the 
fuller representation, or indication, of 
vowels. 

Sides. See Modern Schools. 

Singing has been defined as the use of 



404 



SINGIKGI 



the voice in accordance with the laws of 
music. This definition, however, lands us 
where we started from. A more practical 
definition would be given by saying that 
singing depends first on the utterance by 
the voice of sustained sounds, and second 
on the ordered relationship of these sounds 
in the musical scale. Between speech and 
song there is merely this difierence, that 
in speech the voice is perpetually chang- 
ing its pitch by minute and indefinite 
degrees, and in song the changes of pitch, 
however rapid, proceed by definite and 
measurable intervals. It is conjectured 
by Mr. Rowbotham, in his History of 
Music, that song is a survival of that lan- 
guage of cries which preceded speech in 
the history of mankind. Quite apart from 
the definite emotions raised by the words 
in song, there is an undefinable yet all 
compelling emotion which the voice itself 
kindles in us. This fact has led an in- 
genious American writer to speculate on 
the future of vocal music, and to assert 
that the coming singer will merely warble 
vowel sounds without any words. Such 
an issue is, however, impossible so long as 
speech retains its power in the world. We 
are provided in the music of artificial in- 
struments with the vague and mystical 
aspect of music ; what the singer does over 
and above this is to draw out our sym- 
pathy by his personality, and to direct our 
thoughts in fixed and common directions 
by the words he utters. 

Physiologically, speaking and singing 
are the same act. The same nerve which, 
communicating with the brain, prompts 
the larynx when we speak, prompts it 
when we sing. It follows from this that 
every one who can speak can also sing, and 
in a general sense this is undoubtedly true. 
The statement, however, needs qualifica- 
tion. Just as the speaking voice in dif- 
ferent people is harsh or mellifluous, so 
the singing voice varies from a rasping 
strain to smooth and easeful roundness. 
But in the power to command the various 
pitches required in song, to strike them 
accurately and sustain them on a perfect 
level, ■ persons vary greatly. It is this 
power that is described as ' having an ear 
for music' The gift is, indeed, far more 
general than is supposed. If dormant, it 
can be cultivated ; it is trained in child- 
hood more easily than in adult age ; and 
the best authorities are of opinion that 
persons who are ' tone blind ' are not more 



numerous than those who are ' colour 
blind.' 

The value of singing in education 
arises from several causes. It is in the 
first place a healthy exercise. Dr. Affleck 
has said that if there were more singing 
there would be less coughing. Singing 
requires that deep respiration which in 
ordinary speech we seldom use. It causes 
a large quantity of air to be brought in 
contact with the lungs, and thus renews 
and purifies the blood. Deep breathing 
exercises are recommended by several 
American hygienists, and they are said to 
possess all the advantages which change 
of air brings. These exercises can be had, 
pleasantly and without formality, in the 
process of singing. The second function 
of singing in education is as a relief from 
severer studies. The localising of the 
brain functions enables us to understand 
how singing, appealing to another part of 
the mind, and to the whole nervous sys- 
tem through its rhythm and tone, performs 
the same function in school work which 
oil performs to a heated and labouring 
machine. It soothes and refreshes, indeed 
repairs, brain fag, and enables the pupil 
to return to studies which occupy the 
memory and the reason with a new supply 
of vital force. A third purpose in sing- 
ing, especially with young children, is to 
store the memory pleasantly and without 
effort with a quantity of bracing and 
formative verse, calculated to strengthen 
the will and the principles of conduct, 
teaching patriotism, love to parents, kind- 
ness to the weak and suffering, to animals, 
and so on. The inculcation of religious 
principle through music is too obvious to 
need remark. 

The teaching of singing in schools is 
in the fourth place important because it 
is the beginning and foundation of all 
musical study. This is a point on which 
the late John Hullah was never tired of 
insisting. If you wish to learn the piano- 
forte, the violin, &c., he would say, learn 
first to sing. The reason of this is as fol- 
lows. The difficulties of mastering an 
artificial musical instrument may be di- 
vided into two classes. First, we have to 
train the ear to recognise and imitate at 
will musical tones, to comprehend rhythm 
and measure, to feel and produce light 
and shade and phrasing, and to read 
musical notation. Second, we have to 
master the technicalities of the particular 



SINGING 



405 



instrument, and to train the fingers quickly 
to obey the dictates of the eye and the 
mind. All the first class of subjects can 
be studied fully and most satisfactorily in 
the process of learning to sing. When 
this is done, and a pupil takes up an in- 
strument, he will find that a great deal of 
the work which he thought was before 
him is really behind him. Much of the 
discord and halting which beginners upon 
instruments inflict on themselves and 
others are caused by their own mental 
uncertainty as to the tone or the time re- 
quired. They are learning music and 
mechanism at the same time, instead of 
separating them. The pupil who begins 
an instrument having first learned to 
understand music and to read musical 
notation, makes far more rapid and satis- 
factory progress than one who is weighted 
with the double care we have described. 

The first caution necessary for all 
teachers of singing, whether their pupils 
are adults or children, is that the voice 
must be gently used, because of its deli- 
cacy as an instrument. There is danger 
both in strain and in fatigue ; in singing 
too loudly and in singing too long. We 
cannot say much, within the limits of the 
present article, on the physiology of the 
voice. The recent works by Liennox 
Browne and Behnke and by Sir Morell 
Mackenzie may be consulted by those who 
wish to master the subject. There is, no 
doubt, a tendency to overrate the import- 
ance of a knowledge of vocal physiology 
to the teacher of singing. The great end 
of the teacher is to produce pure and 
smooth tone, to develop the voice in 
power and control, to watch every sign 
of deterioration. As a rule, if the pupils 
sing naturally they will sing rightly. The 
registers of the voice are seldom misused 
except when the singing is too loud. 
Nasal and throaty tone, which arise from 
a wrong employment of the mouth and 
nostrils, can generally be corrected by the 
teacher's own judgment. As the voice 
ascends in pitch the larynx (the voice- 
box which is in all our throats) performs 
its functions in a diSerent way, and the 
change of mechanism is called a change of 
register. The registers of girls' voices do 
not commonly trouble the teacher, but 
those of boys' need care. Boys speak in 
a stronger register than girls, and are 
prone to force that register upwards in 
singing beyond its proper limit. The 



lower register should not be used by 
boys above A, at which point they 



i 



should change into a softer and more 
fluty voice, which will be at once recog- 
nised by the teacher. At first this 
higher register is thin and weak, but 
practice strengthens it greatly. Boys' 
voices are naturally as high as girls', 
and if they find that an ordinary tune 
tires them it is in all probability because 
they are using the wrong register. The 
way to cure them of this is to pitch the 
tune in question a fourth or even a fifth 
higher, so that they are forced to employ 
and strengthen the higher register. In 
singing, the teeth must be fairly opened 
and the lips drawn open with them, but 
exaggeration should be avoided. The 
management of the breath is all impor- 
tant. It should be taken in by lowering 
the diaphragm and distending the ribs, 
not by raising the upper chest or collar- 
bone. Abdominal breathing is natural 
and powerful ; collar-bone breathing is 
feeble and artificial. Standing is the true 
position for singing. This is proved by 
the spirometer, a little machine for testing 
the quantity of breath that can be drawn 
into, and consequently exhaled fromi, the 
lungs. The spirometer proves that the 
same person can inhale and retain most 
breath when standing, less when sitting, 
and still less when lying down. Let the 
pupils stand erectly, but not stiflEIy, when 
singing ; they should assume the posture 
of ' stand at ease ' of the soldier. Stooping 
to look at the music and bending over a 
book shared by another pupil are both 
bad. The pupils should sing from me- 
mory or from a blackboard or chart. Fail- 
ing these they must learn to- hold their 
books without lowering their heads. 

Boys and girls should never be allowed 
to sing during the period of mutation. 
The few — very few — writers on the sub- 
ject who have given contrary advice have 
done so recklessly. There is a very power- 
ful consensus of opinion against the use 
of the voice during tliis period. Dr. Stainer 
attributes the loss of his singing voice to 
the fact that he sang solos as a boy at St. 
Paul's Cathedral after he was sixteen years 
of age. The change in the girl's voice is 
so much less marked than in the boy's 



.406 



SINGING SIZAR 



tluit it is liable to be overlooked. But 
there is always a time -when the girl's 
voice becomes husky aud veiled. Singing 
should then stop. 

The oon\uion faults of singing flat and 
singing sharp give great trouble to teachers. 
They are especially observable when the 
singing is accompanied by an instrument. 
Both faults may be lai'gely corrected by a 
study of the ment^il etiects of the tones of 
the scale, which is part of the tonic sol-fa 
system (</.«'.) According to this theory, 
wlien a scale or tune is sounding in the 
ear each tone of it impresses tJie mind 
with an individuality of its own. The 
pitch may be high or low, but the place of 
the tone in relation to its surrounding 
tones enables us to tix and recall it. The 
singer who feels tones in this way will 
strike them with certainty. The ear or 
dictation exeVcises, which are another part 
of the tonic sol-fa systeui, provide a second 
means of renderiiig the ear sensitive to 
musical intonation. From the tirst, tonic 
sol-fa pupils are taught not only to pro- 
duce sounds for given notes, but inversely 
to produce notes for given sounds. 

Singing sharp is a far less common 
fault than singing tlat. It results from 
excess of energy and nervous excitemei\t. 
The causes of tlattening are various, and 
even the best singei-s aud choirs are sub- 
ject to it at times. It may be described 
as generally due to relaxation of interest 
and fatigue. Fresh air, change of posture, 
may help to cure it. Sometimes, if the 
fault is bad, the singing should cease, and 
some point of theory which does not in- 
volve singing be introduced. It is well to 
accustom the class to think about main- 
tenance of pitch, even in their unaccom- 
panied music, by sounding the key-note 
on a chromatic pitch-pipe or the pianoforte 
at the close as well as at the beginning of 
a piece. The wrong use of the i-egisters, 
which we have already referred to, is also 
a fruitful cause of llatteidng, perhaps the 
most fruitful. 

Clear pronunciation is an element of 
singing which is both important and sadly 
neglected. As we speak, so we sins;, and 
by common consent the Englishman is a 
most slovenly speaker. The Scotch and the 
Welsh articulate better than we do. ' Our 
speech," says Mr. H. C Peacon, " is carried 
on in smudges of sound.' And. as water 
cannot rise above its level, so pupils are 
not likely to pronounce better than their 



jeacher. The teacher of singing must 
bear in mind that half of singing is elo- 
cution (q.i'.) Good reciters and readers 
must be studied as models ; there must be 
much self-searching for unconscious pro- 
vincialisms, and an unceasix\g ettbrt to 
sustain a high standard of pure vowels 
and articulated consonants in the singing 
of the pupils. Properly speaking we only 
sustain sound upon vowels, while conso- 
nants are ways of interrupting sound. But 
both being necessary for speech are asso- 
ciated with singing. While using the voice 
we must take breath according to the laws 
of elocution, and these sometimes contra- 
dict the laws of musical phrasing, which, 
in such cases, must invariably give way. 
Children need to take breath more often 
than adults, becaiise of their smaller 
breath-capacity. It is, therefore, well to 
mark the breathing places in each verse 
of a song by the use of a pencil. The 
same faculty which helps the actor to de- 
claim with feeling, serves the singer, who, 
while bound by the laws of musical intona- 
tion and rhythm, can iievertheless ' take 
liberties ' with the length of notes and the 
expression, so as to throw into special em- 
phasis strong words and phrases. When 
we sing in chorus these ' liberties ' are less 
possible, because the whole mass must 
move together. Yet here much may be 
done, and the intelligent and heart-earnest 
teacher infuses life and impressiveness into 
the simplest song by changes from loud to 
soft, quick to slow, and the emphatic treat- 
ment of special words. 

Songs accompanied by motions are 
much in favour in Kindergarten work. 
Xo one would wish to abolish these. They 
are greatly enjoyed by children, and teach 
them the expression of feelings and acts. 
But a word of caution must be given. The 
. best position for the body while singing is 
that of rest, and any departure from that 
increases the difficulty of singing. Violent 
motions, or siiiging in a tixed and strained 
position, should be avoided. {See Sol-fa- 
ixa ; Toxic Sol-fa : luid Music.) 

Site of School. AS'ee Architecture. 

Sizar. — Formerly a poor student in the 
university of Cambridge, who received 
commons free, and in return performed 
some menial service. Now the sizarships, 
like the scholarships, are awarded by com- 
petitive examination, and the sizai-s hold 
similar positions to those of scholars. A 
sizar must, however, always prove liis need 



SLEEP SLOYD 



407 



of pecuniary assistance before he can be 
elcfted. 

Sleep is necessary for tlie recuperation 
of the physical powers. The discharge of 
the functions of the body implies consump- 
tion of its structure. Hence a period of 
repose is required, during which this may 
be replaced. Tlie only apparent exceptions 
are the heart and lungs, but these obey 
the universal law, only their rest is frequent 
and momentary, while that of other organs 
is at greater intervals and of longer dura- 
tion. Apart from sleep, rest of any organ 
may be partially obtained by change of 
occupation. The importance of varying 
school-work, thus alternately exercising 
and resting diiferent parts of the brain, 
cannot be exaggerated. Sleep, however, 
is the only form of complete and general 
rest. During sleep there is a diminished 
flow of blood through the bi'ain, and the 
functional activity of its higher centres is 
abrogated. If a child eats and sleeps 
well, his brain can scarcely be overworked. 
Prolonged sleep, however, does not obviate 
the effects of excessive mental work. The 
work must be diminished, and more time 
allowed for recreation. The average 
amount of sleep required at 4 years old is 
12 hours, at 7 years old 11 hours, at 9 
years old 10^^ hours, at twelve to fourteen 
years old, 9 to 10 hours, at 14 to 21 years 
9 hours. {Sp.e Dormitories). 

Slbyd, or Sloyd. — This name has been 
given to the system of manual training in 
force at Herr Otto Salomon's seminary 
for hand- work at Naas, near Gothenburg, 
and from whence the system is spreading 
rapidly to many other countries than that 
of its bii^th. The etymology of the word slojcl 
may perhaps be discovered in the Swedish 
word slug = sly, shrewd, slog = handy, 
dexterous, whence sloyd, mechanical art, 
and sleight of hand. This system is now 
applied to many kinds of handwork used 
in schools and colleges for purposes of 
education. A list of the different kinds of 
sloyd practised in the schools of Sweden, 
Norway, and Denmark, is given in Miss 
Chapman's treatise on sloyd handwork as 
applied to the workmanship of metal, 
basket, cardboard, and fret-work, besides 
turning, wood-carving, painting, bookbind- 
ing, and carpentry, or wood sloyd. She 
claims that in Sweden no less than one 
thousand national schools practise the art 
of wood sloyd, and that it has also been 
introduced into higher and secondary grade 



schools in that country, into France, Bel- 
gium, Germany, Austria, and the United 
States. The difference between wood car- 
pentry of the mechanic and artisan and 
that of the Sloyd system lies not only in 
the character of the objects produced, but 
in the manner of work and tools used, and 
the special object of the system which is 
the acquirement of manual dexterity, ex- 
ercise of judgment and technical skill, 
development of the physique, gradual 
training of the pupil by a progressive 
series of work from simple to skilled work- 
manship. 

Thus in the wood sloyd, the course 
of training begins with the production of 
some such simple article as a pointer, 
flower-stick, or penholder, no tool but the 
Swedish knife being permitted for this 
purpose ; in the second stage the wood is 
prepared with a plane, and a square ruler 
or child's cubic toy brick is produced ; in 
the third stage boring is introduced ; in 
the fifth a spoke-shave is used in addition 
to a knive and plane, a bow-saw is per- 
haps added, aiid so on to a more advanced, 
stage of workmanship in each case, till 
the intricacies of the system culminate in 
dovetailing, and advanced branches of 
the profession are thoroughly mastered. 
By these means the pupil is gradually 
led through a series of steps, in which 
hand, eye, brain, and judgment are equally 
exercised ; and a sense of accuracy and 
perseverance, application, assiduity, and 
observation engendered, which could not 
be attained in any other way. There is 
no royal road to sloyd handwork, the 
steps are not climbed more hastily in this 
than in any otlier branch of handcraft, 
but the technical training thus commenced 
in eai-ly youth or childhood serves a useful 
purpose. The ready engagement by shop- 
keepers and others of youths who have 
been through the sloyd course in Sweden, 
is claimed by Miss Chapman as ample 
evidence of the efficacy of the training 
afforded, and the thoroughness demanded 
by sloyd teachers from their pupils is 
traced in the care, earnestness, and honesty 
of purpose brought to bear in many other 
objects of study derpanding dexterity and 
exactitude. As a preparation for technical 
training, the cultivation of the sloyd sys- 
tem in this country has been advocated by 
many, but it has not yet (1888) been 
adopted to any great extent in the primary 
and secondary schools of Britain, although 



408 



SMOKINC, 



-SOL-FAING 



the advantogos of the Kiudergavton sys- 
toui Imvo long sim*o boon ivooguised ami 
ailoptod. An institution iov tho instnio- 
tiou of woinou tonohovs on t ho n\ot luni has, 
howevor, boon opouod at tho Slovd Insti- 
tuto at l^irniiughaiu, in tho Edgbastou 
Road ; and anotlior ooursoof training can 
bo folUnvod out at INliss Huglios' '['raining 
Collogo for W onion at Oanibridgo ; thoro, 
oxanipUis of tho work produood n\av bo 
iuspootod. Whon tho trutlis at\d advan- 
tages of this handwork booonio bettor 
known to tho publio through tho instru- 
n\ontality of skiUod toaohors, a strong ini- 
pulso will doubtloss bo gi^•on to tho adop- 
tion of tlio system. Inforujatiou as to 
slind handwork uiay bo obtained from 
]\liss (\ Chapman's Sloi/d, or f/atidirork 
as a Factor of Kducatioii- (published by W. 
llioe), and from the .lanuary number of 
the Kiujlis/i Joitrnal 0/ Fditcotion iov 1887. 
Smoking". --Whatever ditVerenees of 
opinion may exist a.s to the advisability of 
smoking in ailults, it is universally agreed 
that before eighteen or twenty years of 
age it is injurious. The habit should be 
strietly iut^n-dieted in boys of about four- 
teen yeai'S of age, who are very apt to 
aoquiro it. Tobacco has a powerful intlu- 
tM\ce on the nervous system, and tends in 
boys to excite tho feelings, its tirst etlect 
on tho heart is to hasten it, and afterwards 
to slow it ; tho latter etlect often ending in 
novices in actual faintTiess. The ' smoker's 
heart' is a very irritable one, and tends 
to intermit in an unpleasant manner. Tho 
symptou\s produced by a tirst cigar show 
tiie powerful etl'ects of the actixe principle 
of tobacoo before the system has acquired 
by habit some degree of tolerance of it. 
There is a burning, bitter taste in the 
mouth, increased tlow of sali\a, nausea 
and vou\iting, giddiness and faintt\ess, 
pallor of face, cold perspiration, and utter 
prostration of the whole inuscular systen\. 
The universal prevalence of the habit, 
however, seems to show that it has some 
beneticial intlueuce, and it is extolled for 
its trauquillising etrects, especially when 
there is mental exhaustion and irritability, 
while it is said to help digestion and mental 
activity. Even in adult*, however, there 
is danger of an ovenlose, and serious 
svuiptoms u\ay be causini by it. The throat 
becomes congested, and mucus is secreted 
— i\ smokei""s throat can generally be re- 
cognised by a skilled observer ; the heart 
palpitates and occasionally intermits, and 



there is a general prostration. Special 
defects of vision aiv sometimes caused by 
sn\oking. The acuteness of vision is sen- 
sibly diminished ; a sort of white ha/.o 
seems to en\elop every object, and yellow, 
red, and gix>en are often confounded with 
each other. This condition is known as 
tobacco amblyopia, and is especially apt 
to occur when excessive smoking is com- 
bined with alcoholic drinking. 

Society of Arts, or, in full, The Society 
for tho Encouragenumt of Ai'ts, Manu- 
factures, and CoTumerce, otl'er prizes of 
money, medals, certiticates, and scholar- 
ships to both teachers and pupils, and 
publishes weekly a useful journal. Apply 
to the Secretary, 1 1 J ohn Street, London, 
W.(.\ The aiiuual subscription for mem- 
bers is IV. -J.s-. 

Socratic Method. »S('f Question and 
Answku. 

Sol-faing'. — The Italian syllables em- 
ployed in singing, do re iiti jli nol la si, are 
supposed to be derived from an ancieiit 
monkish chant to Latin words. The 
syllables are merely the tii-st two or three 
letters of each line of tho verse. Origin- 
ally, however, do, the tirst of the series, 
was nan\ed at, and this is still its desig- 
nation in France, The syllables are of 
value as containing broad vow^els which 
are congenial to song, and improve the 
voice. There is no meaning in them : 
any other set equally open in tone would 
do as well. The syllables are employed 
in several ways : 

1. In Italy and in France they are 
attached to certain tixed pitches (or their 
octaves) as follows : 




This is called the ' fixed do,' and will be 
fan\iliar to all who have practised Italian 
solfeggi. For vocal purposes this use of 
the syllables is all right, but for educa- 
tional ends it is open to this grave 
objection, that when key is departed 
from there is no longer a constant asso- 
ciation between names and intervals. The 
following examples illustrate this point : 



Kov 0. 



Kov E flat. 



■% 



To : 



C?' 



P^<s? — 



SOL-FAING 



409 



Key A flat. 




Here the intervals vary in each case, 
while the names remain the same. It 
has been abundantly proved that during 
the beginning of their course, when the 
pupils practise in key C, strong mental 
associations are formed between names 
and intervals. Thus do-mi always sug- 
gests a major third, do-re a major second, 
and this relative association is much 
stronger than the sense of the absolute 
pitch of the sounds. The present writer, 
in examining the singing of the Paris 
Communal Schools, where this system is 
consistently carried out, found that nearly 
all the mistakes in sight-singing made by 
tlie children were in keys other than C, 
and were caused by their inability to 
escape this mental association. The fixed 
do system was popularly advocated in 
this country by the late John Hullah, an 
excellent musician and teacher, whose 
advocacy failed, liowever, to naturalise 
what is, educationally, a radically, bad 
system. In his later years Dr. Hullah, 
sensible of the defects of the fixed do in 
giving but one name to the flat natural 
and sharp of each note, compiled a table 
of inflected syllables, thirty or forty in 
number, so that each sound should have 
a name. This plan has, however, been 
found practically unworkable. 

2. The antithesis of the fixed do is the 
movable do, which is adopted in the Tonic 
Sol-fa system (q.v.), but is independent of 
it, and was taught in Britain in alliance 
with the staff notation long before tonic 
solfa was invented. By this system the 
radical error of the fixed do — variable 
intervals — is avoided. Bo is the keynote 
of the major scale at whatever pitch it may 
be sung : — 




and it follows from this that the associa- 
tion of names and intervals is constant. 
Thus do-mi is always a major (never a 



minor) third ; si do is always a minor 
second ; re mi always a major second, and 
so on. This is found to give the singer 
great certainty in reading music at sight. 
3. Tliere is an old and now nearly 
extinct form of the movable do in which 
only five names are employed : 



122: 



fa sol la 



fa sol la mi fa 



±1—— 



'CZl. 



:s2: 



fa sol la fa sol la mi fa 

This is sometimes called the Lancashire 
sol-fa, and was in use, as references in 
Shakespeare testify, in olden times. It 
died out thirty or forty years ago, owing 
to its not providing a complete nomen- 
clature for the scale, which is the basis of 
music generally. A family of seven would 
get into confusion if it contained two 
Johns, two Marys, and two Roberts, yet 
this is practically the condition of the 
family of tones known as the scale in 
Lancashire sol-fa. 

Sol-faing, upon whichever plan it is 
practised, precedes singing to words, and 
is used as a stepping-stone during the 
process of learning a piece. In sol-faing 
by the movable do from the staff* notation, 
the singer must possess sufficient skill to 
know where to change the do on passing 
into a new key. As a rule, when short 
entries into new keys occur, the do is not 
changed, but a set of chromatic sol-fa 
notes is employed, as follows : — 




do di re ri mi fa fi sol si la li si do 



S^^^l^^^- 



do si se la le sol fi fa mi me re ra do 

The chromatic notes used in the tonic 
sol-fa system differ slightly from these. 

The minor mode or key is sol-fa-ed by 
all movable-do-ists in the same way as its 
relative major. Thus : — 




22: 



:22: 



:c2: 



do re mi re do si do 



410 



SOMERVILLE HALL, OXFORD SPELLING 



equals 




1^21 



=g^ 



:s2: 



la 



:s2: 



do mi re 



do 



equals 



-^ 






122: 



122: 



la do 



si la si do 



Proposals have been made by theorists 
to call do the keynote of the minor mode, 
and use the inflected syllables for the 
third and sixth of the minor scale, but it 
has been found that the plan is impossible 
in practice. See Singing and Tonic Sol-fa. 

Somerville Hall (Oxford), See Edu- 
cation OF Girls. 

South Kensington. See Science and 
Art Department. 

Spain, Universities of. See Univer- 
sities. 

Spanish. See Modern Languages. 

Spartan Education. See Lacedaemo- 
nian Education. 

Specific Subjects. — This term is ap- 
plied to those optional subjects which are 
taught to children in the upper classes 
of public elementary schools. The specific 
subjects sanctioned by the Department 
are : algebra, Euclid and mensuration, 
mechanics, chemistry, physics, animal 
physiology, botany, principles of agricul- 
ture, Latin, French, domestic economy. 
Any subject other than those mentioned 
may, if sanctioned by the Department, 
be taken as a specific subject, provided 
that a graduated scheme of teaching it 
be submitted to, and approved by, the 
inspector. A grant amounting to 4s. for 
each scholar passing in any specific sub- 
ject is awarded, but no scholar may be 
presented for examination in more than 
two subjects, or in any specific subject, 
for the teaching of which provision is not 
made in the time-table of the school. No 
scholars may be presented for examina- 
tion in specific subjects in any school in 
which, at the last preceding inspection, the 
percentage of passes in the^ elementary 
subjects was less than 70. Specific 
subjects cannot be taken up before a 
scholar has passed the Fourth Standard ; 



and in their instructions to inspectors, 
the Lords of the Committee of Council 
on Education state that it is not desirable, 
as a general rule, that specific subjects 
shoidd be attempted where the staff of 
the school is small, or the scholars in 
Standards V.-VII. do not form a class 
large enough to justify the withdrawal of 
the principal teacher from the teaching 
of the rest of the school : in this latter 
case they would derive more benefit by 
being grouped with the Fourth Standard 
for class subjects. In large schools, how- 
ever, and those which are in favourable 
circumstances, the scholars of Standard V. 
and upwards may be encouraged to at- 
tempt one or more specific subjects, 
which the managers may deem most ap- 
propriate to the industrial and other 
needs of the district. The course suited 
to an elementary school is practically de- 
termined by the limit of 14 years of 
age ; and may properly include whatever 
subjects can be efiectively taught within 
that limit. It may be hoped that year 
by year a larger proportion of the chil- 
dren will remain in the elementary schools 
until the age of 14 ; and a scholar who 
has attended regularly and possesses fair 
ability may reasonably be expected to 
acquire in that time not only a good 
knowledge of readiiig, writing, and arith- 
metic, of English and of geography, but 
also enough of the rudiments of two 
higher subjects to furnish a stable foun- 
dation for further improvement either by 
his own exertion or in a secondary school. 
It is generally found that specific sub- 
jects are most thoroughly taught when a 
special teacher is engaged by a group of 
schools to give instruction in such sub- 
jects once or twice a week, his teaching 
laeing supplemented in the intervals by 
the teachers of the school. 

Spelling. — To spell is to set forth in 
succession the letters composing words. 
In practice there is a twofold difiiculty : 
(1) to form the correct series of letters 
representing a spoken word, and (2) in 
reading to associate with the written or 
spoken word the recognised pronunciation. 
The difiiculty is generally considered to be 
serious, and great efibrts have been made 
to reform our English spelling, so as to 
remove the irregularities, which are looked 
upon as a grievous hindrance to the educa- 
tion of children. A perfect spelling would 
provide a single distinct character to repre- 



SPELLING 



411 



sent each distinct sound, and would not 
permit any sound to be represented by 
more than one character. By this standard 
English spelling is extremely imperfect, the 
alphabet is both incomplete and redundant, 
and the application of it in practice intro- 
duces further confusions. The illustration 
from the consonants is simplest. We have 
no single characters for the sounds of ng 
(in ^\ng\ sh (in wish), zh (in asure), th (in 
^Ain), dh (in ^Aine) ; nor of ch in Scotch 
loch, and gh in Irish lough. Then we have 
three, if not four, superfluous consonants : 
c, which is pronounced either s (as in cell) 
or k (as in come) ; q, which is the same as 
k before lo ; and x, which stands either for 
ks (as in vesc) or gz (as in eccist) ; to whigh 
would be added y, if we had a single cha- 
racter for zh, for J is simply a convenient 
equivalent to dzh. But we do not bind 
ourselves to use these particular consonants 
for the corresponding sounds. For example, 
ph is often used instead off (as in ^Ailo- 
sophj) ; while y is regularly used for dzh, 
ch is regularly used for tsh (as in church) ; 
ti, si are used for sh (in words ending in 
tion, sion) ; and so forth. The greatest 
confusion, however, arises from the scarcity 
of characters to represent the vowel sounds. 
For this extensive purpose we have only 
five letters — a, e, i, o, to ; y, when used as 
a vowel, is a mere duplicate of i. Now 
we have (1) five long vowel sounds, as in 
lay, lee, lie, lo, loo; (2) five short vowel 
sounds, as in hat, bet, bit, hot, hut; (3) at 
any rate three long vowels that are some- 
times pronounced with a certain shortening, 
so as to include in the accent a consonant 
that follows the vowel, as in been, pride, 
pull; (4) two, perhaps three, similar pro- 
longations of short vowel sounds, as in 
palm, saw (a?tght, sowght, &c.), very (when 
specially emphasised); and (5) the foregoing 
vowel sounds when unaccented. A delicate 
analysis would give many more, which, for 
practical purposes, may be omitted from 
consideration here. The astounding inade- 
quacy of the vowel letters is thus apparent. 
Sometimes one of the vowels is brought in 
to the aid of another ; compare mad and 
made, not and note, plain, mean, moan, 
ivuit ; and sometimes a special combination 
is formed, as in awtumn, so^tght, law. The 
confusion thus becomes quite inextricable, 
and there is only one means of threading 
one's way through it ; that is, to classify 
the usages as far as they can be classified, 
and to learn the exceptions individually. 



Unless this be done, either consciously or 
unconsciously, the pupil can never spell 
with certainty. The knack of spelling is, 
indeed, largely a pictorial eSect in many 
cases ; the pupil observes the word, or class 
of words, and remembers the form. As 
Mr. Spedding put it, ' it is by reading we all 
learn to spell' {Nineteenth Century, June 
1877). Afterall,whenthematterisreduced 
to system, and the particulars exhaustively 
enumerated, the bugbear of spelling shrinks 
to insignificant dimensions. In all the 
longer words, which are mostly derived 
from classical sources, there is but little 
irregularity ; even such an irregularity as 
-tion, -sion, pronounced -slion (or -shun), 
is a regular irregularity ; and the similar 
pronunciation of the endings in rhetoric^a7^, 
vQcognition, and the like, must be dealt 
with as special knowledge — it is absurd to 
expect children to spell words that they 
do not know. The really troublesome 
irregularities occur in the words of one 
syllable for the most part ; and chiefly in 
the words that are more frequently used. 
And here again the irregularities are often 
regular, as ivhaXo, pronounced A wale, and 
similar cases. It would seem, then, that 
the right way to master spelling would be 
to familiarise the pupil with the typical 
modes of representing the sounds in English 
successively, and then to proceed to the 
subordinate or exceptional modes in detail, 
taking the unique or very rare cases as 
may be found convenient. 

The syllabification of long words is, of 
course, usually helpful, but it ought not 
to be carried to violent minuteness ; for 
instance, the third syllable in re-cog-m-tion 
can hardly be isolated with advantage to 
the young pupil. In the case of regular 
irregularities, some help may be derived 
from a short consideration of the historical 
causes, as wh, pronounced hw, or with the 
w dropped, or the vicissitudes of such 
curiosities as ow^A in though, enough, &c. 
It may be doubted whether any of the 
elaborate attempts at phonetic spelling 
reform is at all likely to be accepted 
wholesale; the only chance of the promoters 
of reform would seem to be to content 
themselves with a very gradual insinuation 
of changes in the direction they think the 
right one. For instance, the it is frequently 
dropped in favour, honour, &c. ; and no 
one would be alarmed at travel-ing, and 
the like — alterations that creep in under 
Transatlantic influence. ' Rime ' has been 



412 



SPELLING SPENER, PHILIPP JAKOB 



widely used for ' rhyme.' And why should 
people stickle at tho (for 'though') now 
any more than they did last century ? Then 
something might be done by discouraging 
the exaggerated value that has hitherto 
been placed upon spelling as an educational 
accomplishment. Surely a child's time 
could be occupied to more advantage than 
in worrying over the 'correct' spelling of 
receive, believe, &c., or in meditating on 
the discrepancy between the endings of 
' enough ' and ' stuff.' The spelling, indeed, 
is the conservative element, and the inno- 
vations are due to persistent new departures 
in pronunciation. But neither spelling 
nor pronunciation will submit to violent 
and wholesale control into new forms, and 
the only hopeful thing to do is to encourage 
assimilating tendencies, and to discourage 
opposite tendencies. Dr. J. H. Gladstone 
found {Spelling Reform from an Educa- 
tional Point of View, Macmillan & Co.) 
that 'an average English child, spending 
eight years in school, and making the not 
unusual amount of 400 attendances per 
annum, Avill have spent on an average 
2,320 hours in spelling, reading, and dic- 
tation ; and such a scholar will have 
probably acquired sufficient knowledge of 
the subject to pass the moderate require- 
ments of the Government Inspector in 
" reading with fluency and expression," and 
"spelling familiar words without error."' 
The money cost of acquiring these necessary 
accomplishments in the elementary schools 
Dr. Gladstone estimated to exceed consi- 
derably 1,000,000Z. per annum. The pro- 
portion of time occupied was '27'3 per 
cent, of the whole time of the children's 
education, religious and secular.' Yet the 
results of the examinations of Her Majesty's 
Inspectors and others show ' that the great 
majority of our children leave school unable 
to read with ease, or to spell with decent 
correctness ; ' while the Civil Service exa- 
minations cap these results by showing 
' how lamentably imperfect is this acquire- 
ment even among those who have received 
a liberal education.' Inquiring how far 
this frightful expenditure of time and 
money could be 'justly attributed to the 
utter want of system in our orthography,' 
Dr. Gladstone concluded that, if English 
as written corresponded pretty accurately 
with English as pronounced, 720 hours in 
six years would probably be saved, and a 
large, but not easily estimated, reduction 
would be effected in the time devoted to 



reading ; and that ' if English orthography 
represented English pronunciation as 
closely as the Italian does, at least half the 
time and expense of teaching to read and 
to spell would be saved,' which ' may be 
taken as 1,200 hours in a lifetime, and as 
more than half a million of money per 
annum for England and Wales.' In addi- 
tion, thinks Dr. Gladstone, a reform would 
reduce the cost of printing, furnish a means 
of indicating the correct pronunciation, 
render impossible the long continuance of 
the English dialects, do a service to philo- 
logy, substitute a healthy for a vicious 
mental training, and lead to a wide exten- 
sion of the English language. The coun- 
terbalancing objections he reckons as few 
and untenable; namely, that the continuity 
of the written language would be severed, 
and much that is of value in regard to 
the history and origin of words would be 
lost ; that literary associations with the 
past would be destroyed ; that our libraries 
would be rendered useless, all our typo- 
graphical arrangements would be upset, 
and all our educational appliances would 
have to be remodelled. But, as we have 
said, nothing can be done in a hurry or 
wholesale. 

{See Primers I. and II., and Book I. of 
Professor Murison's Globe Readers (Mac- 
millan) ; Professor Bain's Higher English 
Grammar, The Alphabet ; and the writings 
of A. J. Ellis, Henry Sweet, and A. Mel- 
ville Bell, and the pamphlets of Mr. Pitman 
— especially the collection of papers en- 
titled ' A Plea for Spelling Reform ' — and 
Mr. Jones.) 

Spencer, Herbert. See Pedagogy. 

Spener, Philipp Jakob {h. 1635 ; d. 
1705). — A Lutheran divine, born at Rap- 
poltsweiler, in Upper Alsace, studied at 
Strasburg (1651-56), became tutor of the 
princes of the Palatinate, and lectured 
on philosophy and history. From 1659 
to 1662, Spener travelled in Germany, 
Switzerland, and Erance. In 1664 he 
received the degree of Doctor of Theology 
in Strasburg. In 1666 he was appointed 
senior clergyman of Frankfort-on-the- 
Maine, and in 1670 founded the college of 
Pietists. The Lutheran Church had al- 
ready sunk into a state of lifeless dogma- 
tism, and was occupying itself with dis- 
putations and scholastic subtleties. The 
object of the Pietists was to rouse it into 
active ministerial service. The -college 
accordingly held short devotional meetings,. 



STAFF COLLEGE STAGE CHILDREN 



413 



at "which the Scriptures were expounded 
in a popular manner, and discouraged 
philosophy and learning. From 1686 to 
1691 Spener was preacher to the Court of 
Dresden. In 1691 he went to Berlin, and 
took an active part in the foundation 
of the University of Halle, where he suc- 
ceeded in introducing the educational 
regime of the Pietists. Spener's reli- 
gious views are explained in his Pia 
Desideria. 

Staff College. >S'ee Education for the 
Army. 

Stage Children (Education of). — The 
labour of children has frequently in Eng- 
land been made the subject of legislative 
enactment. The general principle of the 
law, as embodied in the Factory and 
Workshops Acts and the Education Acts, 
is based on the right of the State entirely 
to prohibit the labour of children under a 
certain age (now fixed at 10 years), and 
to regulate the hours and conditions of 
their employment up to a certain further 
age (now varying in different industries 
from 14 up to 16). The Education Act 
aims at more than this ; for it not only 
prohibits the premature employment of 
children, but, as its title implies, it is 
based on the principle that it is the duty 
of the nation to secure at least the rudi- 
ments of education to every child in the 
country. 

It is fortunately now unnecessary to 
argue on behalf of the principles under- 
lying this legislation. It is universally 
acknowledged that the welfare of the 
State demands that children shall not be 
ruined by physical toil during infancy or 
by want of elementary education. We 
have abundant proof of the good results 
that have followed from the Factory 
Acts and from the spread of elementary 
education, in the lower death rate, espe- 
cially among the children of the poor, in 
the decrease of crime and drunkenness, 
in the lower percentage of pauperism to 
population throughout the country, and 
in the increase of thrift among the people. 
The wholesome principle that parents 
ought to support their children, not chil- 
dren their parents, has taken firm root 
among large sections of the population 
where, comparatively few years ago, child 
labour, with all its miserable consequences, 
was rife. In every class in which this 
principle has been frankly accepted and 
acted upon, a very great improvement. 



moral, physical, and educational, is visible 
in the general condition of the people. 

There is one out-of-the-way corner, as 
it were, of the industrial world, where 
the labour of very young children is still 
permitted, or at any rate not effectually 
prohibited by the law. The children who 
take part in the infantine dances and 
ballets, which are so popular at many 
theatres, music-halls, and places of popu- 
lar entertainment, are very often appren- 
ticed to those who train them for their 
profession as early as four years of age, 
for a term of nine years. During this 
term the children are at the disposal of 
the person to whom they are apprenticed, 
who accepts engagements for them in 
London or in the provinces, as often and 
as continuously as possible. Troupes of 
little children, from four years old and 
upwards, are sent by the proprietors of 
dancing academies to any theatre in 
London or in the provinces, or even 
abroad, if they can obtain a profitable 
engagement. 

It should be distinctly understood that 
so far as children employed in theatres 
are concerned, no charge of cruelty, as 
the word is generally used, is made either 
against those who train, or those who em- 
ploy, the children. The same thing can- 
not be said of those who train children 
for circuses and to take part in acrobatic 
performances. The fear little children 
naturally entertain of the feats here re- 
quired of them can, in many cases, only 
be overcome by a still greater fear of 
cruel chastisement from the map. in whose 
power they are. A case of this kind, in 
which a baby of four years old was bru- 
tally ill-treated by a man who was train- 
ing it to become a * contortionist,' was in 
March 1888 brought to justice, and the 
delinquent was sentenced to six months' 
imprisonment. But children who are 
required only to dance or to appear on 
the stage as butterflies, mice, shrimps, 
and so on, are not treated cruelly ; the 
injury done to them is, however, none 
the less real and lasting. If the prin- 
ciple of the Factory Acts and of the Edu- 
cation Acts is good, the employment of 
baby children as wage-earners cannot be 
defended. 

School teachers. School Board visitors, 
clergymen, and other people who are 
brought into contact with these children 
concur in the opinion that physically, 



414 



STAGE CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 



morally, and educationally their employ- 
ment only too often means their ruin. 
Their health suffers from the physical 
strain of the labour they endure. Even 
when they come to school by day, they 
are generally good for nothing from fa- 
tigue, and teachers hardly expect any 
work from them. To estimate what the 
physical strain is upon these children, let 
any one who knows from pi-actical ex- 
perience the powers of endurance of a 
child of five or six years old, picture the 
work which these little ones go through. 
First, before a performance, there is the 
practising and the rehearsals. Since the 
London School Board has exerted itself 
to keep up the school attendances of the 
children engaged in this work, rehearsals 
haye, at any rate in one theatre, been 
fixed in the hour allowed for dinner. The 
physical effect of rehearsing is hardly a 
substitute for that of eating ; no wonder 
that the children are spoken of by those 
who try to teach them as good for nothing 
from fatigue. At nearly all the principal 
pantomimes there are afternoon as well as 
evening performances, if not every day, 
generally twice a week. Eight perform- 
ances in six days are by no means infre- 
quent, and it must be remembered that 
the evening performances are not con- 
cluded until a very late hour. The Factory 
Acts protect the health of the children, 
to whom they apply, by absolutely pro- 
hibiting their employment during the 
night ; but baby children have no similar 
protection from employment in theatres. 
The conditions of stage employment are 
in many respects very injurious to health. 
The excessive variations of temperature 
from the over-heated ' flies ' to the 
draughty ' wings ' and stage, are very 
provocative of coughs, colds, and chest 
complaints among the children. The 
teachers of the children speak of their 
' endless colds and coughs.' Many in- 
stances of the cruel efi'ects of the em- 
ployment of stage children can be given. 
One child who began her stage life at 
four years old, after a series of illnesses 
bi'ought on by colds and general debility, 
has quite broken down physically. An- 
other child is dying of overwork at twelve 
years old, and her condition is due to the 
too great physical strain of her profes- 
sion as a stage dancer. This little girl 
had been deserted by the woman who had 
lived on the child's wages as long as she 



was able to earn them. When she broke 
down in health, the woman decamped, de- 
claring she was not, as she had hitherto pro- 
fessed to be, the child's mother. Children 
returning to their homes in London after 
their performance in the Crystal Palace 
pantomime can seldom reach their desti- 
nation till nearly twelve o'clock at night. 
To appreciate what this means, readers 
are requested to follow in detail the 
return journey of one of these chil- 
dren, a little mite looking as young as 
five, but pi'obably two or three years 
older. This child, a pretty attractive 
little thing with curly black hair, was so 
frightfully worn out that she could hardly 
keep awake in the train for two minutes 
together ; she was quite alone, and had 
no one either to meet her or to take care 
of her on the journey ; it was necessary 
for her to change trains twice on her 
way home, and then she had a walk of 
three-quarters of a mile through low 
streets between eleven and twelve o'clock 
at night, to her home. This walk through 
the streets alone frightened her ; but she 
was too tired to run. 

The physical results of such work as 
this bear directly in its educational re- 
sults ; how can any mental work be suc- 
cessfully performed by children so phy- 
sically overstrained? The classes from 
whom the audience of theatres are drawn 
demand afternoon performances for their 
own children, because fatigue, excite- 
ment, and late hours form a compound 
injurious to children. If fatigue, excite- 
ment, and late hours ai-e bad even once 
in a way for the children in the stalls 
and boxes, are they not tenfold more 
injurious to the children on the stage, re- 
peated as they are, night after night, for 
months and sometimes for years con- 
tinuously 1 

It is a very common mistake to sup- 
pose that the children on the stage are 
taken from the poorest and most desti- 
tute homes. Children who are emaci- 
ated from disease and semi-starvation 
would never be selected by theati'ical 
managers, who naturally wish to gratify 
the public by the exhibition of pretty and 
attractive children. Very seldom indeed 
are the theatre children drawn from homes 
of extreme poverty. More frequently 
than not, they are the children of dis- 
solute but clever workmen, who could 
easily earn enough to maintain their 



STAGE CHILDREN- 



STANDARDS 



415 



families in comfort, but prefer two or 
three off-days in every week, especially if 
the consequent deficit in the domestic 
exchequer can be made good by the chil- 
dren's earnings. Parents of this kind 
care little for their children except the 
money they get from them. That the 
theatre children are not half-starved waifs 
and strays, who, if not in the theatre, 
would be in the gutter, is capable of proof 
to any one who will take the trouble to 
watch the children as they leave the the- 
atre. They very frequently go home in 
omnibuses, and sometimes two or three 
club together to take a cab. These are 
not the habits of extreme destitution. 
The children really selected for this work 
are the healthiest and most intelligent of 
those whose parents are willing to subject 
them to the well-known dangers and evils 
of such a life. The children are there- 
fore the best of this class, so far as regards 
physical and mental attainments ; and 
this good material is wasted by premature 
toil and want of education. It must also 
be borne in mind that these children in 
the vast majority of cases are not being 
trained for what will hereafter become 
their profession. After the age of childish 
prettiness is past, there is no demand on 
the stage sufficient to take off the large 
supply of these children. They are obliged, 
in nine cases out of ten, to leave the 
stage because there is no further demand 
for them ; but the excitement and glitter 
of their stage life too often unfits them 
for the daily routine of the ordinary em- 
ployments within their reach. It may be 
asked why the School Boards have not 
dealt efficiently with these children. In 
the first place, the Education Act only 
empowers School Boards to protect chil- 
dren who are within the school age, which 
commences at five ; and a very large num- 
ber of stage and other performing children 
begin their professional career at four, 
and even earlier. Secondly, there are 
many loopholes in the Education Act, 
through which those who profit by the 
employment of children can evade its 
provisions. If a child keeps a certain 
number of school attendances she is held 
to be receiving an efficient education, 
even if she is too tired to attend to her 
lessons ; or parents can remove their 
children from public elementary schools 
to private schools, where attendance need 
be only nominal and in which very often 



the so-called ' education ' is a complete 
farce. In the third place, the most effi- 
cient means of protecting the children, 
viz., by prosecuting their employers, is 
one which most School Boards have been 
very reluctant to use. School Boards, like 
other elected bodies, depend on the good- 
will of their constituents ; if the prose- 
cutions under the Factory Acts could 
only have been undertaken at the in- 
stance of the members of Parliament for 
the district in which the offence had taken 
place, the Acts would not have proved so 
efficient as has actually been the case. 
The power of prosecution for breaches of 
the Education Act should either be ex- 
tended to the general public, or should 
be vested in independent officials corre- 
sponding to factory inspectors, whose ap- 
pointments are not subjected every three 
years to the exigencies of a popular elec- 
tion. 

In the United States the law pro- 
hibits the employment of any child under 
sixteen in any kind of public performance; 
but a special licence enabling a particular 
child to perform for a cei-tain limited 
time is issued upon application, if the 
health and general condition of the child 
can be proved not to be endangered by 
the exemption. A law to a similar effect 
is under the consideration of the French 
Chamber. The moral, physical, and edu- 
cational results of our own factory legis- 
lation, so far as it relates to children, 
have been so satisfactory that it may be 
hoped that similar protection will ere 
long be extended to children employed 
in theatres and other public places of 
amusement. 

Standards. — By this term is meant, 
primarily, the Standards of Examination 
laid down in the Codes of the Education 
Departments for England and Wales and 
for Scotland, according to which the Go- 
vernment inspectors are to test each school 
year's work of children of seven years of 
age and upwards in public elementary 
schools, with a view to the award of that 
portion of the Government grant which is 
paid on ' results.' Each ' standard ' (of 
which there are seven) consists of a por- 
tion (one-seventh in fact) of each of the 
subjects taught — reading, writing, arith- 
metic, English, geography, &;c. — and the 
inspector is required to keep his examina- 
tion questions within the range of the par- 
ticular portion assigned for that standard 



416 



STANDARDS 



(or for a lower standard). It is obvious 
from this that the standards do not lay 
down courses of inMructioii, but are, on 
the face of them, merely guides to the in- 
spectors in the demand they a.re to make 
on the scholars, year by year, at the annual 
t\ra))ii)ia(io)i, with a view to the award of 
Co\-ernmeut grants to the school-managers 
according to the greater or less degree of 
proticiency shown by the scholars. Strictly, 
then, they should only serve to prescribe 
the mhiimio)} year's wox'k of each scholar 
for which a.n annual grant will be paid to 
the school. But experience has shown 
that it is practically impossible to parcel 
out a subject into several sections for the 
purpose of annual exan\inations without 
the sequence so laid down becoming also 
a sequence for purposes of instruction. 
Hence it has come to pass that, almost 
universally in England, the standards of 
examination have become successive parts 
of the annual course of instruction, and 
the scholars of the schools are arranged in 
classes according to the particular standard 
of the Code in which they are preparing 
to be examined in a given year. Accord- 
ingly the word ' standards ' in public ele- 
mentary schools has set up a secondary 
nu^xning, which is synonymous with ' class ' 
in other schools. The scholars doing 
the work of Standard III. in the Code 
are grouped and known as Standard III., 
and so on. The drawbacks and evils 
inseparable froni this state of things, due 
chietly to the double object for which the 
standards were drawn up, viz. testing re- 
sults and paying for resiilts, have been 
subjects of nuich discussion among educa- 
tionists for some time past. {See Payment 
BY Results. ) The point to be noticed here 
is that in no other country ' except Eng- 
land and Scotland (and Ireland, where 
' results" fees ' ai-e paid upon examination) 
does such a system obtain. The courses 
of instruction drawn up by governments 
or states or cities in Europe or the United 
States, or in the Colonies of North America 
and Australia, are n\ade with the single 
aim of directing the teaching stati" of the 
schools towards the best methods of in- 
struction, and the best sequences for pre- 
sentiitiou of a subject, year by year, to 
the scholar's mind, which the practical ex- 

* The Australian provinoe of Viotoria is the solitary 
exception ontside the British Isles. But it is said 
that the edueational authorities there reeosnise the 
evils of • payuient by results,' jiud are seeking to re- 
verse their policy. 



perience at the comn\and of the school 
authorities can devise. In many cases 
these authorities coitteitt themseh'es with 
simply suggesting courses of study, with- 
out any intention of restricting the me- 
thods of teaching, provided that they are 
sound, which the individual teacher may 
adopt, or the sequence in which the parts 
of a subject are presented to the scholar, 
provided they are rational, and tend to 
produce the desired educatioital end. Ac- 
cordingly, it is extremely difficult, arid in 
maity cases impossible, to institute n.ny 
contpai-ison between the standards of the 
English Code and the courses of instruc- 
tion of other comntunities. This difficulty 
is increased by the fact that the English 
standards do not commence until paymeiit 
on the examination-result of the indivi- 
dual child comntences, i.e. at seven, years 
of age. But a child mm/ be in an infants' 
school ior /ok r years, and imist, bylaw, 
be there for two years previous to this, and 
yet there are no standards laid down for 
infants' schools. The Code leaves every 
such school in the land absolutely free to 
adopt any course of ittstruction, provitled 
it leads to preparing the children for 
Standard I. at seven years of age. But 
all other connnunities, in laying down a 
course of ittstruction, begin at the tirst 
year of school-life — tive or six years of 
age most frequently — and carry it through 
from beginning to end. Consequently, the 
first year's course (or standard) on the 
Continent or the United States, lirc, does 
not in any way correspond to Stajidtvrd I. 
in an English or Scotch school. The 
complete course of study put forward in 
1878 for the schools of the city of Boston, 
Massachusetts, is given below, for the pur- 
pose of instituting a con:iparison of great 
educational interest. But it ntust be 
bori\e in mind that two years of school- 
life may, and probably will, have preceded 
the year's course given below, which cor- 
responds (as nearly as possible) to Stan- 
dard I. Full provision is made in the 
Boston Course of Study for a graduated 
course of ittstruction during these earlier 
years, but this has been omitted, in order 
that no confusion may arise. The Stixte 
of Massachusetts is the foremost of the 
Ameiican States in its educational ideals, 
and, of the cities in that State, Boston is 
pre-eminent in its concern for the intel- 
lectual culture of its youthful population ; 
so that it makes provision in the curricu- 



STANDARDS 



417 



lum of its so-called Grammar Schools 
(corresponding to the higher classes of 
our Elementary Schools) for two years 
hayond what in England is implied by 
Standard VII. In relation to this it 
should be remembered that all classes of 
society use the Public Schools of America. 

/Standards. — Code for England and 
Wales. School life may commence at 
three years of age, and must commence at 
five. Up to seven years of age a child 
remains in the Infants' School. Conse- 
quently, there are xxsuaMj four classes in 
an Infants' School below Standard I. 
Children of seven years of age must be 
presented in Standard I. 

/Standard I. (seven years of age). — 
Heading. — To read a short paragraph from 
a book, not confined to words of one syl- 
lable. Writing. — Copy in manuscript cha- 
racters a line of print, and write from 
dictation not more than ten easy words 
commencing with capital letters. Copy- 
books (large or half-text hand) to be 
shown. Arithmetic. — Notation and nu- 
meration up to 1,000. Simple addition 
and subtraction of numbers of not more 
than three figures. In addition not more 
than five lines to be given. The multipli- 
cation table to 6 times 12. English. — To 
repeat twenty lines of simple verse. Geo- 
graphy. — To explain a plan of the school 
and playground. The four cai'dinal points. 
The meaning and use of a map. 

Standard II. (eight years of age). — 
To read a short paragraph from an ele- 
mentary reading-book. Writing. — A pas- 
sage of not more than six lines from the 
same reading-book, slowly read once, and 
then dictated word by word. Copy-books 
(large and half-text hand) to be shown. 
Arithmetic. — Notation and numeration to 
100,000. The four simple rules to short 
division. The multiplication table and 
the pence table to 12s. English. — To re- 
peat forty lines of poetry and to know 
their meaning. To point out nouns and 
verbs. Geography. — The size and shape 
of the world. Geographical terms simply 
explained and illustrated by reference to 
the map of England. Physical geography 
of hills and rivers. 

/Standard III. (nine years of age). — 
Heading. — To read a passage from a more 
advanced reading-book, or from stories 
from English history. Writing. — Six lines 
from one of the reading-books of the 
standard, slowly read once, and then dic- 



tated. Copy-books (capitals and figures, 
large and small hand) to be shown. 
Arithmetic. — The former rules with long 
division. Addition and subtraction of 
money. English. — To recite with intel- 
ligence and expression sixty lines of poetry, 
and to know their meaning. To point 
out nouns, verbs, adjectives, and personal 
prohouns, and to form simple sentences 
containing them. Geography. — Physical 
and political geography of England, with 
special knowledge of the district in which 
the school is situated. 

/Standard IV. (ten years of age). — 
Heading. — To read a few lines from a 
reading-book or history of England. Writ- 
ing. — Eight lines of poetry or prose, 
slowly read once and then dictated. Copy- 
books to be shown. Arithmetic. — Com- 
pound rules (money) and reduction of com- 
mon weights and measures. English. — 
To recite eighty lines of poetry, and to 
explain the words and allusions. To parse 
easy sentences, and to show by examples 
the use of each of the parts of speech. 
Geography. — Physical and political geo- 
graphy of the British Isles and of British 
North America and Australia, with know- 
ledge of their productions. 

/Standard V. (eleven years of age). — 
Reading. — To read a passage from some 
standard author, or from a history of 
England. Writing. — Writing from me- 
mory the substance of a short story read 
out twice ; spelling, handwriting, and 
correct expression to be considered. Copy- 
books to be shown. Arithmetic. — Practice, 
bills of parcels, and single rule of three 
by the method of unity. Addition and 
subtraction of proper fractions, with de- 
nominators not exceeding ten. English. — 
To recite one hundred lines from some 
standard poet, and to explain the words 
and allusions. To parse and analyse 
simple sentences, and to know the naethod 
of forming English nouns, adjectives, and 
verbs from each other. Geography. — 
Geography of Europe, physical and poli- 
tical. Latitude and longitude. Day and 
night. The seasons. 

/Standard VI. (twelve years of age). — 
Reading. — To read a passage from one of 
Shakespeare's historical plays, or from 
some other standard author, or from a 
history of England. Writi7ig.—A short 
theme or letter on an easy subject ; spell- 
ing, handwriting, and composition to be 
considered. Copy-books to be shown. 



418 



STANDARDS 



Arithmetic. — Fractions, vulgar and deci- 
mal ; simple proportion and simple in- 
terest. English. — To recite 150 lines 
from Shakespeare or Milton, or some other 
standard author, and to explain the words 
and allusions. To parse and analyse a 
short complex sentence, and to know the 
meaning and use of Latin prefixes in the 
formation of English words. Geography. — 
Geography of the world generally, and 
especially of the British Colonies and de- 
pendencies. Interchange of productions. 
Circumstances which determine climate. 

Standard VII. (thirteen years of age). 
— Reading. — To read a passage from Shake- 
speare or Milton, or from some standard 
author, or from a history of England. 
Writing. — A theme or letter ; composi- 
tion, spelling, and handwriting to be con- 
sidered. Note-books and exercise-books 
to be shown. Arithmetic. — Compound 
proportion, averages, and percentages. 
English. — To recite 150 lines from Shake- 
speare or Milton, or some other standard 
author, and to explain the words and 
allusions. To analyse sentences, and to 
know prefixes and terminations generally. 
Geography. — The ocean. Currents and 
tides. General arrangement of the plane- 
tary system. The phases of the moon. 

The age named in connection with 
each standard denotes the age at which 
that standard should be passed by the 
average scholar who passed in Standard I. 
at seven years of age. As a matter of 
fact, owing to past neglect, indifference, 
migration, and the ineffective operation of 
the law of compulsory school attendance 
over large areas of the country, children 
of much older years are to be found in 
each standard, and the average age at 
which a standard is passed would be found 
in most places to be one year, and in some 
to be nearly two years, greater than the ages 
named. As time goes on, and the opera- 
tion of the law becomes more certain and 
effective, this difference between what is 
and what should be the average age of the 
scholars in a given standard may be ex- 
pected to diminish. 

In connection with the work in the 
standards the Code requires reading with 
intelligence in all the standards, and in- 
creased fluency and expression in succes- 
sive years. Two sets of reading-books 
must be provided in Standai-ds I. and II., 
and thfee, one of which should relate to 
English history, for each standard above 



the second. In the examination in arith 
metic the inspector may examine scholars 
in any standard lower than that in which 
they are presented. 

English, geography, elementary science, 
or needlework (girls), are class subjects 
{see under Code), but no more than two 
can be taken, the first of which must be 
English. The second subject, where taken, 
is almost universally geography in Boys' 
schools and needlework in Girls' schools. 
There is a schedule for the needlework re- 
quired in each standard. 

Drawing may be taught under the re- 
gulations of the Science and Art Depart- 
ment. Singing may also be taught. 

There is still a further schedule, viz. 
that of ' Specific Subjects,' any two (but 
not more) of which may be taken by. 
scholars who are presented in Standards 
v., YI., or VII. Each subject is divided 
into three stages, and the examination is 
limited each year to these successive 
stages. The specific subjects are : algebra, 
Euclid and mensuration, mechanics, Latin, 
French, animal physiology, botany, prin- 
ciples of agriculture, physics, domestic 
economy (girls). 

City of Boston (^Massachusetts^ Course 
of Study (1878). — Class in Primary 
School corresponding to Standard I., first 
part. — Reading and Spelling. — Reading 
from a Reader of a proper grade. Sup- 
plementary reading. Spelling, by sound 
or by letter, words from the reading les- 
sons and other familiar words. Writing. — 
Capitals and small letters ; short easy 
words ; names of pleasing familiar ob- 
jects ; pupil's name. Arithmetic. — Num- 
bers from 1 to 20 : (1) combinations of 10 
with numbers smaller than 10; (2) add- 
ing, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, 
with results in figures; (3) relations of 
numbers from 1 to 20 ; (4) Roman nume- 
rals to XX ; (5) metre and decimetre. 
Language and oral instruction. — Oral les- 
sons. Purpose, to accustom pupils to ex- 
press what they know in sentences. Ma- 
terial : reading-lessons, pictures, plants, 
and animals, or whatever the ingenuity of 
the teacher may suggest. Simple conver- 
sational studies of familiar plants, ani- 
mals, and things, to distinguish form, 
colour, and prominent qualities, introduc- 
ing freely comparisons between like and 
unlike, and studying less familiar plants, 
animals, and things. With number-les- 
sons — pint, quart, gallon, quart, peck. 



STANDARDS 



419 



bushel. Simple poetry recited (through- 
out the course). 

Class in Priinary School corresponding 
to Standard I., second part, and Standard 
II., first part. — Heading. — As before. 
Spelling. — As before, written and oral. 
Writing. — Letters, words, and short simple 
sentences : the proper use of capitals. 
Roman numerals. Arithmetic. — Numbers 
from 1 to 100 : (1) combinations of tens, 
and of tens with smaller numbers ; (2) add- 
ing, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing 
numbers from 1 to 50, with results in 
figures ; (3) relations of numbers from 1 
to 50 ; (4) Roman numerals to L. ; (5) 
square and cubic decimetre. Language 
and oral instruction. — Oral exercises as in 
preceding lessons. Pupils to write the 
sentences made in their oral exercises so 
far as they are able. Grouping of ani- 
mals by habits, traits, and structure, and 
of objects by form and qualities. Lessons 
in size and distance by simple measure- 
ment — inch, foot, yard. 

Class in Primary School corresponding 
to Standard II., second part. — Heading 
and Spelling. — As before. Writing. — 
Letters, words, and sentences from dicta- 
tion and from the blackboard. Sentences 
used in the language-lessons to be used 
for writing-exercises. Arithmetic. — Num- 
bers from 1 to 100: (1) adding, subtract- 
ing, multiplying, and dividing, with results 
in figures ; (2) relations of numbers from 
1 to 100; (3) Roman numerals to C. ; 
(5) litre and dekalitre, dekametre. Lan- 
guage and oral instruction, — As before, 
with observation of the less obvious quali- 
ties of objects, and of tints and shades 
of colour. Study of strange animals 
from pictures, to infer mode of life from 
structure, or structure from mode of life. 
Simple lessons on weights and on divisions 
of time. Talks about the human body 
and hygiene continued. Fables, anecdotes. 
Class in Primary School, correspond- 
ing to Standard III. — Reading and Spell- 
ing. — As before. Writing. — Words and 
sentences. Sentences used in language- 
lessons will furnish material for exercises. 
The proper form of dating, addressing, 
and signing a letter ; also the correct me- 
thod of superscribing an envelope. Arith- 
metic. — Numbers from 1 to 1,000: (1) 
combinations of hundreds, and of hun- 
dreds with smaller numbers ; (2) adding, 
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing 
numbers from 1 to 144, with results in 



figures; (3) relations of numbers from 1 
to 144 ; (4) adding and subtracting, ntulti- 
plying and dividing, numbers from 1 44 to 
1,000, no multiplier or divisor larger than 
1 being used ; (5) Roman numerals to M. ; 
(6) centimetre, gram, and kilogram. Lan- 
guage and oral instruction. — Work of 
Standard II. continued. Complementairy 
colours and harmonies of colours. Plants 
and animals gathered into families. Vege- 
table, animal, and mineral products dis- 
tinguished. Observation of the qualities 
and mechanism of things as adapted to 
their use. 

Class F/., the lowest in the Grammar 
School, corresponding to Standard lY. — 
Reading and Spelli7ig. — As before, with 
spelling from the reading and other lessons, 
chiefly written exercises. Writing. — Two 
books each half year. Blank books at 
alternate lessons. Arithmetic. — (.1) Com- 
bination of thousands, writing and read- 
ing integers ; (2) relations of tenths, hun- 
dredths, and thousandths to units, writing 
and reading decimals to thousandths ; 
(3) addition and subtraction of integers to 
millions, of decimals to thousandths, and 
of money; (4) the units of money, with 
relations to one another ; also of liquid and 
dry measure. Language and oral instruc- 
tion. — Oral and written exercises in the use 
of language as the expression of thought. 
Exercises the same in kind as those of the 
Primary Schools, adapted to the capacity 
of pupils of this class. Letter--writing. 
Elementary studies in Natural History. 
Plants, May to November. Animals, No- 
vember to May. Qualities and proper- 
ties of objects. Talks about trades, occu- 
pations, and articles of commerce. Poetry 
recited. Geography. — Oral lessons, with 
the use of the globe and maps as soon as 
the class is prepared for them. 

Class v., Grammax School, correspond- 
ing to Standard Y. — Reading and Spell- 
ing.— As, before. Writing. — As before. 
Arithmetic. — (1) Multiplication and divi- 
sion of integers, of decimals, and of money ; 
(2) the units of avoirdupois weight and of 
troy weight, with their relations. Oral 
exercises. Language and oral instruc- 
tion. — Former subjects continued. Talks 
about common phenomena. Stories, anec- 
dotes. Poetry recited. Geography. — Oral 
lessons continued, with . appropriate map- 
drawing. 

Class LY., Grammar School, corre- 
sponding to Standard YL— Reading and 

E E 2 



420 



STATICS SUNDAY SCHOOL 



Spelling. — ^^As before. Writing. — As be- 
fore.* Arithmetic. — (1) Factors, measures, 
and multiples ; (2) common fractions ; 
(3) the units of long, square, and solid 
measure, with their relations ; (4) decimal 
fractions reviewed and completed. Oral 
exercises. Language and oral instruc- 
tion. — Same as preceding. Elementary 
natural history continued. Common me- 
tals and minerals. Useful woods. Stories 
from mythology and ancient history. 
Poetry and prose recited. Geography. — 
Study of the earth as a globe, reference 
to form, parallels, meridians, zones with 
their characteristic winds, currents, and 
the life of man as varied by climate and 
civilisation. The physical features of the 
six grand divisions studied and compared 
with map-drawing. 

Class III., Grammar School, corre- 
sponding to Standard YII. — Reading and 
Spelling. — As before. Writing. — As be- 
fore. Arithmetic. — Metric system. Per- 
centage, simple interest and discount. 
Oral exercises. Language and oral in- 
struction. —As before. Grammar begun, 
the parts of Speech. Analysis of simple 
sentences. Elementary natural history 
continued. Physiology begun. Stories 
of life in the Middle Ages. Poetry and 
prose recited. Geography. — Physical and 
political geography of the countries of the 
grand divisions begun, with map-drawing. 
History. — United States history through 
the Revolution. Physics. — Outlines to be 
taught as far as practicable by the experi- 
mental method. 

Provision is also made in the course 
of study for drawing and singing through- 
out all the classes of the Primary and 
Grammar Schools. 

Statics. See Physics. 

St. Benedict. See Middle Ages, 
Schools op. 

St. Cyran. See Jansenists. 

Strasburg, College of. See Refor- 
mation. 

String Alphabet. See Education of 
THE Blind. 

Stupidity, Dullness. — By these terms 
we understand an exceptional degree of 
mental incapacity, as showing itself more 
especially in slowness of perception and 
understanding. Stupidity, always hard to 
put up with, is in a peculiar sense the 
crux of the teacher. It directly frus- 
trates his efforts, and therefore has to be 
fought against ; yet it is apt to prove 



itself the most invincible of foes. Stu- 
pidity has to be distinguished from mere 
idleness or indisposition to give the atten- 
tion to a subject. We are apt to call 
children stupid when they are merely pre- 
occupied {see Absent-mindedness). Again, 
when slowness of mind is clearly shown, 
it may be due to more than one cause. 
Thus it is well known that a defect in the 
organs of hearing is apt to induce a dull- 
ness in the understanding of what is said. 
Genuine stupidity points to a want of 
mental activity, which may show itself, in 
a general form, as inertness of mind, or, in 
a more special form, as want of retentive 
p'ower, imaginative power, and so forth. 
Such inertness of faculty may be to some ex- 
tent constitutional, and due to feebleness of 
brain-power, in which case it must be put 
up with. On the other hand, it may be 
the result of the want of an appropriate 
mode of mental stimulation. Hence a lov- 
ing and painstaking teacher has often suc- 
ceeded in arousing to something like vigor- 
ous activity what seemed a hopelessly dull 
child. The fact that some of the most dis- 
tinguished men were deemed stupid by 
their parents, schoolmasters, and in some 
cases their teachers, should make the edu- 
cator loth to pronounce any child who is 
not imbecile, but in possession of normal 
mental faculties, incorrigibly stupid. [See 
Locke, Thoughts, § 123 and following; 
Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, i. 
140 and following ; Thring, The Theory 
and Practice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. iv. 
cf. pt. ii. chap, v.) 

Sturm. See Public Schools and 
Reformation. 

Suicide of Scholars. See Overpres- 
sure. 

Sunday School. — The Sunday School 
was the outcome of the movement started 
by Robert Raikes {q.v.) at Gloucester in 
1780. As soon as Raikes's plan of Sun- 
day teaching of the young was made pub- 
lic it attracted much attention, and in 
1784 it was adopted in nearly all the 
manufacturing towns of Yorkshire and 
Lancashire. In 1786 it was estimated 
that 250,000 children were receiving in- 
struction in Sunday schools (vide Gentle- 
man's Magazine for 1786, p. 410). The 
scheme has grown to such an extent and 
has taken such deep root that it now 
forms one of the constituent parts of our 
social system. It is an efficient auxiliary 
in the cause of popular education on ac- 



SWEDEN, UNIVERSITIES OF SWEDENBORGIANISM 421 



count of the elevated position which the 
schools occupy in the cause of education. 
In 1803 the Sunday School Union, chiefly 
composed of Nonconformists, was formed, 
and a few years later a similar society was 
formed in connection with the Church of 
England. In Scotland the system of 
biblical instruction in parochial schools 
sketched by John Knox (q-v.), and of 
family catechising, had already provided 
in large measure for the adequate train- 
ing of the young; but as early as 1782 
some ladies setup a small school onRaikes's 
principle, and in 1797 a Sunday School 
Society was formed in Edinburgh. The 
influence of the Rev. Dr. Chalmers greatly 
popularised the movement in Scotland. 
According to the latest returns the num- 
ber of children attending Sunday schools 
in Scotland is 407, 329,with 44,591 teachers, 
and the number in England and Wales is 
1,255,300, with 132,475 teachers. Sunday 
schools are generally connected with some 
religious congregation, although latterly 
attempts have been made to establish them 
on a broader pi-inciple. The mission school 
is also a kind of Sunday school, being gene- 
rally planted among the more neglected 
portions of the population, and very much 
corresponding to Ragged Schools (q.v.). 
For rating purposes Parliament has defined 
a Sunday school to be any school used for 
giving religious education gratuitously to 
children a,nd young persons on Sunday, and 
on week-days for the holding of classes 
and meetings in furtherance of the same 
object and without pecuniary profit being 
derived therefrom. The rating authority 
may exempt any building or part of a 
building used exclusively as such Sunday 
school from any rate for any purpose what- 
ever which such authority has power to 
impose or levy (vide Stonday and Ragged 
Schools Exemption from Rates Act, 1869). 
■ Sweden, Universities of. See Univer- 
sities. 

Swedenborgianism in relation to 
Education. — The doctrines of the New 
Church or New Jerusalem, the community 
founded by Emanuel Swedenborg, are 
assumed by its adherents to throw much 
new light on the subject of education, 
whether the word be employed in a larger 
sense for the education of the will as well 
as of the understanding, or with the more 
limited signification of a synonym for in- 
struction. These doctrines lay it down as 
a fundamental principle that man is to 



be educated for heaven ; not in f orgetf ul- 
ness of the circumstance that we are born 
in a natural world, and that we have a 
body as well as a soul to provide for ; 
but in emphatic recognition of the fact 
that, while ' in the person to be educated 
there is a portion of his being on the 
level of nature,' there is ' another higher 
portion of his being on a level of heaven, 
and that both these portions in man require 
the utmost care and attention on the part 
of the educator. This same fundamental 
principle also implies that, as the spirit is 
superior to the body, and as a man's spirit 
will last to eternity, while his body enjoys 
only a limited period of existence in this 
world, the care of a man's immortal spirit 
must be of a paramount importance to 
the educator; that in a New Church 
system of education, therefore, the de- 
mands of a life in heaven overbalance the 
demands of a life in this world. And 
from this it follows that practically in a 
New Church school there will be the most 
thorough instruction given in all those 
points which are taught in the doctrines 
of the New Church, namely, the heavenly 
doctrines of the New Jerusalem, the philo- 
sophy of the New Church as exemplified 
in the doctrine of degrees, the science of 
correspondences, and the spiritual sense 
of the Divine Word. These subjects con- 
stitute the centre and nucleus of a New 
Church system of education ; and the 
various subjects of the natural sciences, 
of history and philology, are treated in 
it as subservient branches of knowledge, 
and as simply confirmatory of the princi- 
ples of the New Church.' 

Man's mind at his birth is a tabula 
rasa, an unwritten page, on which every- 
thing may be inscribed ; and man is, 
therefore, in a great measure the creature 
of his education. The New Church thus 
denies, with Locke, the existence of innate 
ideas in man; holding that all informa- 
tion, whether on natural or spiritual sub- 
jects, has to be conveyed to him through 
the medium of the senses. ' According to 
the New Church, also, man nowadays is 
born without a conscience, which is in a 
great measure found through the agency 
of education.' The New Church, how- 
ever, diverges from the author of the 
Thoughts, in teaching that the process of 
education is carried on simultaneously in 
two worlds, the natural and the spiritual, 
in the latter of which there anfe schools, 



422 



SWEDENBORGIANISM IN RELATION TO EDUCATION 



gymnasia, colleges, and all the jyersonnel 
and apparatus of instruction ; and that 
the educational process in the spiritual 
world commences even before the child 
is born into the natural world, just as it 
is angelically continued, after a man's 
natural death, in the spiritual world. ' The 
angels of the inmost heaven, as we are 
taught, are then around the man in pro- 
cess of formation, and instil into his spiri- 
tual composition states of innocence and 
peace ; and this they continue throughout 
the whole of the period of a man's in- 
fancy, childhood, and youth. The doc- 
trine of remains is one of the greatest im- 
portance for all those who wish to treat 
the subject of education from a New 
Church point of view. The basis of re- 
mains, which by the educators in the 
other world, the guardian angels, is im- 
planted in the spirits of all persons born 
in this world, forms the soil which is re- 
ceptive of all those ideas which, through 
the agency of educators in the natural 
world, are communicated to the infantile 
mind. . At first, when a child is born into 
this world, his mind grows apparently 
without much effort on the part of his 
natural educators. The child then learns 
by example more than by precept. Yet 
his guardian angels, his educators in the 
other world, are busily employed at that 
time. 

' The plane of remains, which, as we 
are taught, is constructed during the first 
period of a cliild's life, is formed into a 
likeness of the second heaven. And this 
plane is receptive, on the one hand, of 
spiritual life and light from the Lord; and, 
on the other hand, by the connection with 
the lower parts of a man's mind, and 
thence with the senses of the body it 
forms an orderly plane of influx foi' the 
impressions which enter into a man's 
memory through the senses. Unless there 
was from the first such an orderly, hea- 
venly arrangement of the interiors of the 
human mind, the impressions which from 
the world rush in upon the mind of a 
child would be hopelessly mixed there. 
But, as it is now, every impression as it 
enters the mind has its appointed place in 
the memory ; and this in a great mea- 
sure is due to the constant loving attend- 
ance of the guardian angels, the child's 
educators in the other world. Many of 
these important results ai'e, of course, also 
caused by the constant presence in man of 



the life and light of the Lord our heavenly 
Father. By the presence of spiritual light 
in the mind, there is especially caused 
there that faculty which by Kant is called 
the faculty of pure reason. That faculty 
of pure reason is not the result of educa- 
tion, but by education it is educed or led 
forth into words and deeds. It flows in- 
discriminately into the souls of all human 
beings, but for its reception there are 
required vessels of knowledge, and these 
vessels are prepared by education.' 

The difierence between a child and a 
man is not one of more or less knowledge. 
'A man's mind does not consist of one 
story only which is expanded on the prin- 
ciple of continuous degrees.' The human 
mind, in fact, ' consists of several stories,' 
and Swedenborg's own words with refer- 
ence to this architectural view of the in- 
tellect are to the effect that ' the human 
mind is like a house with three stories, 
communicating with each other by means 
of stairs, in the highest of which dwell 
angels from heaven, in the middle men 
from the world, and in the lowest genii. 
Where the three universal loves — the love 
of heaven, the love of the world, and the 
love of self — are in due subordination, the 
man has power to ascend or descend at 
pleasure : when he ascends to the highest 
story, he is in company with angels as an 
angel ; when he descends thence to the 
middle story, he is in company with men 
as a man-angel ; and when he descends 
thence below, he is there in company with 
genii as a man of the world, and instructs, 
reproves, and brings them into subjection. 
In that part of a man's spirit, or of his 
soul, which is within nature there are 
three degrees, of which one is above the 
other, and which three degrees are gene- 
rally opened as a man passes through the 
hands of his natural educators, and as from 
a child he is matured into a youth, and 
finally into a man.' In infants, up to 
the fourth or fifth year of their life, the 
external sensual or the corporeal faculty 
of their being is in process of develop- 
ment, by means of the insemination of ex- 
ternal sensual ideas, of such ideas as strike 
the mind in the form of pictures and ex- 
ternal forms. After the fifth year the 
second degree is attained, in which ' the 
internal sensual faculty begins to be opened, 
the active power of which is called ima- 
gination,' which ' works up the contents 
of books into higher visual ideas, and en- 



SWEDENBORGIANISM IN RELATION TO EDUCATION 423 



riches the memory with what in the writ- 
ings are styled scientifics or matters of 
knowledge. In proportion as this second 
degree of the natural mind, or its memory- 
part, begins to be more and more filled 
with scientifics or items of knowledge, and 
in proportion as the youth advances in 
years, and begins to show the signs of 
manhood, the third degree of his natural 
mind is being opened, and out of his 
memory age he begins to pass into his 
rational age.' Common sense admits the 
existence of these three degrees of the 
mind within nature, although the systems 
and methods of instruction at present 
in vogue disastrously neglect them. The 
distinction between the first and the se- 
cond degree, that is, between the picture 
age and the reading age of childhood, is, 
however, beginning to be practically ad- 
mitted, especially in the ' useful institu- 
tions ' of the Kindergarten order ; but 
the distinction between the second and 
third ages of man, or between his memory 
age and his thinking age, is still wofuUy 
ignored by practical educators. 

Again, Swedenborg, in one of his works, 
lays down the doctrine that ' sciences in 
general are nothing else than a means of 
forming a man's rational faculty,' and in 
another affirms that ' on our earth the 
sciences are means of opening the intellec- 
tual sight, which sight is in the light of 
heaven.' Such, therefore, from a New 
Church point of view, is the use of that 
knowledge wliich children and youth ac- 
quire at school and in colleges. ' It is a 
means for developing their rational, that 
is, their thinking powers, and thus a means 
for ascending from the second into the 
third story of the mind. This use of the 
sciences, and thus of the material of edu- 
cation, is at the present day universally 
ignored by our systems and methods of 
education. The memory is the only faculty 
in which man is appealed to in our schools 
and in our colleges,' and whilst the differ- 
ence in the age of students is acknow- 
ledged in the choice of subjects which is 
made for younger and for older pupils, the 
method of instruction practically remains 
the same in all ages. ' And this one me- 
thod is the method of learning by rote, 
which when intensified is called cramming.' 
It is OAving to this unnatural method that 
the zeal for learning has to be quickened 
by prizes and scholarships. ' As the 
strength of a man's body depends upon 



his digestive powers, and not upon the 
size of his stomach, so also it is with the 
mind of man. It is not the cramming of 
his mental stomach, of his memory, with 
all sorts of knowledge which makes him 
an intelligent and a rational man, but it 
is his mode of digesting his knowledge. 
A little knowledge well digested, and 
raised from the second to the third story 
of a man's natural mind, goes a great deal 
farther in making him a useful citizen in 
this world than any amount of certificates 
showing that he has successfully crammed 
into his mind a given number of scientific 
subjects. The curse of our schools and 
of our whole age is the synthetic method 
of study which is universally followed to 
the exclusion of the natural method of 
instruction, the analytic, which is the 
method by which children learn their 
mother-tongue.' Ingrammar, for instance, 
children have first to learn abstractions, 
the so-called parts of speech, and then they 
have to commit to memory rules of gram- 
mar which they do not understand. While 
an infant, by following and attending to 
the analytic or natural method of instruc- 
tion, acquires a knowledge of its mother- 
tongue in less than a year, the whole pro- 
cess of acquisition being an easy, almost 
playful enjoyment to him, the labour of 
acquiring Greek and Latin, or French and 
German, becomes afterwards a task of 
peculiar difficulty, and, on account of the 
perverseness of the method which is fol- 
lowed by the teachers generally, the lan- 
guages thus acquired are always more or 
less an artificial product in the mind. 

To teach by the analytic method, and 
thus to develop the rational or thinking 
powers of the students, requires a thorough 
knowledge of his subject on the part of 
the teacher ; and it will not do for him to 
be simply one or two lessons ahead of his 
students. According to the analytic method 
of instruction a teacher is an educator in 
the highest sense of the word, and the plan 
by which he works is that of a builder and 
also of a gardener. An analytic teacher 
has before his mind's eye the whole of those 
departments of learning which he is de- 
sirous of building up in the minds of his 
students, or, rather, which he desires^ his 
students to build up in their own minds 
with the help of their teacher. He lays 
the foundation first, and then commences 
to build up first one branch of the subject 
and then another, and he never leaves a 



424 



SWEDISH DRILL SYMPATHY 



subject until he is fully satisfied that the 
student thoroughly understands it. The 
analytic teacher never loses out of sight 
the New Church truth, that good and truth, 
affection and thought, delight and know- 
ledge, must ever be combined, in order that 
a subject may remain permanently in their 
memory. While directing the attention 
of his students to knowledge, he is, there- 
fore, ever anxious to interest them in their 
subject, that is, to arouse the affection and 
delight of knowing in their mind at the 
same time. This, however, he does by 
always adapting his instruction to the then 
state of their mind ; his instruction must 
be the continuation of something which 
they already know, and it must lie within 
the grasp of their understanding. The 
teacher, therefore, is always sure of com- 
manding the attention of his students, if 
he goes on building on the foundation of 
any subject that has been laid in their 
mind. 

But it is also a function of the educator, 
whether the parent or some other person, 
to watch over the formation of the morals 
of the young. It is necessary that the 
natural mind of children in which they live 
should be under the control of a rational 
mind, until the development of a rational 
mind of their own. With respect to the 
young under their charge, educators are 
in the place of this rational mind, and 
thus also in the place, provisionally, of a 
conscience ; ' for conscience is built up in 
the rational mind. But when young people 
are old enough to have their own rational 
mind, and their own conscience built up 
within them, then it is injurious to them 
to be constantly tied to the leading-strings 
of their parents. The personal obedience 
then falls away, but the rational obedience 
to the principles taught by their parents 
and teachers still continues. The effect of 
a sound education, therefore, ought to be, 
in conclusion, to educate the young to the 
same level of freedom and rationality which 
is enjoyed by their educators ; and when 
they have reached that level, then they are 
in the charge of the Lord alone and His 
truth, and He continues the process of 
education which is now called regeneration, 
until they are re-born and educated into 
angels of heaven ; and thus until they 
have reached the destiny for which the 
Lord has intended every human being at 
his birth, namely, to become an angel of 
heaven.' 



(Emanuel Swedenborg's True Christian 
Religion ; containing the Universal Theo- 
logy of the New Church, and other works ; 
Statement of the Doctrines of the New 
Jerusalem, Church ; ' and the Rev. Dr. 
R. L. Tafel's Education, from which the 
foregoing quotations, when not otherwise 
authenticated, are taken.) 
Swedish Drill. See Ling. 
Swiney Lectures. See Prelections. 
Switzerland, Education in. See Law 
(Educational) (section Zurich). 

Syllabaries. See Schools of Anti- 
quity. 

Sympathy. — The etymology of the word 
sympathy (Greek avv and Trci^os) at once 
tells us that it is a feeling with, or ,'. 
sharing in the feelings of, others. Sym 
pathy is a representative feeling, that is, 
a feeling which depends on the imaginative 
representation of a state of mind not 
actually experienced at the moment. As 
such, it presupposes a certain amount of 
personal experience of pleasure and pain. 
The want of sympathy which is so often 
ascribed to children is explained by the 
limitation of their experience, their ina- 
bility to realise states of feeling different 
from their own, and their preoccupation 
with personal interests and pursuits. At 
the same time, the germ of sympathy, viz. 
the tendency to reflect others' feelings, is 
plainly seen in the readiness with which 
they are excited to laughter, fear, &c., by 
example and contagion. This tendency 
has a high educational importance. It is 
by the contagious propagation of feeling 
that the teacher's cheerful manner induces 
a willingness to learn in the pupil {see 
Cheerfulness). The advantage of teach- 
ing children in numbers rather than alone 
depends on the sympathy of numbers, 
which is merely another name for the 
disposition of the young to take on the 
mental attitude of those by whom they 
are surrounded. The higher kind of sym- 
pathy or fello"v\^- feeling has to be cultivated 
by the educator, both as an aid in intellec- 
tual education and as one chief element 
in moral development. Where there is 
affection between teacher and pupil, and 
the disposition to sympathise which this 
implies, not only is the child's happiness 
promoted, but a powerful motive is sup- 
plied to effort and industry. The sympa- 
thetic child finds it a pleasure to do what 
it knows the teacher likes and wishes it 
to do. Hence the importance of the 



SYISTDICATE- 



-TAYLOR 



425 



teacher's drawing out the affectionate im- 
pulses of the child, by manifesting on his 
side a loving, sympathetic interest in the 
latter's welfare and happiness {see Affec- 
tion). The impulse of sympathy is, fur- 
ther, that on wliich the moral educator 
must ultimately rely for the correction of 
the selfish propensities of children, as 
shown in greediness, envy, cruelty, and 
the bitter feeling of rivalry. Since it is 
agreed that duty consists essentially in a 
recognition of the interests and claims of 
others, it is evident that virtue, or the 
fixed disposition to the right, must have its 
chief root in a wide and impartial sym- 
pathy. Hence the moral importance of 
• cultivating the sympathetic feelings of 
children, first of all in relation to their 
immediate associates, human and animal, 
and then in relation to wider and wider 
circles, those of other social grades, other 
races, and so forth. (AS'ee Miss Edgeworth, 
Practical Education, chap. x. ; Fitch, Lec- 
tures on Teaching, p. 24 and following ; Es- 
says on the Kindergarten (Sonnenschein), 
No. 4; The Happiness of Children ; Sully, 
Teacher'' s Handbook, p. 388 and following ; 
Jean Paul Richter, Levana, edited by Miss 
S. Wood, p. 67 and following ; Compayre, 
Cours de Pedagogie, i. legon ix.) 

Syndicate. — The committee of resi- 



dent graduates who conduct the local 
examinations under the authority of their 
university are known at Cambridge as 
syndicates and at Oxford as delegates. 
The members are generally elected by 
the Senate for four years. They are un- 
paid, like the members of a Committee of 
the House of Commons ; but they appoint 
a paid secretary, to whom all communica- 
tions must be addressed. They also no- 
minate the actual or superintending ex- 
aminers, and have often been examiners 
themselves. The delegates draw up all 
the details of the local examinations, 
syllabus, rates, &c. It is they, and not 
the University generally, who should be 
approached for consultation through their 
secretary, probably a resident Fellow and 
tutor. The names of the members are 
published in the university calendars. 
The joint Committee of Syndicate of the 
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examina- 
tion (q.v.) is conveniently spoken of as 
the Joint Board. It is quite, distinct 
from the Local Examinations syndicate 
and delegacy, with separate secretaries 
and syllabuses. 

Syntax. See Grammar. 

Synthesis. See Analysis and Syn- 
thesis. 



T 



Taylor, Jeremy, D.D. (b. 1613, d. 1667), 
is chiefly known as one of the most emi- 
nent divines, eloquent, learned, and pious, 
of the Anglican Church. But many of 
the best years of his life he spent as a 
schoolmaster in South Wales. As a youth 
he showed much talent, and entering 
Caius College, Cambridge, at the age of 
thirteen, he obtained his B.A. in his 
eighteenth year, and was elected Fellow of 
his college. His brilliant parts attracted 
the attention of Archbishop Laud, who 
appointed him in 1635 to a fellowship at 
All Souls', Oxford, and about a year later 
chaplain to King Charles I. In 1638 he 
became rector of Uppingham, where he 
spent four busy and happy years devoted 
to the duties of his parish. In the Civil 
War Taylor warmly espoused the royal 
cause, and leaving Uppingham remained 
as chaplain at the king's side from 1642 to 
1646. After the battle of Naseby, having 



been deprived of his living and lost all he 
possessed, he took refuge in South Wales, 
and in 1647 had established himself as 
master of a school in Glamorganshire. 
While in this position he published A 
New and Easie Institution of Grammar. 
In which the labour of many years usually 
spent in learning the Latine tongue is 
shortened and made easie. In Usum Juven- 
tutis Cambro-Britannicce. This book,which 
was printed in London in 1647, is very 
rare. In an English dedication to the 
' most hopeful Christopher Hatton, Esquire, 
son and heir to the right honourable Lord 
Hatton of Kirby,' Taylor reveals his ideal 
of education in a characteristic passage, 
in which he addresses his pupil thus : 
'However nature and the laws of the 
kingdom may secure you a great fortune 
and mark you with the exterior character 
of honour, yet your fortune will be but a 
load of baggage and your honour an empty 



426 



TEACHERS TEACHING AND LEARNING 



gaiety, unless you build and adorn your 
Louse with the advantages and ornaments of 
learning upon the foundations of jn^ty' 
(For further details see Educational Times, 
Eeb. 1, 1888, pp. 66, 67.) Taylor, who 
was appointed Bishop of Down and Con- 
nor in 1660, after the restoration of 
Charles II., also compiled A Short Cate- 
chism for the Use of the Schools in South 
Wales in 1652. 

Teachers, Associations of Foreign. — 
The two best known of these associations 
are ' The German Teachers' Association,'' 
15 Gower Street, London, Hon. Sec. H. 
Reichardt, and the ' Societe Rationale des 
Frofesseurs de Frangais,' 20 Bediord Street, 
Strand, London. In connection with both 
there are agencies whose object is 'to 
recommend to principals and headmasters 
of schools, as well as to private families, 
efficient masters and tutors' — and in the 
case of the latter, governesses also. The 
German Association, which is under royal 
patronage, and is managed by a committee 
including some English 'modern' masters, 
also undertakes 'to supply information to 
parents and others as to the most suitable 
schools in England and on the Continent, 
to which pupils can be sent for the purpose 
of education.' Both associations annually 
hold conferences, at which all matters 
connected with the teaching of the re- 
spective languages are discussed, and con- 
sultations held concerning all matters 
likely to be of value to foreign teachers. 

Teachers' Benevolent Fund. See 
National Union of Elementary 
Teachers. 

Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and 
Ireland, incorporated May 15th, 1885. 
Chairman, Rev. John Percival, D.D., 
headmaster of Rugby; secretary, H. B. 
Garrod, M.A. ; offices, 17 Buckingham 
Street, Adelphi, London, W.C.— This as- 
sociation has been formed with three 
main objects, viz.: (1) To form a body 
which shall be thoroughly representative 
of all grades of teachers, and which shall 
be able to speak with knowledge and 
authority on all matters of education. 
(2) To obtain for the whole body of 
teachers the status and authority of a 
learned profession. (3) To enable teachers, 
by union and co-operation, to make a 
better provision for sickness and old age, 
and by the same means to do all such 
other things as may conduce to their own 
welfare and the benefit of the public. 



The Guild already possesses over 
2,500 members, and is rapidly increasing. 
There are local branches at Bradford, 
Brighton, Cheltenham, Glasgow, Halifax, 
Hastings and St. Leonards', Hull, Oxford, 
Sheffield, Truro, and West Kent ; and 
other local branches are in process of for- 
mation. There are local correspondents at 
eighty-three important towns. An excel- 
lent registry for teachers in want of em- 
ployment has been opened at the offices of 
the Guild, at very low fees for members. 
Advantageous terms for members are 
offered by several leading assurance offices. 
A good library (circulating) of pedagogy 
and text-books has been established. A 
list of holiday resorts has been compiled, 
giving the names of places in England 
and on the Continent at which holidays 
can be passed at a reasonable expense, with 
(in many cases) special terms for members 
of the Guild. And much other work is 
being done. Any teacher, or any one in- 
terested in education, if properly nomi- 
nated and approved, can become a member 
of the Guild at an annual subscription of 
5s. (nomination form to be obtained from 
the secretary). Such a person may either 
join the metropolitan body, called the 
' Central Guild,' or any one of the ' Local 
Guilds ' affiliated to it. 

Teachers' Orphanage. See National 
Union of Elementary Teachers. 

Teachers' Training Syndicate. See 
Training of Teachers. 

Teachers' University Association. — 
This Association had its origin in a three 
weeks' visit paid to Balliol College, Ox- 
ford, in the Long Vacation of 1885, by a 
number of elementary schoolmasters, on 
the invitation of the master and fellows 
of the college. It was formed in January 
1886, with the object of promoting the 
training of elementary teachers, at the 
Universities and University Colleges. 
Any person, whether a schoolmaster or 
not, in sympathy with the object of the 
Association is eligible for membership. 
The headquarters of the Association are 
at Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, the Rev. 
S. A. Barnett, Warden of the Hall, being 
president of the Association. 

Teaching and Learning. — As pointed 
out in the article Acquisition of Know- 
ledge, learning involves the putting forth 
of activity by the learner's mind, in the 
act of seizing and appropriating the new 
material and bringing it into vital con- 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



427 



nection with previous knowledge. This 
acti-\T.ty is only put forth when a feeling 
of interest is excited, which feeling in- 
duces an inquisitiye and expectant atti- 
tude of mind. Such a feeling of interest 
again implies that the new facts or ideas 
presented have points of contact with 
what is already familiar. Hence learn- 
ing cannot proceed by leaps, but only by 
a continuous movement. Learning is thus 
a mode of organic growth, in which new 
ideas by a process of accretion form them- 
selves about old ideas as centres. This 
being so, it is evident that teaching can- 
not properly be described as a putting of 
new ideas into the child's mind. True 
teaching, which ends in the production of 
new knowledge, consists in aiding and 
directing the organic process of idea- 
formation. Hence the importance of be- 
ginning by rousing an inquisitiveness or 
thirst for knowledge in the child's mind. 
Hence, too, the value now ascribed to 
those methods of instruction which incite 
the child to discover what is discoverable 
for himself. Hence, finally, the generally ac- 
cepted maxim that in all teaching the new 
facts and truths must be presented in their 
relations to what the child already knows 
(cf. articles Acquisition of Knowledge 
and Instruction). {See Thring, Theory 
and Practice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. x. ; 
D. P. Page, Theory and Practice of Teach- 
ing, chap. vi. sect., iii. and following \ 
Compayre, Cours de Pedagogie, legon iii. j 
article ' Lehren und Lernen,' in Schmidt's 
Encyclopddie. 

Teclmical Education. — By technical 
education is generally meant the training 
which includes instruction in the arts and 
sciences which underlie the practice of 
some ti'ade or profession. Schools in which 
this training is afforded are called techni- 
cal schools. Such schools may provide 
the general training which is the necessary 
part of the education of all persons, as well 
as the special instruction applicable to cer- 
tain groups of industries ; or they may 
provide the special instruction only, with 
or without practice in certain handicrafts. 
The schools in which technical instruction 
is given are very numerous, and difier 
widely in their character and objects. 

It is now found convenient to restrict 
the term ' technical ' as applied to educa- 
tion to that special training which helps 
to qualify a person to engage in some 
branch of productive industry. This edu- 



cation may consist of the explanation of 
the processes concerning production, or of 
instruction in science and art in its rela- 
tion to industry, as well as in the acquisi- 
tion of manual skill. 

The necessity for technical education 
has arisen from the altered conditions 
under which production is now carried on. 
The application of steam-power to the ma- 
chinery used in manufacturing industry 
has effected a complete revolution in the 
methods of production and in the rela- 
tions between employer and employed. 
The old system of apprenticeship, in which 
the pupil received instruction from his 
master in the principles of his craft, has 
almost ceased to exist, and one of the 
problems of technical education is to find 
a substitute for it. 

The establishment of large factories, 
equipped with all sorts of labour-saving 
appliances, has resulted in a great exten- 
sion of the system of division of labour, in 
consequence of which artisans are em- 
ployed almost exclusively in one depart- 
ment of work, and have little or no op- 
portunity of becoming acquainted with 
the general principles of the manufacture 
in which they are engaged. 

The progress of science and the rapid 
succession of new discoveries have led to 
constant improvements in the machinery 
and processes of production, and have 
necessitated very advanced scientific edu- 
cation on the part of those who are called 
upon to take the management of any 
department of manufacturing industry. 
Many factories are themselves labora- 
tories on a very large scale, in which, by 
the application of scientific processes, raw 
material is altered in substance or in form 
and converted into manufactured pro- 
ducts. In order to thoroughly understand 
the nature of the changes that take place 
in such a factory, and to be able to apply 
the most recent discoveries of science to 
the improvement of the processes of pro- 
duction, a special education is needed, 
which can only be provided in technical 
schools, adequately equipped and directed 
by a competent staflf of proficient teachers. 

The general improvement in education 
and the spread of art teaching in this 
country, and to a much greater extent in 
other countries, has created a taste for 
beautiful things and has elevated the ar- 
tistic perceptions of the purchasers of all 
kinds of oods. The saleable value of a 



428 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



great variety of different works has con- 
sequently come to depend very much on 
originality and beauty in design ; and the 
efficient training of industrial designers, 
as a part of technical education, has become 
indispensable. 

The demand for technical instruction 
is destined to effect a revolution in the 
methods and subjects of instruction in all 
our schools, from the elementary school 
to the university. It is due to the con- 
viction that prominent among the causes 
of the successful competition of foreign 
manufacturers is the system of technical 
education which for more than twenty 
years has existed in Germany, and has 
since been introduced into other European 
countries. 

The strong belief that our commercial 
interests were severely suffering from the 
want of fitting instruction for our artisans 
and manufacturers, led to the appoint- 
ment in 1881 of a Royal Commission to in- 
quire into the facilities afforded in foreign 
countries for the technical instruction of 
persons engaged in productive industry. 
The report of the Commission, published 
in 1884, showed very clearly that the 
English people were losing ground in con- 
sequence of the deficiencies in their system 
of education, and a great impetus was 
thereby afibrded to the establishment in 
this country of technical schools. 

Although great progress has been made 
during the last few years, England is still 
behind most continental nations in the 
provision of technical schools adapted to 
the requirements of different classes of 
workers. In Germany the most important 
industries have been created by means of 
the education afforded in technical schools. 
In no other country is the connection be- 
tween commercial prosperity and the ma- 
chinery of education so marked. The 
special feature of German technical in- 
struction is the lavish expenditure on the 
education of the leaders of industry. 
This is provided in the technical high 
schools and the universities. The success 
of the great chemical trades in Germany 
is mainly due to the utilisation of the re- 
sults of the researches of the army of 
highly trained chemists who are constantly 
engaged in making new discoveries, and 
who are employed in large numbers in 
every chemical factory. In the same way, 
German engineers have received the prin- 
cipal part of their training in the technical 



high schools, where engineering labora- 
tories had been equipped long before any 
such had been provided in our own col- 
leges. The main principles of German 
technical education consist (1) in giving 
the highest possible scientific training to 
all those who are likely to occupy any 
of the higher posts in industrial works ; 

(2) in giving, either gratuitously or at a 
very small cost, sound general and practi- 
cal education to artisans and workpeople ; 

(3) in providing cheap secondary education 
for all persons qualified to receive it. 
Trade schools are only now beginning to 
be introduced into Germany. The Ger- 
mans have relied upon the excellence of 
their system of primary and secondary 
education, and on the facilities afforded 
for higher technical instruction. Institu- 
tions known as Kunstgewerheschulen, for 
the teaching of industrial art, correspond- 
ing in some respects to the technical high 
schools, for the teaching of industrial 
science, are found in all the large towns 
of Germany. Moreover, to prevent any 
break in the education of the children 
after they leave the primary schools, there 
exists a more organised system of con- 
tinuation schools, in which elementary 
instruction is continued and afterwards 
specialised with a view to different occu- 
pations. 

In France technical education has de- 
veloped on somewhat different lines. The 
school has been more generally utilised 
for the technical training of the workmen. 
Now for some years apprenticeship schools 
have been established for the teaching of 
different tirades. In these schools the 
pupil learns a trade whilst he is pursuing 
his general education. The Ecole Diderot 
in Paris is an example of such a school 
for the training of workmen principally as 
smiths and fitters. • Similar schools are 
found in other large towns of France. 
Besides these there are schools such as the 
Ecole des Arts et Metiers at Chalons, for 
the training of foremen. In these schools, 
contracts, principally for the government, 
are completed, and the student is supposed 
to receive under more favourable condi- 
tions the same kind of training as he 
would obtain in an engineer's shop. In 
many of the principal towns are found 
collegiate institutions, such as the Institut 
du Nord at Lille and the Ecole Centrale 
at Lyons, in which higher technical in- 
struction, including more advanced science 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



429 



teaching, is provided. In the Ecole Cen- 
trale of Paris the principal engineers, not 
engaged in government service, and the 
heads of manufacturing works receive 
their training. A special feature of French 
industrial education is the evening art 
school, which is free, and is found in every 
large town. In Paris there are many such 
schools, attended by large numbers of 
artisan students, and it is greatly owing to 
the instruction provided in these schools, 
and also to the exhibition of works of art 
in the museums, which are largely fre- 
quented by workpeople on Sundays, that 
the artistic skill of French workmen, and 
their pre-eminence as industrial designers, 
are mainly due. 

The system of technical instruction in 
Italy is founded to a great extent on that 
of Germany, but is far less advanced. 
Every large town has a technical institute, 
Istituto tecnico, which generally comprises 
four departments of study, for chemistry, 
engineering, agriculture, and commerce. 
These departments vary in different loca- 
lities. There are also special schools for 
naval architecture, for the textile trades, 
and for applied art. Of trade schools 
similar to those in France there are some, 
but not many examples. The highest in- 
struction is afforded in the higher technical 
institutes, which are situated in Milan, 
Turin, and Naples. Evening schools, prin- 
cipally for art training, are found in the 
principal Italian towns. 

A review of foreign systems of edu- 
cation shows us (1) the importance of 
adapting technical instruction to local re- 
quirements ; (2) the intimate connection 
which ought to subsist between general 
and technical instruction ; (3) the difficulty 
of formulating any complete system of 
technical education. 

(1) In order that technical instruction 
may be adapted to local requirements, the 
direction of technical schools ought to be 
largely in the hands of local authorities. 
This is generally the case abroad. Indus- 
trial societies, chambers of commerce, mu- 
nicipal and county councils jointly con- 
tribute to the support and maintenance of 
these schools ; and although they receive 
in most cases a subvention from the State, 
the management and control of the schools, 
subject to government inspection, are left 
to a great extent to local bodies. 

(2) In order that education may sub- 
serve the purposes of industry, it must be 



adapted to the changed conditions under 
which productive and commercial enter- 
prise are now carried on. Technical educa- 
tion cannot be regarded as something apart 
from general education. It is to a great 
extent nothing more than a modification 
of a system of education which has pre- 
vailed for many centuries, but is no longer 
adapted to present industrial require- 
ments. This fact is recognised abroad. 
In Germany, Austria, Italy, and Switzer- 
land secondary education is organised with 
a view to the enlargement that has taken 
place in the area of the so-called learned 
professions, and to the necessity that now 
exists of allowing an adequate and fitting 
preliminary training to all persons who 
are to be engaged in industrial pursuits. 

(3) No country can be said to possess 
a complete system of technical education. 
Such a system should provide necessary 
instruction for the different classes of 
workers engaged in productive industry. 
It is usual to divide persons so engaged 
into three groups : (1) Workmen or 
journeymen. (2) Foremen or overseers. 
(3) Managers or masters. 

The different trades or industries can- 
not be so easily classified, but they may 
be divided roughly into manufactures and 
handicrafts — that is, into trades in which 
machinery is largely employed, and in 
which the finished product passes through 
a large number of different hands and is 
subjected to a variety of different pro- 
cesses ; and trades in which the finished 
product is mainly the result of the skill of 
one or more individual workers. The ad- 
vance of science is constantly tending to 
transfer trades from the latter to the for- 
mer class, and this fact alone shows the 
primary importance of the general diffu- 
sion of scientific knowledge among all 
classes of persons engaged in productive 
industry. The inquiries which have been 
made into the systems of education adopted 
abroad have shown us the kind of instruc- 
tion which is needed for the efficient train- 
ing of these different classes of persons. 
As regards workmen, what is wanted is 
practical primary education, in which the 
teaching of the three R's is supplemented 
by rudimentary science lessons, by instruc- 
tion in drawing, and by manual training 
having for its purpose the discipline of 
the hand and eye. The aim of the science 
teaching should be to quicken the observ- 
ing faculties of the children. The in- 



430 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



strviction should be given, as far as pos- 
sible, by way of object lessons, and the 
subjects should be varied according to the 
district in which the school is situated. 
The drawing lessons should consist of 
linear drawing for all pupils, and of free- 
hand drawing, supplemented by modelling, 
for those who show any special art aptitude; 
and the manual training should consist of 
lessons intheuse of ordinary wood-working 
tools, some skill in the manipulation of 
which is likely to facilitate the acquisition 
of any trade. The real training of the 
workman must be obtained in the factory 
or shop ; but facilities should be afforded 
for supplementing workshop practice by 
evening instruction, which should be spe- 
cially adapted to the industry in which he 
is engaged. Evening technical instruction 
for workmen should include lessons in art 
and science and in their application to 
different trades, and also in certain cases 
in the technology of different departments 
of trade cognate to the one in which the 
workman is daily occupied. The foreman, 
who is generally selected from the more 
successful and better-informed workmen, 
may obtain his special training in evening 
technical schools ; but it is also desirable 
that children from the elementary schools, 
showing aptitude for profiting by higher 
instruction, should be encouraged, by 
means of scholarships, to continue their 
education in higher schools, with a view 
of giving them the preliminary training 
which may qualify them to occupy more 
readily higher posts in industrial works. 
In these schools the instruction should be 
practical, and should consist mainly of 
physical science, mathematics, drawing, 
and further practice in the use of tools. 

For those who are to take charge of 
manufacturing works, or who are to be 
engaged as engineers in constructive in- 
dustry, the best training is that which 
may be obtained in a good secondary 
modern school, in which the teaching of 
science and modern lai:iguages is substi- 
tuted for that of classics. This training 
should be svipplemented by such higher 
technical instruction as is now provided 
in a technical institute or in special de- 
partments of some of our universities. 

The two principal agencies in this 
country for the encouragement and direc- 
tion of technical education are the Science 
and Art Department and the City and 
Guilds of London Institute. The Science 



and Art Department (q.v.) encourages, 
by means of grants on the results of the 
examinations of students, the formation 
of classes : (1) for the study of art and 
industrial design ; (2) for the study of the 
different branches of science. The City 
and Guilds of London Institute is a volun- 
tary association of some of the principal 
livery companies of London, who annually 
subscribe money for the advancement of 
technical education. The Institute was 
incorporated in the year 1880. It has es- 
tablished and maintains a technical college 
at Finsbury and a Central Institution at 
Kensington. The object of the Finsbury 
College is to afford evening instruction to 
artisans, and to train youths who may 
have received their earlier education in a 
public elementary or middle-class school 
to occupy intermediate posts in industrial 
works. The object of the Central Insti- 
tution or Technical University of London 
is the education of technical teachers and 
of young men preparing for any branch of 
engineering or manufacturing work. The 
Institute also encourages, after the man- 
ner of the Science and Art Department, 
the formation throughout the kingdom of 
classes in technology and in the applica- 
tion of science to different trades. 

Ancient endowments, which are no 
longer applicable for the purposes for 
which they were originally intended, are 
now being applied by the Charity Com- 
missioners to the establishment and main- 
tenance of technical schools, especially 
evening schools, such as that in connec- 
tion with the People's Palace ; and pri- 
vate benevolence, assisted in many cases by 
contributions from the livery companies, 
and notably from the Clothworkers' Com- 
panies of Londctn, has been the means of 
establishing technical colleges in different 
parts of the country, as well as university 
colleges in which the instruction largely 
piartakes of a^ technical character. In 
1887, a Bill was introduced into Parlia- 
ment to confer powers upon local autho- 
rities to levy rates for the erection and 
maintenance of technical schools, and to 
enable the Science and Art Department 
to make grants on handicraft instruction 
in elementary schools ; and although this 
Bill was dropped, owing mainly to the 
pressure of other business, it has this year 
(1888) been again introduced in an 
amended form, and is certain, should it 
become law, to facilitate the establish- 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



431 



ment of technical schools adapted to local 
wants. One of the many results of the 
demand for technical instruction has been 
the improvement in general education by 
the introduction into the different grades of 
schools, from the higher elementary school 
to the university, of the laboratory, the 
drawing-office, and the workshop. 

Several attempts to legislate on this 
subject have been made, and three Bills 
for providing technical instruction have 
been introduced into the House of Com- 
mons. The first of these was the Bill 
brought in on July 19, 1887, by Sir W. 
Hart-Dyke on behalf of the Government. 
In this Bill it was proposed to give power 
to school boards and local authorities to 
provide technical schools or contribute to 
their support. A poll on the question of 
putting these powers into force might be 
demanded by fifty ratepayers, except in the 
metropolis. No payment might be made 
from the rates with respect to any scholar 
who had not passed the Sixth Standard, 
and technical instruction was defined as 
covering those subjects for which grants 
are made, or which may be sanctioned by 
the Science and Art Department. The 
Bill was read a second time on August 9, 
but was dropped before reaching the com- 
mittee stage. 

In March, 1888, Sir Henry Roscoe in- 
troduced a second Technical Education 
Bill, embodying the -views of the National 
Association for the Promotion of Technical 
Education. This Bill proposed that autho- 
rity should be given to the School Boards 
to provide for technical education in 
schools under their management, or that 
the local authority should make such pro- 
vision if necessary. This Bill had from 
the beginning but little chance of pass- 
ing, in view of the avowed intention of 
the Government to introduce a Bill of 
their own, which they did on May 17, 
1888. This Bill differed from its prede- 
cessor of 1887, and also from Sir Henry 
Roscoe's Bill, in several important points. 
The clause requiring a poll on demand of 
fifty ratepayers was omitted, but the re- 
quirement of a poll (so far as concerns all 
but elementary schools) was retained by a 
provision placing the control of secondary 
technical instruction in the hands of the 
' authority empowered to carry out the 
Public Libraries Acts.' School Boards 
were required by the Bill under certain 
conditions to aid the supply of technical 



and manual training in voluntary schools. 
For the first time ' manual ' was separated 
from 'technical' instruction, and the mini- 
mum standard limit ^the standard speci- 
fied in the schedule is nearly equivalent 
to the Sixth — applied to ' technical ' in- 
struction only. Where School Boards exist, 
the local control of elementary technical 
instruction is separated under the Bill 
from that of secondary technical instruc- 
tion, the former being in the hands of the 
School Board, the latter in the hands of 
the authority empowered to carry out the 
Libraries Acts. A condition introduced 
was the limitation of the rates raised by 
the School Board and by the local autho- 
rity for purposes of technical education 
to one penny in each case. 

Commercial Education may be re- 
garded as a branch of technical education. 
It means instruction in the art of dis- 
posing of the products of industry to the 
best advantage. It is thus to be distin- 
guished from that part of technical edu- 
cation which relates to instruction in the 
art of growing, winning, or making these 
products. In an address delivered before the 
Teachers' Guild, Dr. Wormell points out 
(1) that a good, broad, and thorough gene- 
ral education is the best basis for a special 
course of professional training and instruc- 
tion ; (2) that the range and depth of 
this general education must be determined 
by the range of knowledge, and the amount 
of intelligence and skill necessary to cope 
with the special professional instruction 
which is to be built upon it (Journal, of 
Education, February 1888). The art of 
the pedagogue will be shown in the dex- 
terity with which he selects in the course 
of general education subjects that have 
the closest bearing on the course of special 
professional instruction. It is fully re- 
cognised that the course of school studies 
for a boy entering on business life must 
differ materially from that which is fitted 
for a boy destined for the learned pro- 
fessions or for the career of scholarship. 
The Germans, with characteristic thorough- 
ness, have organised special schools for 
these two classes of boys {see Gymnasium 
and Realschule)! The English, on the 
other hand, have endeavoured to combine 
the two courses in the same school. Thus 
the boy who in Germany would go to a 
gymnasium, in England proceeds further 
and further with the classical and literary 
studies included in the school programme ; 



432 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



whereas the boy who is to become a man 
of business, dropping the classical studies, 
proceeds further and further with modern 
languages and the scientific subjects in 
that programme. There is this to be said 
in favour of the English plan— that it 
avoids the unnecessary multiplication of 
schools ; it promotes in early life an inter- 
mixture of classes which must be bene- 
ficial to a democratic community ; it in- 
terests the professional and mercantile 
classes alike in the efiiciency and pro- 
sperity of secondary schools, which must 
depend greatly on private munificence for 
their endowment. It is difficult to decide 
what course of study should be prescribed 
as afibrding the best commercial education. 
:1) Ethics and morality are of course 
essential as the basis. (2) Next in im- 
portance comes the language of instruc- 
tion—viz. English as read, written, and 
spoken. This cannot be taught too 
thoroughly. (3) Latin. (4) French and 
German. Where practicable, it should be 
optional to substitute Spanish for Latin ; 
or if Latin be not chosen, then higher in- 
struction in French should take its place. 

(5) History and geography ; (a) English 
history, together with the history of Scot- 
land, Ireland, the United States, and the 
chief British colonies and dependencies; 

(6) the modern history of Europe ; (c) Greek 
and Roman history ; {d) the earth's sur- 
face and products, and its natural and 
political divisions, with special reference 
to the British Empire. (6) Mathema- 
tics. (7) Natural science : (a) survey 
of animal and vegetable kingdoms with 
special relation to the commercial products 
derived from them, form and character- 
istics of the more important minerals ; (6) 
the rudiments of geology. (8) Physics and 
mechanics demonstrated (a) by simple_ ex- 
periments and (b) by simple calculations 
or elementary mathematics. (9) Chemistry 
demonstrated by simple experiments, to- 
gether with a survey of chemical processes, 
elements, and combinations, with special 
reference to their iiidustrial importance. 
(10) Freehand drawing. (11) Writing, in- 
cluding bookkeeping, shorthand, the art 
of displaying simple statements of account, 
business letter- writing, said precis writing. 
(12) Rudimentsof political economy taught 
with a special bearing on trade, the duties 
of citizenship, and the constitution of the 
country. For lads who must enter busi- 
ness early in life as clerks, the course 



must be simplified. The necessity of re- 
cognising two kinds of commercial edu- 
cation was forcibly pointed out in the 
Chamber of Commerce Journal for July 
1888. There are two classes to be con- 
sidered : (1) employes or clerks, and (2) 
principals, managers, agents, and other 
responsible heads of business firms. ' The 
class of clerks and assistants must, from 
the complicated and generally technical 
nature of the duties which they have to 
perform, devote several years, which really 
constitute apprenticeship, in acquiring in 
an office a knowledge of, and familiarity 
with, the duties from the exercise of which 
their livelihood is to be derived. From 
four to six years, according to capacity, 
have to be devoted to such an apprentice- 
ship before a living can be earned, al- 
though some wage is obtainable after the 
first year or two. This comparatively long 
training, in what is really technical edu- 
cation for the clerkly craft, makes it ne- 
cessary that youths should commence the 
practical part of their career as early as 
possible. Experience has proved that the 
best age is between fourteen and fifteen. 
There are some large firms in London who 
do not take juniors who are older than 
fifteen years. It therefore becomes urgent 
to provide for the requirements of this 
large class by supplying a curriculum which 
will afford a maximum of bread-earning 
knowledge at this minimum age. A good 
handwriting, a fair grasp and comprehen- 
sion of arithmetic, an average grounding 
in grammar and history, a fuller acquaint- 
ance than formerly with geography, a cer- 
tain developed capacity in shorthand, and 
free or colloquial, as well as grammatical, 
familiarity with one or two foreign lan- 
guages, appear to be generally considered 
as the necessities and the minimum of the 
bread-earning education of the lad of fif- 
teen henceforward. Opinion is, moreover, 
unanimous as to the necessity of thorough- 
ness and soundness in the acquirement of 
this " foundation " education, as it is fit- 
tingly termed, the idea being to impart a 
basis or- foundation of knowledge so sound 
and thorough that it will admit of any sub- 
sequent development or cultivation. Con- 
tinuation, evening, and technical classes 
will, it is expected, play an increasing 
part after business hours in the intellec- 
tual development of the young clerk of 
the future who is ambitious and anxiouiS 
to qualify for the higher and more remu- 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION 



433 



nerative posts which are ever open to a 
combination of capacity, prudence, and 
enterprise. Self-culture will become more 
and more of a necessity in the future, 
under the pitiless pressure of competition, 
hence also the necessity of qualifying 
young men, more carefully than in the 
past, to acquire that capacity and know- 
ledge which alone will enable the minority 
to rise above the ranks of the plodding 
and drudging majority. Given a fitting 
basis or foundation of education to all, it 
will be the fault of those interested if 
they do not make the necessary sacrifice 
of time and labour which will enable 
them to attain to superior acquirements, 
and to improve the position of the entire 
nation together with their own.' The 
education of the clerk, however, is not 
more important than the education of 
those who aspire to hold the posts of com- 
mand in the commercial army — officers of 
all degrees, who are largely recruited from 
the more fortunate class of lads referred 
to above. It is at last admitted, says the 
Cliamher of Commerce Journal, that the 
merchant is as worthy of a special train- 
ing as is the doctor, the lawyer, the engi- 
neer, the artist, or the musician. ' What 
is astonishing is not this very late national 
conversion to a self-evident principle, but 
that it should have ever been possible for 
the incapable of all classes to seek a refuge 
in a mercantile career. The present general 
demand for the means to attain a higher 
status of capacity, and the equally gene- 
ral feeling that many posts occupied by 
foreigners, simply because they are expert 
and modest, ought to be filled by equally 
capable British subjects, proves that spe- 
cial knowledge will in future be exacted, 
and that in trade, as in other professions, 
the " fittest " alone will survive. Compe- 
tition, as is proper, has found out our 
weak point. It has proved that a national 
error, however general, will not long be 
allowed to prevail, and that the law of 
demand and supply goes far to correct our 
educational mistakes. Whilst we failed 
to train competent clerks other nations did 
{sic), the result being that we were con- 
strained to give preference to foreigners in 
an alarmingly large number of employ- 
ments and trades. The same implacable 
rule applies to principals, and to the trade 
which they conduct. It stands to reason 
that the education or system which pro- 
duces the best clerks will also produce the 



best principals, and by their united efforts 
they develop the most successful national 
trade. Education, then, is an element of 
competition of the most dangerous kind. 
By its means it is clear that a nation may 
gradually acquire a commercial superiority, 
without capital or special products, such 
as we obtained early in the century through 
our metals, our machinery, and our ship- 
ping. It is equally clear that it is only 
through education that we can hope to 
retain our hold on what we have gained, 
and to maintain our position as a commer- 
cial country.' 

In 1888 a committee was appointed, as 
a result of several conferences convened 
by the London Chamber of Commerce, to 
consider the best means of introducing a 
system of commercial education which 
would meet the requirements of a modern 
business. It included the following gentle- 
men : — Sir J. Lubbock, Sir B. Samuelson, 
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Sir C H. Chubb, 
Mr. H. Kimber, Mr. Magniac, Mr. J. H. 
Tritton, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, Mr. Charles 
Morley, Mr. Walter Leaf, Mr. Frank De- 
benham, Mr. E. Power, and the Rev. Dr. 
Wace. The committee held several sit- 
tings, and issued to leading commercial 
firms in London and the provinces a scheme 
prepared for the improvement of commer- 
cial education. This step was taken to 
elicit the opinion and criticism of practical 
business men in regard to the suggested- 
curriculum, whilst revisions in detail were 
sought also from masters of schools and 
other authorities on practical education. 
The scheme proposed as obligatory subjects 
for examination for a commercial certifi- 
cate : (1) English, (2) Latin, (3a) French, 
(36) German, Spanish, or Italian, (4) his- 
tory of British Isles and Colonies, general 
and modern history, including commercial 
history, (5) geography, physical, political, 
commercial, and industrial, (6) mathema- 
tics, (7) drawing. Proficiency was also 
required in at least one of the following : 
Physics, chemistry, natural history, com- 
merce, and political economy. The final 
report of the committee was issued by 
Isbister & Co. while the parent work was 
in the press. 

Cambridge has taken the lead of the 
universities in acknowledging the necessity 
for giving commercial education special 
recognition. The syndicate of the Uni- 
versity on February 22, 1888, requested 
that the Local Examination and Lecture 

F F 



434 



TECHNICAL EDUCATION TEMPER 



Syndicates be empoAvei'ed to hold examina- 
tions for commercial certificates, and that 
these might be organised under the ex- 
isting system of December examinations 
for secondary schools. They suggested 
that the commei'cial examinations should 
be so arranged that students might prepare 
for a great part of them along with those 
who were being prepared for the ordinary 
local examinations. But they wisely estab- 
lished a separate examination for commer- 
cial certificates and quite apart from the 
local examinations, so that there should be 
no papers of questions common to the two, 
and no common classification of successful 
students. As to general education they 
decided not to exact any test of it. They 
concluded, justly, that it would be prac- 
ticable to set a paper for the commercial 
certificate on such terms that no student 
could attack it unless he had a general 
education sufiiciently sound to enable him 
to pass the ordinary local examination for 
junior or senior students. The regulations 
may be summarised as follows : (1) Writ- 
ing a letter in English on some commercial 
subject ; precis writing ; shorthand, i.e. 
taking notes of a passage read, and then 
extending them verbatim. To pass, the 
student 7;(?/.§; satisfy the exaininers in letter- 
writing and in precis writing. (2) Arith- 
metic with special reference to commercial 
problems — e.g. weights and measures in 
British dependencies and foreign countries; 
currencies and exchanges ; book-keeping 
by double entry ; algebra up to the Bino- 
mial Theorem, with positive and integral 
indices, logarithms, and the application of 
algebra to calculations of interest and 
annuities. But no pass can be obtained 
unless the student satisfies the examiners 
in arithmetic. (3) Physical and commer- 
cial geography, with special knowledge 
of sea and land routes, centres of industry 
and products ; English history from the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, with special re- 
ference to the development of commerce. 
(4) Modern languages, French, German, 
Spanish, Italian. No books for study are 
set. In each language the student must 
write a commercial letter, translate from 
the language into English, and from Eng- 
lish into the language ; no student can 
take botli Spanish and Italian, but they 
must take both French and German. (.5) The 
elements of political economy with sj^ecial 
reference to value, money, credit, bank- 
ing, foreign trade, and foreign exchange. 



(6) English Literature. — The student is 
examined in a play or a book. (7) Ele- 
mentary Science." — Organic and inorganic 
chemistry ; mechanics, including hydro- 
statics and pneumatics ; sound, heat, and 
light, and electi'icity and magnetism, geo- 
metrical and mechanical drawing. The 
first four sections are absolutely compul- 
sory. Of the others not more than two 
can be taken. The defect in this scheme 
is that it ignores natural science. Phy- 
sical science is not included in the neces- 
sary subjects. Moreover, it makes no 
provision for boys who must leave school 
and become junior clerks about their four- 
teenth year. Latin is not even made an 
optional subject. After obtaining the 
Cambridge 'Commercial Certificate,' the 
education of the young man of business 
may be carried still further by means 
of night classes in mercantile institutes 
or commercial colleges. According to Dr. 
Wormell, a commercial college should pro- 
vide ' for about one hundred and fifty stu- 
dents a two years' course in modern lan- 
guages, actuary's work, features of foreign 
trade, &c.' Courses of lectures on the 
history and development of ti'ade and 
tariffs, on economic science and statistical 
science, mercantile law, international law, 
and commercial geography, ought also to 
form part of the curriculum of such a college. 
But it must not be forgotten that the 
training of the commercial school will not 
make a boy a clever buyer and seller. It 
cannot teach him the work of the counting- 
house, the exchange, the wharf, or what 
commercial travellers call 'the road.' It 
can only prepare him for it, and give him 
the best possible equipment for a useful 
and practical career. 

The National Association for the Pro- 
motion of Technical Education (14 Dean's 
Yard, Westminster) made arrangements 
in 1887 with the University Extension So- 
cieties of Oxford, Cambridge, and London, 
for the delivery of lectures on commercial 
geography, commercial history, commercial 
law, and commercial economics in localities 
for which no provision is made. 

Temper. — This term, which originally 
meant a due mixing of elements, refers to 
the constitution and habitual disposition 
of the mind on its emotional side, or to its 
emotional complexion. Thus we speak of 
a violent, an irritable, a calm or equable, 
and a good or cheerful temper. The dif- 
ferences of temper which characterise in- 






TEMPERAMENT- 



-TERMS 



435 



dividuals are in part due to physical and 
constitutional causes. A strong and healthy 
physique is the foundation of a good temper. 
Disturbances of health affect the temper 
in all cases, and lasting physical suffering 
may sour it for life. On the other hand, 
temper is to a large extent a subject of con- 
trol by the will. This control consists in 
governing our moods by suppressing feel- 
ings of annoyance and anger, and also in 
cultivating a cheerful and hopeful frame 
of mind. The educator is concerned with 
the management of temper both in him- 
self and in his pupils. The art of ruling 
others presupposes self-government as one 
of its prime conditions. Anything in the 
shape of violence or morbid irritability of 
temper is fatal to the discharge of the 
teacher's function ; for though it is well 
for the educator on occasion to be angry, 
and to manifest his anger, he must never 
be carried away by his passion. The exer- 
cise of the cliild in the government of its 
temper forms one important part of early 
moral education. Since the child is as a 
rule liable to be overcome by strong pas- 
sion, and since its will is at first weak in 
resisting and overcoming this, the parent 
and the teacher should do their utmost to 
stimulate it to make an effort to govern 
its passions. Thus, as Locke and Rous- 
seau contend, passionate crying should be 
cured by firmly refusing to gratify the 
child's wishes under these circumstances. 
As the child grows older appeal must be 
made to its intelligence and its better feel- 
ings, in order to induce it to control its 
feelings of discontent and anger (cf. articles 
Cheerfulness and Self-Command). {See 
Locke, Thoughts, § iii. and following ; 
Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, 
chap. vi. ; Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, 
p. 15 and following. 

Temperament. — By the temperament 
of a person we understand his natural 
complexion or bent of mind as fixed by 
his physical organisation. The common 
division of temperaments is a fourfold, 
viz. (l)the sanguine (full-blooded), warm, 
impressionable, and changeable in its 
moods ; (2) phlegmatic (with abundance 
of phlegm), calm, deliberate, and per- 
sistent ; (3) choleric (with abundance of 
bile), energetic, with prevailing objective 
attitude ; and (4) melancholic (with black 
bile), sentimental, with tendency to sub- 
iectivity. This fourfold division has been 
handed down from ancient times, and, as 



its terminology suggests, is based on a 
crude and obsolete notion of the physical 
basis of mental dispositions. Nevertheless, 
it has been used as the starting-point in 
recent attempts to classify the leading 
facts of temperament. It is now recog- 
nised that the manifold individual differ- 
ences of mental constitution are very 
incompletely described by this scheme. 
Ingenious attempts have been made by 
recent writers to group these by combin- 
ing the four leading types in various ways. 
A truly scientific classification of mental 
peculiarities must set out with the radical 
psychological distinctions. Thus we have 
a well-marked contrast of temperament 
in the emotional or sensitive and the 
active constitution. With respect to the 
precise physiological basis of these dif- 
ferences science is as yet able to tell us 
very little. We know that intellectual 
difierences, e.g. in respect of fineness of 
discrimination, or of vividness and reviv- 
ability of impressions, are connected with 
peculiarities of the brain and sense organs. 
We know, too, that the active, energetic 
temperament is correlated with special 
vigour of the muscular system and the 
motor side of the nervous system -as a 
Avhole. A thoroughly scientific classifica- 
tion of the leading types of natural dis- 
position with their pliysical counterparts 
is greatly needed by the educator as an 
aid to an intelligent classification of chil- 
dren (cf . article Individuality). (On tem- 
perament and the classification of mental 
dispositions see A. Stewart, Our Teiwpera- 
ments ; Dr. Bain, On the Study of Cha- 
racter ; and A. Martin, L^ Education du 
Caractere, chap. iii.). 

Terms are the division of the educa- 
tional year in England. In Oxford Uni- 
versity there are four terms: Michaelmas, 
October 10 to December 17; Hilary or 
Lent, January 14 to the day before Palm 
Sunday; Easter, from the Wednesday after 
Easter-day to the Friday before Whitsun- 
day ; and Trinity, from the day before 
Whitsun-day usually to the Saturday after 
the first Tuesday in July, but this term 
may be extended by the Congregation. If 
the beginning or end of a term fall on a 
festival day, the term is held to begin or 
end the day after, and in the case of 
Easter, the day before, such festival. 
Michaelmas and Hilary terms are kept by 
six weeks' residence in each ; Easter and 
Trinity by three weeks' residence in each, 

F F 2 



436 



TEXT-BOOKS- 



-TEXTUAL CRITICISM 



or forty-eight days' residence in the two 
terms jointly. In Cambridge University 
there are three statutory terms, which 
must include at least 227 days in all, 
viz. Michaelmas, beginning on October 1 ; 
Lent, beginning not later than the Thursday 
next before Easter- day ; and Easter, begin- 
ning not earlier than the Tuesday next 
after Easter-day, and ending on June 24. 
The legal year is also divided into the 
four terms of Michaelmas, Hilary, Easter, 
and Trinity ; and the Council of Legal 
Education furnish to the students of the 
bar lectures on legal subjects during each 
of these terms. The Scottish educational 
year is divided into two sessions : the 
winter session from about the middle of 
October to the end of Mai'ch or the be- 
ginning of April ; and the summer session 
from the beginning of May to the end of 
July. There is no summer session in the 
Faculty of Arts, 

Text-Books. — The selection of text- 
books is one of the most important func- 
tions of the head-master, and not of the 
governors of a school. On many subjects 
he would doubtless defer to the judgment 
of a tried assistant-master. The excessive 
multiplication of inferior text-books is a 
great evil, which may be diminished by 
teachers meeting together more for con- 
sultation, as is done at the conferences of 
head-masters and head-mistresses, and at 
the meetings of the Teachers' Guilds {q.v.) 
The Guild provides a reference library, and 
most of the publishers will send specimen 
books to teachers of position on easy terms. 
The best text-books go through the hands 
of several expeiienced teachers, but are 
unified in the hands of one man. 'Com- 
mittee books ' have not so far been suc- 
cesses. 

Textual Criticism attempts, by a com- 
parison of manuscript evidence, to restore 
as far as possible the text of any given 
work to the form in which it originally 
left the author's hands. Owing to the 
numerous errors incident on frequent copy- 
ing we can never be sure that we are read- 
ing the actual words of an ancient author, 
unless we know that the editor has followed 
a sound method of textual criticism. Of 
the importance of textual criticism to the 
New Testament even the English reader 
may form some idea by noting the differ- 
ence between the Authorised Version and 
the more scientific text of the Revised Ver- 
sion (e.g. 1 John V. 7, 8 ; 1 Tim. iii. 16 ; 



John V. 3, 4 ; Mark xvi. 9-20 ; Acts 
viii. 37). 

All scientific textual criticism must 
start from the examination of manuscripts. 
Hence a knowledge of palaeography, or 
the history of handwriting, is indispensable 
in order to determine what corruptions, 
are most probable. Thus the confusion be- 
tween Greek AAAA and AMA in uncials 
is much easier than between the same 
words when written in the cursive charac- 
ters {aXXd and a/xa) which from the sixth 
century a.d. began to supersede them. 
Palaeography enables us to classify the chief 
kinds of errors in manuscripts. Fraudu- 
lent changes in ancient manuscripts are 
very rare; Iliad, ii. 553-555 and 558 are 
said to be examples. The chief classes of 
errors are due to (1) Dictation. Thus, 
owing to similarity of pronunciation, there 
are constant confusions in Greek manu- 
scripts between t and et (itacism), and in 
Latin between v and b ; e.g. in Sen. Ep. 
xcv. 54, the manuscripts have jactaviinus- 
for jactahimus. (2) Wrong division of 
words is very frequent in ti-anscriptions 
from uncials (in which words were not 
divided), and especially in proper names ; 
e.g. the manuscripts in Strabo, xi. 51 6^ 
have corrupted Tr]v vtto ^rao-dvopi ^aKTpiavrjv 
into TTjv viroa-Taa-av opei, and in Thuc. i. 6 1 , 
'iTrl'^rpeij/avinto eTrtcTTpei/'ai/re?. So Seneca's 
derivation of ' philosophy ' in Bj). Ixxxi. 4 
- — philosojohia unde dicta sit, apparet : ipso 
enim nomine fatetur, quid amet — is ob- 
scured by the reading of the manuscripts 
and Haase — quidam et. (3) Confusion 
of similar letters and words. To such con- 
fusion are due the words in the Te Detmi, 
' Make them to be numbered with thy 
saints ' ; munerari (rewarded), contained 
in all Latin manuscripts before 1492,, 
was corrupted into numerari (numbered). 
Hence the constant confusion, even in the 
best editions, of dirigo and derigo, de- 
scribere and discrihere, &c. The numerous 
abbreviations, occurring with inci'easing- 
frequency in later manuscripts, have been 
a most fertile source of errors ; hence it is 
often difficult to tell whether we are to 
read dvOpoiirovi (men), or avov? (fools), or 
oVoDs (asses), all being written in nearly 
the same way. (4) Transposition ; e.g. 
the Medicean manuscript of Vergil, Georg. 
ii. 356, ends an hexameter with suhmoveret 
ipsa for sub vomere et ipsa ; and the first 
words of Li vy, whichQuintilian notes as part 
of an hexameter — Facturusne opercz p'e- 



TEXTUAL CRITICISM 



437 



tium sim are transposed in our manuscripts 
into Facturusne sim. Sometimes whole 
lines are transposed or even omitted, gene- 
rally through the similar ending of two 
lines (homoeoteleuton). (5) Omission or 
addition of similar letters or syllables 
(homoeoteleuton); e.g. in Velleius Pater- 
culus, ii. 882, Erat tunc urbis custodiis 
2)rcepositus Maecenas, the manuscripts, by 
omitting erat, in consequence of inierat, 
the word before, apparently make the 
author guilty of an historical iDlunder. So 
in Sen. De Tranq. An. v. 5, Dentatus aie- 
hat malle esse se mortuum quam nequam 
vivere, the manusciipts, by omitting ne- 
quam, bring a false accusation against Den- 
tatus. On the other hand, in Heb. ix. 12, 
the Sinaitic manuscript repeats els ra 
ayta twice; and in Hor. Sat. ii. 4, 11, 
some manuscripts have celebrahitur for 
celahitur. (6) Assimilation of neighbouring 
terminations, e.g. Onosander, iv. 50, wrote 
KaiovTOiv 8e ol 4>u\aKi.<s Trvpd; Katovrcov, the 
old form of the imperative, was misunder- 
stood, and is wrongly divided by the manu- 
scripts into KOi ovTdiv ; finally ol (jivXaKss 
has been assimilated to this by nearly all 
manuscripts, which write rwy (^vXcikmv. 
(7) S'uhstitution of synonyms through de- 
fective memory, e.g. in Matt. ix. 29, D has 
o/x^aTwj/ for o^OaXfjiQiv. This error is es- 
pecially frequent in the Gospels, owing to 
reminiscences of parallel passages. (8) In- 
terpolation, especially of glosses, or explana- 
tory notes. This error, closely akin to 
the last, was largely aided by the fact that 
the margin was used both for corrections 
and notes, e.g. inPlut. Ale. 36, rwy fitcrovvTwv 
'AXKL^LdSyjv ®pa(Tv/3ovXo<; tov, where i)(0p6s, 
a gloss on twv fXLo-ovvTwv, has crept into 
the text, thus turning the whole pas- 
sage into nonsense. The baptismal for- 
mula in Acts viii. 37, and the Doxology 
in Matt. vi. 1 3, are probably interpolations 
from liturgies. (9) Corrections, especially 
of difficult or unusual words or construc- 
tions, either by omission, as of Sei;repo7rpwr<i) 
in Luke vi. 1, or by alteration : thus the 
Codex Puteanus has altered Livy, xxii. 
16, 4, inter Formiana saxa into inter for- 
tuncs minas saxa, and in Cicero Pro Sest. 
Ixii. 130, ad Numidici illius has been 
corrected in the Pai'is manuscript first 
into ad tmum dicitius, and later into ad 
unum dido citius. 

Textual criticism being, not an exact 
science, but a history of copyists' errors, 
general rules as to the probability of errors 



are liable to modification, since each scribe 
is liable to peculiar errors. We must, 
therefore, examine each manuscript to see 
what are its most frequent errors, starting 
from cases that are certain, and proceeding 
thence to probable cases. Ceteris 2}aribus, 
an assumed reading will be probable, ac- 
cording as the manuscript's deviation from 
it can be traced to one of the foregoing 
classes of errors. Moreover, ceteris paribus, 
we must prefer (1) the vtost difficult read- 
ing : for scribes more often alter a reading 
to make it easier than to make it harder — 
hence the difficult SeuTepoTrpwrw in Lukevi. 1 
is probably to be retained ; (2) the shortest 
reading : for scribes rai-ely curtail, but 
often employ and insert notes — e.g. the 
quotation in Matt, xxvii. 35 ; (3) the 
reading which explains the origin of the 
others — e.g. in 1 Mace. xii. 48 the Sinaitic 
reading cri;i/eto-eX^dyras explains both the 
variants avveXB6vTa<i and etcreX^oVras ; (4) 
the reading most characteristic of the 
author — e.g. the abruptness of the style 
of St. James tells against ' and ' in ii. 4, 
13, iii. 17, &c. 

Textual criticism must start from the 
manu.scripts. These must be classified 
according to : (1) their dcite, determined 
by palffiographical and other evidence ; (2) 
the age of their text and their genealogy, 
determined by their mutual relations and 
agreements. Manuscripts must be weighed 
rather than counted. Thus, side by side 
with the ninth century Codex Thuanceus 
of Catullus, there probably existed a manu- 
script, now lost, of which the other exist- 
ing manuscripts are merely descendants ; 
hence the authority of the Thuanceus may 
be equivalent to that of all the others 
combined. So in the New Testament the 
Sinaitic, as representing a fourth-century 
text, may counterbalance a hundred cur- 
sives derived from a later text. The read- 
ing of the oldest manuscript is, ceteris 
pccribus, to be preferred. Sometimes, how- 
ever, all manuscript readings must be re- 
jected, because of the counter evidence of 
(1) older versions. Thus the Septuagint 
version of the Old Testament is often based 
on a reading several centuries older than 
that of any existing Hebrew manuscript ; 
while to New Testament criticism the 
Syriac and Latin versions are of the 
highest importance. (2) Commentators 
(such as Aristarchus on Homer) who had 
access to an earlier text, e.g. in Verg. ^n. 
xii. 605,^o?'os, read by Probus and Servius, 



438 



THRING, EDWARD 



must be read against all our manuscripts. 
(3) Internal Evidence. Thus the di- 
gamma must be inserted throughout Homer 
against all our manuscripts, being required 
by the metre and supported by inscriptions 
and comparative philology. But conjec- 
tures based solely on internal evidence, 
though fashionable, are rarely probable. 
Many of them rest on the tacit assumption 
that no author can be either inconsistent 
or ungrammatical. jNIany more assume 
that, because an author miglit have ex- 
pi'essed his meaning differently, therefore 
he must have done so ; to this class belongs 
Bentley's correction of Hor. Sat. i. 91, 
Jbam forte via sacra . . . acctirrit quidam 
to Iham lit. Where we have many eai'ly 
manuscripts, itc, as for the New Testa- 
ment, conjectures are rarely necessary ; 
where, however, as for the Annals of 
Tacitus, we are dependent on a single 
manuscript, written a thousand years after 
the original work, conjectures are often 
necessary, but rarely capable of proof. A 
manuscript reading is always a priori more 
probable tlian a conjectui'e, and in any 
case, unless accompanied by a satisfactory 
explanation of the origin of the manuscript 
reading impugned, no conjecture can be 
tinally accepted by a scientiiic textual 
criticism. 

(^\'6'forPala">ography, EncycJ. Brit. art. 
'Palaeography'; I. 'M.xxWev's, Handbilcher, 
i. 275-327 ; Gardthausen's Griechische Pa- 
laograpliie ; Wattenbach's Lateinische P. 
Facsimiles have been published by the 
Pahvographical Society ; also of Greek 
manuscripts by Wattenbach, and of Latin 
by Arndt, Zangemeister, and R. Ellis. 
Por textual criticism, Madvig's Adversaria, 
vol. i. ; Cobet, prefaces to Varice and 
NovcB Lectiones ; I. Midler's IlandbUcher, 
i. 226-271 ; as an introduction, Gow's 
Handbook to School Classics. For New 
Testament criticism. Scrivener's Criticism 
of ^^. T. ;_ Wosteott and Hort's X. T., 
vol. ii. ; as introductions, Hammond's Ont- 
lines of T. C. of K T. ; Wartield's T. C. 
of^\ T.) 

Thring, Edward, late head-master of 
Uppingham, was born in 1821, and died 
1887. He Avas the third son of the Rev. 
J. D. Thring, the squire and rector of 
Alford-with-Hornblotton, Castle Gary, 
Somersetshire. His mother, who survives 
him, and at the time of his death was in her 
ninety-seventh year, was the daughter of 
the Rev. J. Jenkyns, vicar of Evei'creech, 



and sister of the late master of Balliol, 
Dr. Jenkyns. He was a brother of Lord 
Thring, who was raised to tl;e peerage in 
1886 for long service as Chief Draughts- 
man of parliamentary bills, and of the 
Rev, Godfrey Thring, rector of Horn- 
blotton, the writer of many beautiful 
Church hymns. As a child, Edward 
Thring Avas fond of books, and distin- 
guished for truthfulness. ' If you Avant 
to tell lies tell them yourself,' was a retort 
he once made to one who wished the boy 
to give an inaccurate account of Avhat had 
happened. He Avent at eight years old to 
a private school at Ilminster ; thence to 
Eton in 1832, Avhere he seems to have been 
remembered for his pluck and energy at 
iiA-es, on the riA'er, and at football. He 
obtained the nickname of ' Die-Fii'st ' at 
Eton, because of his obstinate bi'aA'cry in 
A\diat he thought AA'^as a just cause. He 
rose to be captain of the school. His Avas 
the last Montem.^ At nineteen he entered 
King's College, Cambridge.. He stuck 
close to reading under his 'coach,' Shilleto. 
He became Person prizeman in 18-13, B.A. 
in 1814, M.A. in 1847. It is said that had 
he been alloAved to enter the examination 
for the first classical tripos he Avould haA-e 
been one of the faA'ourites of his year for 
the place of first classic. But as a King's 
man he Avas debarred from this. He Avas 
a born teacher ; Avas Avilling to go to 
Eton as inider-master Avhen Goodford 
succeeded HaAvtrey, but no A^acancy oc- 
curred. He contested unsuccessfully the 
election to the Dui'ham Grammar School. 
UnAvilling to remain at Cambridge, being 
far from strong, and at the same time 
having determined upon taking orders, he 
Avent doAvn to Gloucester, and was ordained 
to the curacy of St. James in that city in 
1846. There his health gaA-e Avay, hia 
vicar died, and in 1847 he Avent to help his 
father as curate at Alford. AfterAvards. 
at Great Marlow, 1848-49, and Cookham 
Dean, 1850-51, he joined to a curate's Avork 
the taking of pupils. He always spoke of 
his Avork in the parish schools of Gloucester 
and at Alford as the best piece of train- 
ing for masterhood he did. He Avent to 
Uppingham as head-master, September 10, 
1853. On the 20th December folloAving 
he married Miss C. Marie Koch, daughter 

1 Formerly the scholars of Eton had a. custom of 
going every third yeiiroii Whit-Tuesday to a hillock 
(ad moiitcm') to exact money from ]iav<sers-by for the. 
support at the University of the Senior Scholars of 

the school. 



TIMIDITY TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 



4.39 



of irorr K. -T. Kocli, a Connan lady of 
liigli accoinplislniuint, wliom ho had mot 
in Jlomo thii piHuious yv.vv. Ilo found 
at llppinj^haiii a, siii^U> hoardiii^jf-liouso, 
an old school-room, a liaudful of boys, 
forty-three boarders and eigliteen (hiy 
scholars, and an usher to help liim. He 
lias h>ft beliiud him the 'great school,' 
'School CIia,pe],' a, sanatorium, a gynnia- 
sium, a forge, a workshop), a swimming 
bath, (ileven boarding-houses, a prepai'a- 
tory S(!liool, twc^lve ilves-tuiurts, two cricket 
grounds, an aviary and public gai-den, 
and ten acres of land for scliool purposes 
in addition. irnd(>r his head-niiistership 
not less than 25,000/. of school pro])orty 
lias been added to tho trust, and not less 
than 90,000/. has been invested ])y the 
mastiu's insciiool machincny and (Mit(u-[)ris(^. 
In 1875, to avoid an outl)reak of fever at 
Upi)ingham, lie conceived the idea of carry- 
ing the whole school, bag and baggage, to 
IJorth, on tho Welsh coast, and so saved 
the school's existence. A forcible preacher, 
and a poet, ho is best known in America 
and l*higland as the author of Ediu'dtioji 
((lid Sc/iool, 1st edition, LSdl ; I2n(l edition, 
18GI); TlumglitH on. JAjv, /Science, 2nd edi- 
tion, 1871 ; The TIi,eory mid Fractice of 
IWicJiimj, 1st edition, 1883; 2nd edition, 
1885. Also four volumes of school ser- 
mons. Since liis death have been })ubh"sh(!d 
by .Fish(M; Unwin, three vols, uniform : 
(I) Poeini^ and Trandatioui^, (2) Ujtjmuf- 
]i,am School Songx (md BoolJe Lyricn, (3) 
Addresses hij Edinard Thring. An original 
thinker, his writings and addrcisses arc 
packed with epigram and illustration. His 
greatness as a man lay in his spiritual 
idealism, his belief in the ultimate victory 
of truth, his fearlessness, and powers of 
.self-saci-ilice ; as a teacher, in his asser- 
tion that education meant not cram, but 
cliara.ctor. lie was the originator of 
tho Annual Conference of Head-masters, 
and was honoui'cd by all, as a leader, 
not of ))oys oidy, but of tiiought upon 
education, and tlie sci(vnce of public sciiool 
life. 

Timidity. Sc^e Fioau. 

Tonic Sol-fa Method. — Tln'sterm covers 
two things: (1) the; nmsical notation of 
letters, punctuation marks, etc., and (2) 
tho carefully ordered educational system, 
which is used in connection witli tiie nota- 
tion. Casual observers are often repelled by 
thesight of the Tonic Sol-fa notation, which 
seems to them perhaps wanting in graphic 



and pi(5t,ures(iue foi'ce after th(! si/M^d" nota,- 
tion. Tiiey forg(!t tliat the system (U'|)en(Is 
largely for its su(!C(;ss u])on the ])rincij)les 
of e(luca,tion which Pestalozzi, Fi'ocilujl, a,n(I 
a host of others have laid down, and which 
are now universally approved. 

The originator of tho Tonic Sol-fa sys- 
tem wa,s John Curwen (born in. 18l(), died 
in 18S0), who was a CcmgregationaJ min- 
islei-, educated at Univer'sity C()ll(\g(;, 
Jjondon, and very nmch occupiiul during 
a,ll liis life with educational problems. 
Mr. Cui'wen was not trained as a musician. 
He ha,d no natural quickness of ear or 
voice, and ta,ught hims(!lf to I'ead nuisic 
^yith some dilliculty. This very tremble, 
and his own nujdiocre nmsical ca.j)a,city, 
gave him sympathy with b(!ginners, and 
(Miablcul him to assume their ati/itude, a,p- 
})reciat(^ their hindranc(!S, and smooth tlunr 
path with a care and minuteness that had 
never before been attempted by a,ny teacher 
of singing. Mr. Curwen, about 18.39, 
w.as (Migaged in seeking out plans for im- 
proving the singing of children in schools, 
a,nd had woi-ked for some time improlit.'i,l)ly, 
when he came .across .a little work by Miss 
Glov(M', daughter of a clergym.an at Nor- 
wich, wlio was ."i practical musici;in and 
had published ;i scjusme of t(!a,ching sight- 
singing. The leading ideas which Mr. Cur- 
wen conceived from Miss Clover were that 
it w.as possible, wwi^ indeed ea,sy, to sing 
from letters without the use of the musical 
start", .and tli.at tlu; scale was a, unity, in 
whatever key it was sung. Upon this 
foundation ho worked for forty yea,rs, ex- 
panding and altering, preachijig his views 
and methods with the fervour of an ev.an- 
gelist, and winning thousands of sup- 
porter's. The Tonic Sol-fa notation must 
now be expl.ained. It is based on the seven 
It.alia,n. syllables : do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si. 
These Mr. Cui'wen, in view of j)opular 
uses at a time when the pronun;;iation 
of Italian was but little understood by 
ordin.ai-y people in tliis country, spelled 
phonetically. He .also altered sol to soh,, 
in ord(!r to get a more open vowel, a,nd 
chang(!{l the lirst hitter of si to t%,'\\\ order 
that, for purposes to be subseciucsntly ex- 
plained, each syllable inight have a, flifFer- 
ent initial The result w;is as follows : 
doll, ray, me, fah, soh, lah, to 

For tho purposes of teaching these 
names are printed vertically on adi.agram, 
called the modulator, with the distances 
(toiuis and semi-tones) accurixtely mea- 



440 



TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 



sured. When they have become fcamiliar 
through a course of practice in following 
with the voice the pointer of 
the teacher as it passes from 
note to note, the pupil is 
ready to sing them in hori- 
zontal form, the initials only 
being used : 

drmfsltd' 

When the notes are thus 
horizontally written it be- 
comes necessary to use a mark 
to distinguisli the several oc- 
taves of the same note one 
from the other. For this 
purpose figui"es ai^e used, thus : 





In order to express the chromatic notes 
the sol-fa syllables are modified, the sound 
' ee ' being added for sharps and ' aw ' for 
flats. 




dohi te ta lah la soli fe fah ine ma rav ra doh 



To save space in printing, the ' w ' is 
omitted from the end of the names of the 
flats. The only additional note used is the 
sharpened sixth of the minor mode, which is 



^zzfQzzg^ 



me ba 



lah 



called bay, spelt ba or b. In remote changes 
of key certain other notes are needed for 
doubly flattened or sharpened notes, but 
they are rare, and need not here be given. 
A complete nomenclature of the key-sounds 
of modern music is thus provided, and the 
next point is rhythm or time. This will 
be best understood by comparison with 
passages in the ordinary notation. 







Key Ct. 
|. d ;d I d,r.m,f ; 



, d I r : — .m.f ! m 



The bar lines are the same in both old 
and new notations, but in the Tonic Sol-fa 
the pulses or beats are also marked ofi". 
This is done by the use of the short bar 
line and the colon (see example). A pulse 
or beat is divided into halves by a full stop, 
and into quarters by commas (see example). 
A sound is continued thi'ough part of a 
pulse, a whole pulse, or several pulses, by 
the use of a dash — . When a pulse, or part 
of a pulse, is silent there is merely a vacant 
space between the accent marks. It must 
be understood that in Tonic Sol-fa notation 
there is only one way of representing a 
pulse or beat. In the following examples 



1 







liiE^-Eiil^^ElELi^^l 



we have three ways of writing the same 
passage, difference of speed being the onlj'" 
qualification. In Tonic Sol-fa all three 
would be written 
Key G. 
I d : — :d I t, :— :d I r :in :r I d : — : — || 

and the rate of movement would be indi- 
ctited by a metronome mark or an Italian 
word. 

Change of Key, one of the commonest 
facts in music, is provided for in the Tonic 
Sol-fa system by shifting the pitch of doh. 
Thus, in the following phrase — 

,--, — I ^• 



=i^B: 



=1= 



iHfeg 



there is a change from F to C. This can 
either be expressed by the i;se of the chro- 
matic syllable fe, already explained : — • 

Key F. 

;d|r:fim:r|m:fe|s [| 

or it can be more perfectly shown by 
changing the doh, giving a double name 
to the fifth note : — 



Kky G. 
:d I r :f 



Ct. 



l:t I d' 



The words ' Ct.' over the mutation note 
indicate the name of the new key and tlie 



TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 



441 



new note (t) which the change involves. 
This plan is applicable to the most distant 
changes — 




Key G. s.d.f. Bb.lah is G. 
:a I m: r I d : ti [ d :— I — :"1, | d : t, 1 1, : se, [ 1, : — | — ^; 

The notes s, d, f, being placed on the 
left, indicate that the change is in that 
direction on the extended modulator, a 
diagram which contains several scales side 
by side. ' Lah is G ' reminds us that we 
are in the minor mode, of which G is the 
tonic. 

The marks of expression vised in Tonic 
Sol-fa are the same as in the old notation. 
Tlie words are printed under the letters 
just as they are under the staff, with slurs 
if necessary. Undoubtedly the reason why 
the Tonic Sol-fa is so easy to sing from is 
because it is more graphic than the old nota- 
tion. The mind conceives music chiefly 
by its key relationship, not by its absolute 
pitch. Thus in these cases 



:^:!EfB: 




E^jlJEJ 



=l=T=i=;:=i 



iiig=gi^° 



z±- 



:=1: 



the immense majority, even of musically 
educated persons, hearing (not seeing) the 
notes, would say they were the same. The 
sense of relationship is infinitely more 
common and more vivid than that of ab- 
solute pitch. The Tonic Sol-fa notation 
puts to the front this relationship between 
notes, which is quite constant in all scales 
and keys. It confines attention to it. On 
the other hand, the staff notation gives 
directly the absolute pitch of a sound, and 
only indirectly its key relationship. To 
borrow the language of logicians, the stafi" 
notation denotes absolute pitch and con- 
notes relative pitch, while the Tonic Sol-fa 
notation denotes relative pitch and con- 
notes absolute pitch. This is the psycho- 
logical basis of the new notation. 

Mental Effects. — The sense of relation- 
ship between the tones, their individuality 
as part of a family, is rendered still more 



vivid by impressing the mind with the 
fact that each of the seven tones of the 
scale leaves a peculiar and characteristic 
impression on the mind. This was one of 
the most valuable and original of Mr. Cur- 
wen's doctrines. The characters which 
he gave to the tones were : Doh, final, 
conclusive ; Ray, rousing ; Me, calm, 
peaceful ; Fah, awe-inspiring ; Soh, bold, 
rousing ; Lah, plaintive ; Te, piercing. 
These characteristics, however, are by no 
means to be taught dogmatically. The 
pupils are to be drawn to feel them by lis- 
tening to fragments of melody sung by 
the teacher in which striking examples of 
the individuality of these tones occur. 
The process of impressing the mental ef- 
fects of the tones upon pupils is gradual. 
When complete its practical effect is this. 
When they want to sing a certain tone its 
character comes up in their mind, and their 
intonation is sure ; when they want to 
name a sound that they hear its character 
suggests its note. 

Ear Exercises, or musical dictation, is 
practised from the first in Tonic Sol-fa 
classes. From recognising by its sound a 
single note the exercises proceed to the 
highest grade, when full chords are written 
down by ear. Of course all these exercises 
are in relative pitch. The chord of the 
key is sounded, and then, the ear being 
tuned, the various notes are sounded. 
Pupils are, however, encouraged to me- 
morise the sound of C, in order to be able 
to pitch songs and tunes without the help 
of an instrument. 

Harmony, upon whatever system it is 
taught, whether through the old notation 
or the new, is a matter of key relation- 
ship. The compass and best region of 
whatever instrument is being Avritten 
for has to be considered, but, this being 
borne in mind, all the rest is key relation- 
ship. Tonic Sol-fa notation, therefore, lends 
itself very readily to the teaching of har- 
mony. Mr. Curwen originated a set of 
symlDols for chords and their inversions 
which may here be partially explained. 



■ I 1 I I i Till 



:=r^-p:— rq=^=, 



m 



et= 



g 



w=rr 



D 'Sd Db 'Sc D Sb D Dc 'S 




U2 



TONIC SOL-FA METHOD 



The simple rule is to call a chord by 
the initial letter of its root, which is printed 
in capitals. Thus D means the chord of 
doll (doh, me, soh). The first inversion of 
this is Db, the second inversion Dc, and 
in dissonant combinations the letters d 
and e are required. 

Instruments. — TheTonic Sol-fa notation 
has been applied with success to nearly all 
musical instruments. There are not, how- 
ever, many players from it, and some Tonic 
Sol-fa teachers discountenance its use in 
this way. It is probably too early as yet to 
express a proper opinion on the value of 
the notation for instruments. The full 
orchestral scores of several symphonies, 
ttc, have been published in Tonic Sol-fa. 

PrinGi2^les of Teaching. — -Mr. Curwen 
laid down in his Teachers' Manual seven 
principles of teaching, as follows : — 

1. Let the easy come before the diffi- 
cult. 

2. Introduce the real and concrete be- 
fore the ideal and abstract. 

3. Teach the elemental before the com- 
pound, and do one thing at a time. 

4. Introduce, both for explanation and 
practice, the common before the uncom- 
mon. 

5. Teach the thing before the sign, and 
when the thing is apprehended attach to 
it a distinct sign. 

6. Let each step as far as possible rise 
out of that which goes before, and lead up 
to that which comes after. 

7. Call in the understanding to assist 
the skill at every step. 

8. Use an illustrative and suggestive 
style of teaching. 

These principles, which will command 
the universal assent of teachers, are con- 
stantly illustrated in the procedure of 
Mr. Curwen's books and exercises. They 
are applicable, of course, to teaching music 
from the staff notation, but the Tonic Sol-fa 
notation tits in with them, and enables 
them to be thoroughly applied. It is to 
this minutely educational work that the 
success of Tonic Sol-fa teachers is so largely 
due. 

The Staff N'otation. — It is desirable to 
correct the common impression that learn- 
ing Tonic Sol-fa is no help to learning the 
old notation. The fact, as daily proved, 
is the opposite. Pupils trained by Tonic 
Sol-fa possess, as it were, a secret key, a 
mental habit, which makes them sure and 
certain interpreters of the old notation. 



This is true, not only of singing, but of play- 
ing. Tonic Sol-fa cultivates the musical 
intelligence, and makes the pupil see into 
the nature of music. The modulator be- 
comes so impressed upon the mind that 
the memory of it guides the eye when 
singing or playing from the staff. It is 
calculated that two-thirds of those who 
learn Tonic Sol-fa pass on to the old nota- 
tion and become competent readers of 
that notation. 

Examinations. — The carefully graded 
presentation of tune and time in the Tonic 
Sol-fa method is rendered thorough by fre- 
quent testing and examining. Mr. Curwen 
established a series of examinations consist- 
ing of practical tests, which, roughly speak- 
ing, may be taken during every six months 
of the learner's career. The lower examina- 
tions are, of course, easy, and are meant 
rather to sort the pupils, and re-classify 
them, than to give any public status to 
those who pass. The higher examinations 
are of the nature of diplomas. 

Tonic tiol-fa College. — The authority 
which regulates all these examinations, 
and issues certificate cards and papers, is 
the Tonic Sol-fa College, Forest Gate, Lon- 
don. The secretary supplies details of the 
work of the correspondence classes, exami- 
nations, training classes, &c. 

Musical authorities were formerly di- 
vided in their opinion as to the merits 
of the Tonic Sol-fa system. The leading 
musicians are, however, now agreed in its 
favour. Among those who have endorsed 
it are Sir Robert Stewart, Drs. Stainer 
and Bridge, Messrs. Barnby, Heniy Leslie, 
E. H. Turpin, Brinley Richards, E. Prout, 
A. R. Gaul. The acousticians are all in 
its favour, including Lord Rayleigli, Mr. 
Bosanquet, Professor Helmholtz, Mr. A. 
J. Ellis, Mr. Ledley Taylor, &c. Pro- 
fessor Helmholtz speaks of it as ' the na- 
tural way of learning music' 

Sight Singing is rendered certain and 
easy by the Tonic Sol-fa notation. Tonic 
Sol-fa choirs have repeatedly read, all at 
first sight, in public compositions specially 
Avritten for them by Sir G. A. Macfarren, 
Mr. Henry Leslie, &c. Tonic Sol-faists, 
also, according to the testimony of Mr. 
Stockley, choir-master of the Birmingham 
Musical Festival, and other authorities of 
equal weight, make better readers of the 
old notation than singers trained upon any 
other system. 

Government ReturiisYQlvdins toelemen- 



TOUCH, EDUCATION OF TRAINING 



443 



taiy schools show that at the present time 
(1888) between 12,000 and 13,000 schools 
in the United Kingdom employ the Tonic 
Sol-fa system, while only about 2,000 em- 
ploy the staff notation exclusively. 

Nearly every choral ivork of importance 
is now issued in the Tonic Sol-fa notation. 
Music publishers usually issue a Sol-fa 
edition simultaneously with an old nota- 
tion one of all their principal cantatas, 
oratorios, anthems, and parts-ongs. The 
leading choral works of Handel, Haydn, 
Mendelssohn, Beethoven, Mozart, Gounod, 
Sullivan, Mackenzie, are issued in Tonic 
Sol-fa. 

Touch, Education of. — By the sense 
of touch, or the tactile sense, we mean 
sensibility to impressions of contact. This 
is possessed in a measure by all portions 
of the skin, but is found in its higher 
degrees only in particular regions, as the 
hands, and more especially the finger-tips, 
the lij)s, and the tip of the tongue. It is 
by this tactile sensibility that we distin- 
guish degrees of pressure (when the hand 
is passive), also distinctness of points of 
pressure, as when we distinguish the two 
extremities of a pair of compasses brought 
close together and applied to the hands. 
"With this passive sensibility of the skin, 
or tactile sense proper, is associated the 
so-called muscular sense. This term refers 
to the sensations we gain when we actively 
exercise our muscular organs, either by 
moving a limb, or by bringing pressure to 
bear on an object. This active function 
of the hand is of great importance to the 
child, not only as a means of doing things, 
and so realising his desires, but as a direct 
source of knowledge. The child comes to 
know the position, form, and size of objects 
by means of tactile discrimination of points 
supplemented by the muscular sensations 
which accompany the movements of the 
hand. Again, it leams about the hardness, 
elasticity, and weight of bodies, partly by 
its tactile sensations of pressure, partly by 
the experiences of muscular effort which 
it has in pressing, striking, lifting, itc. The 
psychologist regards the sense of touch as the 
fundamental sense, and more particularly 
as the avenue by which the child gains 
the root ideas of material things and their 
qualities. Much of what the eye in 
later life appears to see immediately is 
known in the first instance by the sense 
of touch {see Eye, Culture of). This 
being so, it is evident that the sense of 



touch on its passive and its active side 
makes special claims on the attention of 
the educator in the first years of life. The 
utility to the child in the nursery of a 
variety of objects to touch, examine, and 
experiment with, is due to the important 
intellectual function of touch at this period. 
Pestalozzi and Froebel were the first to 
assign to the sense of touch its proper 
place in a practical scheme of training. 
The delicacy of touch i^eached by the blind 
and those whose special occupations uivolve 
an exceptional exercise of the sense, sug- 
gests that this last might, by a suitable 
series of exercises, be much more highly 
developed in the case of children generally. 
Such a higher education of the sense of 
touch would constitute one element in any 
improved system of hand and eye training 
which should serve as the basis of future 
technical skill. {See Bain, Mental Science, 
p. 43 and following ; H. Spencer, Educa- 
tion, p. 72 and following ; Sully, Teacher's 
Handbook, -p'p. 108 and following, 128, 151 
and following ; Pfisterer, Fad. Psychologie, 
p. 43 and following.) 

Trade Guilds : their relation to Medi- 
aeval Education. See Middle Ages 
(Schools of). 

Training. — By this term, so prominent 
in educational writings, we mean the pre- 
paration by suitable exercise of a bodily 
power or mental faculty for its proper 
work or function. It may be of a more 
special kind, as in the case of training a 
musician, an athlete, and so forth. Or it 
may be of a more general and fundamental 
character, as when we speak of the train- 
ing of the mental faculties by the educator. 
In this latter sense the meaning of the term 
coincides approximately with that of edu- 
cation, though the former points to the final 
result, viz. fitness for work, whereas the 
latter refers rather to the process of de- 
veloping latent faculty. Training, like 
education, is opposed to instruction when 
viewed as aiming at so much definite 
knowledge. Thus the value of a subject 
of study may be estimated either by its 
utility as information or by its worth as a 
training for the mind. Training necessa- 
rily proceeds by exercising, that is exciting, 
the faculty to its proper mode of activity. 
Such exercise, in order to subserve the 
ends of trauiing, must be prolonged and 
systematic, varied and graduated so as to 
meet the grooving capacity for work of the 
orsran. Occasional and intermitted acti- 



4-14 



TRAINIKC, OF TEACHERS 



vity, ."i IkuI or xmsiiitablo mode of oxoiviso, 
involviui;' ovorstraiii nml fatigue, or tiually, 
a too narrow and oue-sidod kind oi oxor- 
<'ise, is unfavourable to ettioieuey. Mental 
training, like all otlier training, presup- 
poses a skilled trainer, who in his turn 
has to be trained for his peeuliar f unetion. 
The importaTiee now attaehed to training 
for teachers is the result of a. large and 
more enlightened eoneeptiou of the work 
of edueation, its high place among the arts, 
and the special knowledge and skill re- 
quired for a successful pursuit of it. {See 
article Training ok Tkacheus ; also Baiu, 
Uditcation as a ^\•/t'»(•f', p. loo and follow- 
ing; Thring, £ihieatio>i aud Seltool, chap. 
iv. ; Prof. Jos. Payne, Lecturefi on the 
tSci^-nce and Art of' Jl ducat ion , vii.) 

Training of Teachers — It was stated 
in the article on Pupil-Teachers (q-r.) 
that one object of the institution of the 
pupil-teacher system, in 1841.5, was to en- 
sure a succession of well-trained teachers. 
By that systen\ young men and women 
were attracted into the profession of ele- 
mentary teaching as a means of liveli- 
liood at thirteen or fourteen years of age, 
and served an apprenticeship to it until 
eighteen years of age. The object above 
named would only have been partially 
secured if these young people, or the most 
efficient of them, were allowed to drift 
back into other calliug-s at the expiration 
of their apprenticeship. Accordingly, the 
Committee of Council ottered a consider- 
able money inducement to ex-pupil- 
teachers to enter Training Colleges. This 
took the form of scholarships — Queen's 
Seliolarships, as they were called — which 
consisted of payments of 20/. to '2i^L a 
year for each pupil-teacher who passed 
a prescribed examination and entered a 
Training College. Substantial annual aid 
Avas also otteretl to the Training Colleges 
themselves which reeci\cd these Queen's 
scholars. 

This system, in its essential features, 
still prevails. The Education Pepart- 
luent has ceased to make any payments 
direct to the Queen's scholar, but n\akes 
a grant on his behalf on a liberal scale to 
the Training College which accepts hiu\ as 
a student (chai-ging him a small fee, not 
exceeding '20/. for a two years' course). 
This gnmt cannot exceed, on the whole, 
To per cent, of the expenditure of the 
college for all its students for the year, 
but mav reach 50/. a vear for each male, 



and ;>")/. for each feu\ale Queen's scholar. 
The course of training usually extends 
o\er two years, but may be terminated at 
the end of one year. The first etlbrt to 
found a Training College in England was 
maile by the British and Eoreign School 
Society ('/.''.) as early as 1817, when they 
opened new buildings in the Borough 
Koail for the purposes of both a normal 
college and normal schools. The college 
was rebuilt by aid of a grant from Covern- 
ment ii\ 184^.. The earliest Training 
College iu connection with the Church of 
England was that founded at Battersea, 
in l8;)9-40, by Dr. James Philipps Kay 
(afterwards Sir Jauics Kay Shuttleworth) 
and Mr. Carleton Tufuell for the training 
of schoolmasters. In Novend>er 1843 the 
Couunittee of Council tii'st atlbrded aid 
towards the eiyctio)i of training colleges. 
But the ample grants in aid of niaintenance 
of Training Colleges offered under the 
Minutes of 184G gave a further iu\pulse 
to the movement, and soon produced a 
rapid increase in their nunibers. Dio- 
cesan Societies were formed for the pro- 
motion of colleges in connection with the 
Church of England ; and the AVesleyans 
and other denou\inations followed this 
exau\ple. Voluntary subscriptions were 
raised, and grants were made by the 
National Society (q.r.) and the British 
and Foreign School Society (q.v.) to 
n\eet tlie grants from the Connuittee of 
Council. The result of this movement 
has been that in 1 887 there were in England 
forty-four (boarding) training colleges, 
eighteen for male and twenty-sixforfemale 
students, of which thirty are in connection 
with the Church of England, six with the 
British and Foreign School Society, two 
are Wesleyan, three Roman Catholic, and 
three undenominational, and they contain 
in all o,-272 students. In Scotland there 
were eleven training colleges, four for male 
and seven for female students, of which 
tive are in connection with the Established 
Church of Scotland, tive with the Free 
Church iu Scotland, and are day or non- 
boarding colleges, and one in connection 
with the Episcopal Church in Scotland, 
which is a boarding college. These col- 
leges contain in all 8,rvJ5 students. The 
English colleges have been erected at a 
cost of nearly 400,000/., of which 280,000/. 
was derived from voluntary contributions, 
and 120,000/. fron\ grants. The Scotch 
colleges, which only make provision for 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS 



445 



tlie teacliing, and not for the boarding of 
the students, cost 48,000Z., of which 
29,000^. was raised by subscription, and 
19,000^. was provided by grants. At the 
present time all but a small percentage 
of the students in the English colleges 
have passed this pupil-teachei'ship before 
admission, and accordingly the organisa- 
tion and curriculum of the colleges are 
laid down on lines which assume the pre- 
ceding pupil-teachership of the students, 
and seek to carry on the instruction, per- 
sonal and professional, from the point 
where it stood at the completion of the 
apprenticeship. The Training Colleges 
are inspected and examined annually by 
H.M. inspectors,and syllabuses of examina- 
tion, both for male and for female students, 
are drawn up by the Committee of Council 
for each year, and form the outlines of the 
course of instruction for that year. These 
syllabuses, together with the Reports of 
H.M. inspectors on the Training Colleges, 
and various statistical tables relating to 
them, are published in the aiuiual Blue 
Book of the Education Department. On 
the results of these examinations the 
teachers' certificates of various grades are 
granted. Attached to the Colleges, both 
in England and Scotland, are day schools 
(recruited from the neighbourhood, and 
recognised as ' public elementary ' schools), 
which are used as practising and model 
schools for the instruction of the students 
in the art of teaching and school-keeping, 
and each student is required to spend at 
least six weeks, or 150 hours, during his 
two years' residence in the practising 
school. But although all the students of 
Training Colleges, with few exceptions, 
have been pupil-teachers, it is far from 
being the case that all the pupil-teachers 
completing their apprenticeship in a given 
year pass on to Training Colleges. Those 
who do not enter Training Colleges are 
allowed to take posts in public elementary 
schools as assistants or 'acting teachers,' 
and in due course to attend the same exa- 
minations as those which are laid down 
for students in Training Colleges, and to 
obtain their certificates on the same, or 
somewhat lower conditions. They can 
obtain their certificates on the examina- 
tion in the papers for the first year of 
training, but this certificate has not (since 
1884) carried with it the right to have the 
superintendence of pupil-teachers. Their 
preparation for these examinations is made 



by private study or by private tutoring in 
the time at their disposal after each school- 
day or during the school holidays. Thus 
the adult staff in the public elementary 
schools of the country is composed of two 
classes of persons, the smaller (about one- 
third of the whole) and, as a rule, the better 
educated class, who at the end of their ap- 
prenticeship proceeded for two years to a 
Training College before taking service in 
the schools, and the larger (about two-thirds 
of the whole) and, as a rule, the less edu- 
cated class, who at the end of their ap- 
prenticeship took service in the schools 
directly as acting teachers. Of this latter 
or untrained class there are in round 
numbers, in England, .39,000 out of a total 
of 75,000 adult teachers, of whom 18,000 
ai-e certificated and 21,000 uncertificated. 
Now it is, not without reason, asserted 
that the education and training of the 
great majority of these are very inadequate 
to the requirements of the country, and 
are incapable of being brought up to those 
requirements under existing conditions. 
Thus a strong case is made out for addi- 
tional Training College accommodation as 
the only effective remedy for the existing 
low level of attainments and skill of a 
large proportion of the teaching staff" in 
public elementary schools. It has been 
calculated that, to meet the demand for 
trained instead of the present untrained 
adult staff" in the schools, additional Train- 
ing College accommodation is required for 
2,200 students, in the proportion .of about 
700 males and 1,500 females. It has been 
suggested that these additional colleges 
should be day or non-resident colleges, 
and should be placed in large centres of 
population, on the model of the existing 
Scotch Training Colleges which are situated 
at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and 
that the places selected should be towns 
where local colleges have been founded, 
in order that the more advanced student's, 
may obtain their purely literary and theo- 
retical or scientific training under the cul- 
tured influence of the local college pro- 
fessoriate, and get all those social and ini- 
tellectual advantages which are now found 
to accrue to the students in Scotch Train- 
ing Colleges by their affiliation with the 
Scotch Universities. An important ques- 
tion will arise in this connection, as to 
whether these new Training Colleges, resi- 
dent or non-resident, should presuppose in 
their students an antecedent apprenticeship 



446 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS TRIPOS 



for tliree or four years as pupil-teachers, 
or should look to recruiting its students 
largely from other sources, such as the 
upper classes of the secondary schools in 
the towns in which they are situated, con- 
tact being still retained with the public 
elementary schools by a generous system 
of scholarships to the former schools for 
pi-ou\ising boys and girls from the latter. 
When we'turn from the training of the 
elementary teachers to that of teachers in 
secondary' schools there is not much to 
record. The subject has been discussed 
at several conferences of head-masters of 
the chief public schools of the country; 
but opinion has been very divided as to 
the practicability, even as to the need, of 
training instit uti'ons for the masters in those 
schools. Teaching in secondary schools is 
rather looked upon as an avocation than 
a profession. What little has been done 
to secure some instruction in the principles 
and practice of the art of teaching was 
done by the University of Cambridge in 
1879. *In that year, in compliance with 
numerous memorials froai head-masters on 
the subject, the Senate of the University 
of Cambridge appointed a 'Teachers' 
Training Syndicate,' and that body put 
forth a scheme of examination in the his- 
tory, theory, and practice of education, 
and also provided for a course of lectures 
by men eminent in educational and mental 
science, such as Mr. Quick, Mr. James 
Ward, and Mr. Fitch. This act of the 
"University of Cambridge was looked upon 
as a signikcant fact in "the history of edu- 
cation in England. It has proved to be 
also, up to the present, a solitary fact. 
Mention, however, ought to be made of the 
recent attempt by a few intluential people 
to establish a Training College for masters 
of secondary schools at Finsbury, in asso- 
ciation with the City of London Middle 
Class Schools in Cowper Street, which was 
iised as a practising and model school 
by arrangement ^^■ith the Corporation and 
the head-master. But this has since been 
given lip for want of support. Greater 
success has been achieved by Mrs. Grey 
and others in their eftbrts to obtain train- 
ing for the mistresses of the numerous 
girls' public high schools which have been 
so successfully" launched in the last few 
years; and institutions with this object 
established at Bishopsgate Street, in the 
City, at Newnham, near Cambridge, at 
Bishop Otter's College, near Chichester, 



and elsewhere, though on a small scale, 
have all met with an encouraging measure 
of success, and testify to a real desire on 
the part of those who have the charge of 
girls' high schools, and of those who seek 
employment as teachers in them, for a 
solid groundwork of psychological and 
technical knowledge as a preliminary to 
entrance into the profession of teaching. 

Tripos is the name given to the whole 
system of honours examinations at Cam- 
bridge by which the candidates for the 
lionours degree in Arts are tested and 
classed. The name Tripos is applied both 
collectively to the system and singly to 
the jNlathematical Tripos, Classical Tripos, 
itc. The derivation of the word is interest- 
ing, dating back to a very remote period. 
Originally it denoted 'the three-legged 
stool ' (modelled presumably on the tripod 
of the Delphic Oracle), on which sat the 
bachelor who used to dispute with the 
candidates for honours in the schools 
on Ash-Wednesday, the Bachelors' Com- 
mencement. Each of these Questionists, 
as the candidates were called, had to pro- 
pound two questions to the bachelor, and 
to carry on an ai-gument in Latin ii^ pre- 
sence of the vice-chancellor, the proctors, 
and the doctors of the iii\i%'ersity. If he 
approved lumself in the argument lie was 
admitted duly to tlie degree of Bachelor 
of Arts. An account of these proceedings 
is preserved in the books of Mr. Slokys, 
an esquire, bedel, and registrar, who wrote 
about the middle of the sixteenth century. 
(See Deax Peacock, On the Sfatufes, Ap- 
pendix A.) 

' And when every man is placed, the 
Senior Proctor shall, with some oration, 
shortly move the Father ' (i.e. the Fellow 
of the Foundation who goes as patron of 
the candidates of his college, wlio are called 
his sons) ' to begyn, who, after his exhorta- 
tion unto his children, shall call forth his 
eldest sone, and animate hym to dispute 
with an ould bach Hour, which shall sit 
upon a sfooh before Mr. Proctours, unto 
whome the sone shall propound 2 Ques- 
tions, and in bothe them shall the sone 
dispute. . . .' 

The next glimpse we get of these pro- 
ceedings is from Beadle Buck's i)OoA-, 1665 
A.D. In his account we hnd the ' ould 
bachilour ' propounding the thesis himself, 
and utilising the occasion to bring in allu- 
sions, of a satirical and even scurrilous 
nature, to the contemporary proceedings 



TRIPOS 



447 



and dignitaries of the university — in fact, 
lie lias become a licensed buffoon, one of 
the most important contributors to the 
waggery of the university. Possibly owing 
to the contempt for ceremonies which was 
rife in England in the Reformation period, 
possilily owing to the general licence of 
the Restoration and the example of its 
royal hero, the ceremony of Quadragesima 
had lost all its dignity. Hence v/e find the 
univorsity authorities continually falling 
foul of the ' ould bachilour,' or ' Mr. Tripos ' 
(i.e. Mr. Three-legged iStool, a name not 
inappropriate for a clown) as he was now 
called, and taking severe measures for his 
correction (see Cooper's Annals, vol. iii. 
58G. Dr. Smallwood suspended from his 
B.A. degree 'for his scurrilous and very 
ofFensive speech made in ye schools '). The 
old bachelor's speeches, which generally 
had a quasi-philosophic title, and were 
coi iiposed in Latin hexameters, were known 
as the Tripos Speeches, or Ti-ipos Verses. 
They were printed on sheets of paper and 
distributed by the bedels to the vice- 
chancellor, the noblemen, doctors, and 
others whilst the disputation was going 
on. Specimens of Tripos verses are given 
in Chr. Wordsworth's Social Life at the 
English Universities in the Eighteenth Cen- 
tury, pp. 231 ff. The title of one runs 
' Mutua oscitationum propagatio solvi po- 
test mechanice ; ' it is followed by facetious 
allusions to the drowsy effects of the uni- 
versity sermons, &c. In course of time 
the list of the Questionists, 'Baccalaurei 
quibus sua reservatur senioritas Comitiis 
Prioribus,' was printed on the back of this 
' Tripos-sheet,' as it was called, the names 
being drawn up in three classes, viz. 
'Wranglers,' 'Senior Optimes,' and 'Junior 
Optimes ' ; and to this list of names, which 
included all who graduated in honours, 
the name of Tripos became exclusively 
attached ; those who had no seniority 
reserved, and no place on the list, were 
known as ol ttoXXol, a term which survives 
in the modern Poll degree. 

The office of Mr. Tripos was abolished 
probably with the opening of the present 
Senate House in 1730, when a new and 
improved system of examination was in- 
troduced, carried on chiefly in writing; but 
the Tripos sheets were still published, with 
the list of candidates on the one side, and 
on the other two sets of satirical verses in 
Latin, written by two bachelors nominated 
by the moderators. These verses are still 



published annually, and are known as the 
' Tripos Verses.' Among the composers of 
these Tripos verses have been Gray, Hook- 
ham, Frere, Vincent Bourne, C. S. Cal- 
verley, G. O. Trevelyan, and H. Sedgwick. 

Until the institution of the Classical 
Tripos in 1824 there was but one examina- 
tion in Arts, The Trij)os, including mathe- 
maticsand philosophy. rroml824-51 there 
were two Triposes, distinguished as the 
' Mathematical' and the 'Classical ' Tripos. 
Since 1851 eight new Triposes have been 
established: for moral sciences and natural 
sciences in 1851, law in 1858, theology in 
1874, history in 1875, Semitic languages in 
1878, Indian languages in 1879, mediaeval 
and modern languages in 1886. Of late a 
project for a Mechanical Sciences Tripos 
has been submitted to the Senate, but, 
being imperfectly drafted, did not find 
acceptance. The growth of the Tripos 
system is the index of the recent expansion 
of the Cambridge educational system, and 
may fairly be taken as a sign of its vitality. 
The Natural Science Tripos, from small 
beginnings, has gradually grown, till it 
now stands on a par, in point of numl^ers, 
with the two old Triposes, the mathe- 
matical and the classical. 

The examinations are held about the 
end of May or beginning of June every 
year. After a reasonable interval the 
class-lists are published on a day fixed by 
the regulations. The names of those who 
have passed are arranged in three classes, 
the names in the classes being placed in 
alphabetical order, except in the case of 
the Mathematical and Law Triposes, in 
which the names are placed in order of 
merit,' and the Classical Tripos, in which 
each class consists usually of three divi- 
sions or brackets, the order in the division 
being alphabetical. The examiners are 
authorised to declare candidates who may 
not have deserved honours to have acquitted 
themselves so as to deserve an ordinary 
degree, or so as to deserve to be excused 
the general examination for the B.A. de- 
gree. The Ti'ipos is usually taken at the 
end of the third year of residence, and, in 
order to equalise the competition, no can- 
didate is allowed to enter who has kept 
more than eight full terms, or, in the case 
of the Mathematical Tripos, more than 
nine. The first part of the Classical and 
Natural Sciences may be taken at the end 
of the second year, i.e. in one's fifth or 
sixth term, but in that case it is necessary 



448 



TRIPOS 



to take either the second part of the same 
Tripos or some other Tripos in thefoUowiug 
veai*. in order to gain an honovirs (U\iiree. 
Special arramiemeuts are also made for 
candidates -wishing to take more than one 
Tripos, e.g. a candidate who has passed 
Part 1. of the ^Mathematical Tripos may 
proceed to take Part II. of the Natural 
Sciences in the following year, i'(:c. 

The Jfatlwniafical 'fripoii is divided 
into two parts. Part I. extends over two 
periods of three days, there being an in- 
terval of eleven days between the two 
pei'iods. In the first three days the exa- 
mination is confined to the more elemen- 
tary parts of pure mathen\atics and natural 
philosophy, including the tirst three sec- 
tions of Newton's Principia, the subjects 
being treated without the use of ditl'erential 
calculus or the methods of analytical 
geonaetry. On the tenth day after this 
examiviatioii a list, in alphabetical order, 
is posted of those who ha^•e passed ; those 
appearing on this list proceed to the second 
lialf of the examination, and. though they 
do nothing in tiie later papers, are entitled 
to an honours degree. The second half 
consists of six papers, including trigono- 
metry, plane and spherical, analytical 
geometry, theory of equations, ditierential 
calculus, integral calculus, ditierential 
equations, dynamics of a particle and 
easier parts of rigid dynamics, optics, and 
spherical astrot^omy. Part II. is taken 
at the end of the fourth year, only those 
wlio have obtained honours in Part I. 
being admitted. The candidate has a 
dioice of eight divisions, in any two of 
which he is required to show proficiency 
in order to qualify for a first-class. The 
reading, of course, is moiv specialised and 
extensive than for Part I., and includes 
the latest French aixd Oerman works on 
the subject. 

The Classical Tripos was instituted in 
1824; up till 1850 only those who had 
taken honours in iiiathematics were allowed 
to take the examination. Hence the 
impression, still prevailing, that classics 
are on a lower footing at Oaiubridge than 
mathematics. As reoi'ganised in 1881, 
the Classical Tripos is divided into two 
parts. Part T. consists of four composition 
papers, in which passages from English 
authors are set for translation into Oreek 
and Latin prose and verse, no original 
composition being required ; two papers 
on Oreek and Roman historv, including; 



literature and antiquities ; two papers on 
grammar and criticism, including elen\eu- 
tary philology; and five papers containing 
passages for translation from Oreek and 
Latin authors into English. Part II., 
open only to candidates who have obtained 
honours in Part I., otters a choice of five 
sections : [a) language, [b) ancient philo- 
sophy, ((•) ancient history and law, (</) ai*- 
clueology, ((•) philology. Each cai\didate 
nnistpassin (if), which is the same as Part I., 
except that there is no verse composition, 
and may otter one or two (not more than 
two) of the other foin* sections. 

Jloml Sciences 'Tripos includes, first, 
general papers of a more elementary cha- 
racter in psychology, logic, and methodo- 
logy, metaphysics, n\oral and political 
philosopliy, political economy ; secondly, 
more advanced papers on the above sub- 
jects and on the historv of opinions relat- 
ing thereto, certain alternatives being al- 
lowed. 

yadiraJ Scioices Tripos consists of two 
parts. Pai't I. includes papers of a more 
elementary character on chen\istry, phy- 
sics, mineralogy, geology, botany, zoology 
and con\pai'ative anatomy, human ana- 
tomy and physiology. For Part II. a 
thoi'ough ami complete knowledge of any 
two of the above sciences is required. In 
both parts the candidates' work is tested 
by a practical as well as a written exami- 
nation. 

The 7'/ieoIoi/icaI Tripos is divided into 
two parts. Part I. consists of two genei'al 
papers on the Old and New Testan^ent, 
two papers on the Hebrew of the Old 
Testament, with questions in Hebrew 
grammar and easy Hebrew composition, 
one paper on the Gospels (Oreek), Avith 
special reference to some selected Gospel, 
one paper on the Acts of the Apostles, 
the Epistles, axid Apocalypse, with special 
reference to some selected portions, and 
two historical papers, one dealing with the 
history of the Clunrh up to the death of 
Leo the Great, Avith special reference to 
such of the original authorities as are set, 
the other dealing with the history of 
Christian doctrine up to the close of the 
Council of Chalcedon. Part II. oft'ers a 
choice of four sections : (1) Old Testament, 
(2) New Testament, (o) Church history and 
literature. (4) dogmatics and liturgiology. 
No candidate may take up more than two 
sections. 

The Law I'rijKis, according to the new 



TRUANT SCHOOLS TRUTHFULNESS, UNTRUTHFULNESS 449 



regulations (wliicli come into force in 
1889), is divided into two parts. Part I. 
to include general jurisprudence. Roman 
law, Institutes of Gaius and Justinian, 
with a selected portion of the Digest, 
English constitutional law and history, 
public iiaternational law, essays and pro- 
blems. Part II. to consist of six papers 
on : (1) and (2) the Englisli lawof real and 
pei'sonal property ; (3) and (4) the English 
law of contract and tort — with the equit- 
able principles applicable to these sub- 
jects ; (5) English criminal law and proce- 
dure, and evidence ; (G) essays. 

The Historical Tripos. — Modern his- 
tory was included as a subject, first in the 
Moral Sciences Tripos, then in the Law 
Tripos, till in 1875 it was made the sub- 
ject of an independent examination. Ac- 
cording to the new regulations, which come 
into force in 1889, it includes papers on the 
constitutional and economic history of 
England, political science, a special period 
as appointed by tlie Board, essays, political 
economy, general theory of law and gov- 
ernment, the principles of international 
law. In place of the last three subjects 
a candidate may take a second special 
period if he prefer. 

The Semitic Lancjuages Tripos includes 
Arabic, Hebrew (Bi)jlical and post-Bib- 
lical), the Koran, Syriac, and Biblical 
Chaldee. 

The Indian Languages Tripos includes 
the language aud literature of Sanskrit, 
Persian, and Hindustani. 

The Mecliceval and Modern Languages 
Tripos. — The candidate must pass in Sec- 
tion A, i.e. translation from modern 
French and German, and composition in 
the same, and also otfer one set only of 
the following three sets : B, French, 
witli Provengal and Italian ; C, German, 
witli old Saxon and Gothic ; D, English, 
with Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic. 

Tripos Verses. See Tripos. 

Trivimn. See Middle Ages (Schools 
OF the). 

Truant Schools. — Under Section 12 
of the Elementary Education Act, 1876, 
when an attendance order made in respect 
to any child has not been complied with, 
* if the parent satisfies the court that he has 
used all reasonable efforts ' to enforce com- 
pliance (in other words, if the child is a 
confirmed truant, beyond the control of 
his father), the court may 'order the child 
to be sent to a certified day industrial 



school, or, if it appears to the court that 
there is no such school suitable for the 
child, then to a certified industrial school.' 
A ' day industrial school ' must be situated 
near the homes of the children attending 
it, and therefore presupposes in one neigh- 
bourhood sufficient boys or girls to fill it ; 
but as the pupils must be children too 
bad for the ordinary day-school and not 
bad enough for the ordinary industrial 
scliool or reformatory, it is manifest that 
there cannot be many ' day industrial 
schools.' Hence truants are generally sent 
to a ' certified industrial school.' In order 
that they may not become criminals by 
associating with children who have com- 
mitted graver offences than truancy, they 
are sent to institutions established for 
them alone by all the larger School 
Boards — institutions popularly known as 
' truant schools.' By the Industrial Schools 
Act of 1866 the parents of the child com- 
mitted may, ' if of sufficient ability,' be 
required to ' contribute to his mainten- 
ance and training ... a sum not exceed- 
ing five shillings per week.' The period 
of detention is at the discretion of the 
justices or magistrate, but may not in any 
case extend beyond the time when the 
child will attain the age of sixteen years. 
By Section 14 of the Education Act al- 
ready quoted the managers of the truant 
school may 'at any time after the expira- 
tion of one month ' of detention give the 
truant a licence to live out of the school. 
The licence ' is conditional upon the child 
attending as a day-scholar . . . some school 
willing to receive him.' By Section 27 of 
the Industrial Schools Act the licence can 
only run for three months, but it may be 
renewed as often as necessary. It may 
also be revoked, and in the case of a re- 
lapse to truancy it is revoked and the 
offender sent back. Experience, however, 
has proved that detention for a month or 
six weeks generally works a perfect cure ; 
but it must be added that, except in the 
matter of attendance, the influence of a 
truant school is not invariably beneficial. 
Mixing with children all of whom are 
bad has, too often, a deteriorating effect 
upon the conduct. 

Triitlifulness,TJntruthfuliiess. — Truth- 
fulness or veracity has been regarded by 
moralists generally as one of the cardinal 
virtues. A scrupulous truthfulness, in- 
cluding the abhorrence of a lie, is one of 
the highest results of moral education. 



450 



TRUTHFULNESS TUITION BY CORRESPONDENCE 



Lying is a common vice among children, 
as it is among backward races of mankind. 
It is very doubtful, however, whether it 
is a natural propensity which tends to 
display itself in all cases independently of 
circumstances. Much of childish inaccuracy 
of statement is not, strictly speaking, un- 
truthfulness — that is, conscious or inten- 
tional misstatement — but is explained as 
the result of imperfect knowledge of words, 
and of a vivid imagination which momen- 
tarily confuses fiction and reality. A child 
properly brought up seems rather to show 
an instinctive shrinking from falsehood, 
and only lies as the result of an effort. 
The habit of untruthfulness may be induced 
not only by the bad example of untruthful 
companions, but by errors on the part of 
the parent or preceptor. Thus want of 
strict accuracy from a polite wish to please 
others may first suggest untruth to the 
child's mind. Again, a child may be 
wrongly and foolishly accused of lying, 
and so the idea of falsehood forced on its 
attention. For the rest, the educator 
should be careful not to force and hurry a 
child into a lie when the temptation is 
great and likely to be overpowering, and 
especially not to terrify a child into un- 
truth, but to encourage it to be perfectly 
open, even when it has something wrong 
to confess. "When a lie has been clearly 
detected, it is a proper subject for punish- 
ment, and care must be taken to make 
this adequate, so as to correct the weaken- 
ing effect of the first lie on a habit of 
truthfulness. Here, however, care is ne- 
cessary. Lies differ greatly in turpitude 
according to their motive, and the lie that 
springs from fear of punishment ought 
not to be visited as heavily as one arising 
from a desire to gain an advantasre over 
another, to involve another in trouble, and 
so forth. With respect to the best mode 
of punishment opinion differs. Corporal 
punishment is recommended by Beneke 
and others as most befitting liars. Again, 
Rousseau, Kant, and, more i-ecently, H. 
Spencer, think that the natural consequence 
of a lie, viz. the withdrawal of trust, is the 
most appropriate form of punishment. 
Yet, as Jean Paul Richter points out, this 
is not always easy, for if we say we will 
believe nothing the child says, he will be 
apt to think that we ourselves are lying. 
Untruthfulness is emphatically a fault 
about which it may be said prevention is 
better than cure. The greatest care should 



be taken by the mother not only in her own 
use of words, but in the choice of servants- 
and companions, so as to accustom the 
little one at the outset to the habit of 
truth, as something normal and admitting 
of no exception ; and as the child grows, 
the influence of the home, the school, and 
of the playground should combine to- 
develop a feeling of hatred and contempt 
for falsehood as something essentially mean 
and cowardly. (^See Locke, Thoughts, §§ 
131, 132, cf. § 37 ; Miss Edgeworth, Prac- 
tical Education, chap, viii.; Mme. Necker, 
L' Education, livre iii. chap. iv. ; and 
especially Beneke, Erziehungs- tind Unter- 
richtslehre, § Q5 ; also article 'Wahrhaftig- 
keit' in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) 

Tuition by Correspondence. — The sys- 
tem of correspondence-tuition is a note- 
worthy feature of modern education. At 
the time wlien university lectures and pri- 
vileges were being thrown open to women 
it was thought advisable to devise some 
means by Avhich unattached women stu- 
dents throughout the country could re- 
ceive instruction for the university local 
examinations, whose advantages were also 
being extended to female students. To 
this end a committee was formed in con- 
nection with Newnham College, Cam- 
bridge, which was empowered to appoint 
teachers and pi'epare a syllabus of Avork to 
be done in this direction. Pupils were 
not slow to appreciate such advantages as 
now offered, and very soon a large num- 
ber of women and girls availed themselves 
of these privileges. From Cambridge the 
system extended elsewhere, and compre- 
hended not only female but male students 
in its correspondence-classes. The oi'- 
ganisation and method were well adapted 
to the wants of this ever-increasing body 
of earnest workers. Tuition was afforded, 
either with a view to immediate passing 
of examinations, or for the simple ad- 
vancement of private study, in some one 
or more branches of knowledge. A sylla- 
bus was issued, which not only gave a list 
of subjects included in its curriculum, but 
also directed intending students as to the 
best methods of obtaining the full ad- 
vantage of the new system. Moreover, 
books which might not have come within 
their notice were specially dwelt upon, a 
students' library was established, and a loan 
office in connection with the women's col- 
leges extended its benefits to members of 
correspondence-classes. And what was 



TUITION BY CORRESPONDENCE TUTOR 



451 



done at Cambridge is only a type of what 
has since been done elsewhere. One single 
staff in the north now numbers some five 
or six hundred students in its correspond- 
ence-classes, to whose ■ share not a few 
university distinctions and scholarships 
have already fallen. The instruction 
afforded is generally at a much lower cost 
than that applied to aural students of 
the same standard. The method which 
has brought the system to its present 
state of perfection is simply this : When 
once the subjects of work are selected 
by the student a number of questions are 
sent out bearing upon his present efficiency 
and future needs ; generally what is called 
a 'test-paper' is sent to sound his educa- 
tional standard, and a number of direc- 
tions as to the precise line of work he is 
to follow. Thenceforward a series of ques- 
tions and answers covering the ground 
about to be worked are sent and received 
periodically by correspondence-tutor and 
pupil, the answers being duly commented 
upon, corrected, and returned, together 
with very numerous hints and notes. The 
student is further advised as to the best 
books, as to special points of weakness in 
his work ; and he learns to condense his 
thoughts by continually tvritiiig out his 
answers, and this latter is the keystone of 
all correspondence-tuition work. Not un- 
frequently books are freely lent, and the 
teacher being generally fully acquainted 
with the newest and best methods of 
educational work, is able to afford valu- 
able assistance to isolated students. Fur- 
ther, sympathy is afforded, which is such 
an incentive to the solitary Avorker, and 
a ready referee is always at hand to solve 
difficulties and give encouragement in 
those times of depression too well known 
to solitary students. In many correspon- 
dence-classes excellent lectures are from 
time to time circulated, also annotated 
books of reference, notes on syntax, gram- 
mar, and construction, quotations, pro- 
blems fully Avorked out, which serve as ex- 
amples; and students thus benefit by the 
I'esearch of men and women who have ac- 
cess to fuller sources of information than 
they themselves possess. 

A large number of correspondence- 
tutors are called upon to give informa- 
tion on many points outside their curri- 
culum ; and more than one staff habitually 
give information, not only on educational 
matters, but on students' lodgings, regis- 



tries, associations, and facilities of all 
kinds. Another large London staff affords 
gratuitous assistance in correspondence- 
tuition to poor women and girls, thus pro- 
viding a long-felt want in the student 
world. The Women's Year-Book of Work 
gives an ever-increasing list of correspon- 
dence-classes specially intended for women ; 
while the list of honours obtained by both 
men and Avomen through this medium 
SAvells year by year. Both amateur afid 
professional art, music, and mechanical 
students make use of this system. Cor- 
respondence-tuition Avill probably be an 
important factor in future educational 
schemes Avhen restriction as to residence 
will be more or less AvithdraAvn, and uni- 
versity certificates, diplomas, and degrees 
even more sought after than they are at 
px"esent. Of course such a project as that 
of correspondence-tuition has not been 
entirely Avithout flaws, nor has it been per- 
fected at a single stroke ; it is also liable, 
as are all neAvly-organised things, to misuse 
or misconstruction; neither are all teachers 
on this system more perfect or immaculate 
than those in other branches of their pro- 
fession. The eA'er-increasing sphere of 
Avork attached to the post of correspon- 
dence-tutor is an earnest of the work to 
be done, and when the compulsory re- 
gistration of teachers is once made law 
in England as in other countries we shall 
hear less of attempted misuse of corre- 
spondence-tuition classes. 

Tutor. — This Avord no longer signifies 
one Avho merely ' looks after, watches, 
takes care of,' as its derivation implies 
(Latin tueor), but is employed to designate 
those engaged in certain kinds of teaching, 
or, as it is frequently called, ' tutorial ' 
Avork, the change from ' guardian ' to 
' teacher ' being precisely analogous to the 
corresponding change of meaning in the 
word 'pupil' from ' Avard ' to 'taught,' both 
Avords being still used in Scotch laAV with 
their primitive meanings. 

College Tutors. — At Cambridge the 
Avord has kept a good deal of its original 
force. Each college or hall has its tutor 
(or, in the case of the larger colleges, more 
than one), Avhose duties are («) to maintain 
discipline, and organise the teaching ar- 
rangements of the college ; (h) to assist 
in the Avork of imparting knowledge. In 
theoiy he is supposed to stand locoi7i2Jaren- 
tis to the undergraduates of the college, or, 
Avhen there is, as at St. John's and Trinity, 

GG 2 



452 



TUTOR TYPE OF BOOKS 



more than one colletje tutor, to those as- 
signed to his care. The tutor's advice and 
assistance in all matters connected with 
the nndergraduate's studies or conduct is 
at the latter's service whenever he may 
need it in the course of his college career. 
The tutor's authority is large, and his 
duties onerous, but these are usually 
shared with others appointed to aid him, 
under the titles of assistant-tutors, lec- 
tui'ers, deans, <kc. 

At Oxford the word is applied iii a 
somewhat wider sense, not only to those 
entrusted with disciplinary functions, but 
also to others whose work is solely to ini- 
pai-t instruction. But at Oxford, as at 
Cambridge, each student on entering the 
university is assigned to a tutor, to whom 
he is supposed to come for instruction and 
advice when he requires it, and he cannot 
leave the university for a day, nor enter 
his name for any college or uiaiversity 
examination, without his tutor's permis- 
sion ; but the relation between tutor and 
student is considerably closer at Cam- 
bridge than at Oxford. At both univer- 
sities the tutors ai'e, as a rule, also Fel- 
lows. 

At many of the American and Scotch 
universities, and at various otlier colleges 
of university rank, the name tutor (or 
lecturer) is applied to the professor's as- 
sistant ; as a rule, his functions are simi- 
lar to those of the professor, but he gene- 
rally takes work of a more elementary 
kind ; sometimes, however (as at several 
of the theological colleges), he has disci- 
plinary duties in addition. 

Tutors (Private, at the Universities). 
— It is found, however, that the amount 
of teaching supplied by the college officials 
is not sufficient to meet the needs of stu- 
dents reading for honours in the various 
examinations, who, therefore, resort to 
private tutors, or, as they are generally 
known, ' coaches.' These are, a's a rule, 
men who themselves have taken high 
honours in the particular branch of study 
in which they 'coach' pupils; they are 
frequently young men who find it to their 
advantage to take this irregular sort of 
work for a few years, before settling down 
to permanent engagements. There are 



however, some who devote themselves en- 
tirely to coaching, especially among tlie 
numerous body at each university who 
prepare men for pass-degi*ees ; but this 
latter is work of a disagreeable kind, as 
tlie pupils are generally men of little 
ability. 

At Lo)idon £/^/<('tvm^// there are neither 
professors nor tutors who have any official 
connection with the university, but there 
is a large body of private tutors Avho pre- 
pare men for the various examinations. 

Tutors (Armi/, Civil iService, c£;c.). — . 
The name tutor is also applied to ' ci'am- 
mers,' or 'coaches,' who prepare for the 
numerous public examinations. This 
class has sprung up within the last few 
years, and, in consequence of the increasing 
number of public appointments tlu'owu 
open to competition, has assumed very 
large dimensions. In London the heads 
of these establishments are able to secure 
first-class men as lectui'ers, and conse- 
quently the fees charged by these tutors 
(notably the army ones) are very high ; 
their pupils come mostly from tlie wealthier 
classes ; but there would seem to be no 
need of this class of tutors if the great 
public schools, whence they draw most 
of their supplies, did their work more 
thoroughly. 

Tutors (Private, Visitiuf/, Travelling, 
d'c.) — Yisiting private tutor's give instruc- 
tion to pupils, on whom they call at the 
pupil's residence ; wealthier families fre- 
quently employ resident tutors to prepai'e 
their sons for school life, and many men 
of considerable attainiiients are not loth 
to accept ti-a veiling tutorships, where their 
functions are to accompany their charges 
and exercise the double duties of mental 
and moral training. Such tutorships are 
nowadaj-s mostly confined to the longer 
vacations, but at the time when the grand 
tour was looked upon as an essential part 
of the education of every young man of 
consideration it was a common thing for 
poorer men who had distinguished them- 
selves at college to spend one, two, or 
three years on the Continent, engaged in 
this soi't of woi'k. 

Type of Books. See Eyesight. 



UNDERGRADUATE UNITS 



453 



u 



TJndergraduate. See Graduate. 
United States, Education in. See 

Law (Educational), section Massachu- 
setts ; and Universities, section American 
Universities. 

Units. — The degree of accuracy with 
which a nation can define its units may 
be said to be a measure of its civilisation. 
As England has become more civilised, 
and science has been more eagerly pursued, 
her standard units have become more 
exact. Yet the treatment of this subject 
in nearly all the text-books in arithmetic 
is most unscientific. In many cases an 
untrue distinction is made between a grain 
troy and a grain avoirdupois, and it is 
taught that the standard pounds are 
falsely derived from these grains. Dis- 
tinction should be made between derived 
units and the fundamental units of length, 
mass, and time. As it is difficult to find 
exact definitions, it will be useful to quote 
the Act of Parliament (18 & 19 Vict. 
c. 72, July 30, 1855). 

(1) Standard weights, or leather masses. 
— A certain lump of platinum, marked 
'P.S., 1844, 1 lb.,' preserved by the Ex- 
chequer and now by the Board of Trade, 
' shall be the legal and genuine standard 
measure of weight, and shall be and be 
denominated the imjjerial standard pound 
avoirdupois . . . the only standard measure 
of weight from which all other weights 
. . . shall be derived, computed, and as- 
certained, and one equal seven-thousandth 
part of such lb. av. shall be a grain, and 
5,760 such grains . . . d.po\indtroij.^ Troy 
is simply old London and Saxon weight. 
Avoirdupois is derived from the old Nor- 
man or southern standards (cf. the story of 
the old English and British churches). The 
French standard of mass is the platinum 
kiloqramme des arcliives, found by Prof. 
W. H. Miller to equal 15432-34874 grains. 
The teacher must guard against the con- 
fusion in most text-books between mass 
and weiglit. In ordinary life ma,ss is 
meant where the word ' weight ' is used. 
The mass or quantity of matter in the 
above standards is invariable. The weight 
of the standard mass is constant for a 
given spot, but varies slightly in different 
parts of the world, just as the measure of 
' gravity ' varies. At Greenwich the stan- 



dard pound mass weighs 32"191 , . . 
poundal units of force. 

(2) The standard units of length are the 
yard and the metre. The above Act enacts 
that ' the straight line or distance between 
the centres of the transverse lines in the 
two gold plugs in the bronze bar deposited 
in the office . . . shall be the genuine 
standard yard at 62° Fahr.' The metre is 
the distance between the ends of Borda's 
platinum rod at 0° C., and was intended 
to be a universal measure based on geodetic 
measurements. The metre is 39'37043 
British inches. All the multiples and 
submultiples of these standards and other 
details will be found in table-books. The 
metric system is legal in Britain, and, as 
it is much used in even elementary science, 
the young pupil should be made as familiar 
with centimetres as inches, litres as pints, 
grammes as grains. Cheap flat rulers 
comparing the systems are sold for a 
penny. More exact ones cost Is. 6c?. and 
upwards. Exact weights for chemical 
balances are expensive. Calculations are 
shortened by use of the metric system. 
Scientific standards, e.g. electrical units, 
are defined in its terms. The con- 
venience for international comparison is 
obvious. 

(3) The unit of time is not defined by 
Act of Parliament, but one o'clock or 
some other hour in mean solar time is 
daily telegraphed from Greenwich Obser- 
vatory. ' Standard time ' in America is 
calculated for the meridians of 60°, 75°, 
90°, 105° W. of Greenwich. The time of 
running trains is regulated by the time 
of the central meridian of each belt, as it 
were. Thus, ' Atlantic time,' or sixtieth 
meridian time, is used in New Brunswick ; 
' Eastern time ' is kept between 67^ and 
82^, governed by the seventy-fifth meri- 
dian. Further west there is ' central 
time,' 'mountain time,' and ' western time.' 
It will be seen that noon eastern time is 
9 A.M. western time. This difi^erence of local 
time is, of course, determined by the fact 
of the earth's daily rotation through 360° 

in twenty-four hours, or ^"=4 minutes 

for every degree of longitude. This rule 
will enable the local time to be calculated 
on reference to a good atlas. Thus, when 



454 



UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE 



it is 10 P.5I. on L. 35° W., Avhat time is it 
on L. 63° E. ? The difference is 98°, the dif- 
ference of time is 98 X 4=392min. = 6-f>32™ 
which + 1 0^ = 1 6^^ 3 2"\ This means that 
the time required is 16'^ 32"" p.m. or 
gh 32™ A.M. The convenience of the astro- 
nomical system of twenty-four hours is 
obvious and is coming into greater use. 
The International Congress at Washington 
agreed to count the Greenwich meridian 
as zero, and the time from Greenwich at 
midnight. Thus 19 o'clock at Greenwich 
would be, as it were, 17 p.m. all over the 
world {see Mathematical Geography). 
The mean solar secondis the -jT-^^-fi~jyth equal 
i:iart of the average length of a solar day. 
It is the ■HT3'iiVTT2"Tr*^^ <^^' ^ solar year, and 
^^'^^ 3 1 g 5^8 1 5 ^M ^ of a sidereal year. The 
23endulum which ticks seconds at Green- 
wich has a 'length 'of 39-139 inches, or 
99"41-t centimetres. 

The teacher should take great pains 
Avith this difficult subject of units. Very 
many popular science text-books grossly 
offend in this matter, especially in ele- 
mentary mechanics. Legal, popular, and 
scientific units should be distinguished in 
some cases. International units are being 
arranged or corrected. An important book 
of reference, the result of ten years' work. at 
the request of the International Meteoro- 
logical Congress, are the Tables edited by 
Pi'ofs. Mascart and Wild (Paris, Gauthier- 
Yillars, 400 pp. 4to, price 35 francs). See 
also Tables of the Physical Constants of 
Xatnre (Washington, Smitlisonian Insti- 
tute). A useful little book on units, full 
of tables, is Lupton's Nu.merical Tables 
and Coyistants in Elementary Science 
(Macmillan, 1884, 2s. 6c?.) See also Mr. 
Lupton's two papers in I^ature, January 
1888. Scientitic units are dealt with in 
Prof. Everett's Units of Physical Measure- 
ment (Macmillan, 4s. Gd.) A larger book 
by an American is Jackson's Modern Me- 
trology (London, Crosby Lockwood ife Co., 
1882). 

Universal Language. — Many at- 
tempts have been made at different times 
to invent a means of communication which 
might obviate the necessity of persons of 
different nations learning one another's 
tongue. Latin may fairly be said to liave 
been the ' universal language ' of the let- 
tered portion of the community during 
the Middle Ages, but with the Renascence 
and the growth and spread of the Reformed 
religion and of printing nations have more 



and more adhered each to its OAvn ver- 
nacular. 

One of the first attempts to supply a 
common medium was that of George Dal- 
garno, a native of Aberdeen and student 
of Oxford, whose Ars Signorum, sive Cha- 
racter Universalis appeared at London in 
1661 and formed the basis of the better 
known work of Bishop Wilkins, An Essay 
towards a Philosophical Language, printed 
for the Royal Society in 1668. The bishop 
tells us (in his preface) that his main ob- 
ject is 'the distinct expression of all things 
and notions that fall under discourse . , .' 
and to attain that end he divides all 
woi'ds into integrals and transcendentals ; 
his integi-als (which comprise all nouns, 
&c.) he then divides intoforty (7e?2?fs's (the 
expression is his own), which he again sub- 
divides into species, &.c. etc. ; his transcen- 
dentals — which are to embrace all such 
words as ai-e non-integrals — have to sub- 
mit to a more complicated classification, 
and finally the whole arrangement (which, 
be it noted, must comprehend every single 
word in the language) is to be committed 
to memory before the ' Philosophical Lan- 
guage ' can be used ! Under these cir- 
cumstances, it is perhaps not very sur- 
prising that Bishop Wilkins's scheme has 
never been put into practice : indeed it is 
doubtful whether anybody but the author 
of the system and his ciitics has ever had 
the patience to plod through the long 
dreary folio with its wearisome list of 
words ' philosophically ' arranged, and its 
ingeniously cumbrous methods for the 
better concealment of thought. Perhaps 
one example of his system may be of inte- 
rest. He names one of his genera. Element : 
to this he affixes the symbol De — then Deh 
signifies what he calls the first difference, 
which (according to the tables) is fire : 
Deha the fii'st species, i.e. flame ; Det, the 
fifth difference (of that genus), viz. Ap)- 
jieai'ing meteor ; Deta, the first species 
thereof, i.e. Bainhoiv, and Deta the second, 
Halo, etc. To write this. ' Philosophical 
Language ' he invented a ' Philosophical 
Character,' which is extremely difficult to 
learn, and ill-suited for either writing or 
printing. 

But Wilkins's attempt excited mucli 
intei'est, and was the cause of many other 
experiments in the same direction. J. G. 
Vater, in his Pasigraphie nnd Antipasi- 
graphie . . . ■id)er die Schriftsprache fiir 
I cdle Volker (Weiszenfels, 1799), gives a 



UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE 



455 



succinct account of several systems, with 
remarks on those of Wolken, Kahndr, and 
Leibnitz, together with one of his own. 
In this he endeavours to represent words 
by the Arabic numerals, as these are the 
■common property of all civilised races. 
Like Wilkins, he endeavours to classify 
iill tilings, and not with much better suc- 
cess, and his system is useless without a 
knowledge of the complete arrangement of 
liis Squares (Eahmen), Columns, Divisions 
(Theile), Lines (Zeile), and Sections (Ab- 
schnitte) ; thus 1346ii denotes ' Ham- 
merschlag ' (' blow with a hammer '), 
because that word is to be found in 
Square (1), Column (3), Division (4), 
Line (6), Section (ii) ! This scarcely rises 
above the dignity of a clumsy crypto- 
gram, yet enormous pains must have been 
given to the preparation of the word- 
lists, which are drawn up with sufficient 
acuteness. 

But Leibnitz had an idea which — 
though he did not live to work it out — he 
lias expressed with distinctness in a letter 
to a friend (quoted by Vater from Raspe's 
edition of Leibnitz, Oj:). Omn.) : ' I might 
hope,' he writes, ' to produce a sort of 
■universal calculus (cdlgemeiiie liechnung) 
by means whereof truthful inference could 
be deduced in a certain manner from all 
rational statements. You would thus 
have a sort of universal language or code 
of wi'iting, but very different from all 
those that have been proposed hitherto, 
for correct inferences would be produced 
by the combinations of the characters and 
word-symbols themselves, whilst errors, 
if they did not lie in the actual statement 
of facts, would be merely mistakes of cal- 
culation.' 

Of course, if any such scheme as this 
could be devised, it would have an educa- 
tional and intellectiial value far beyond 
any that it might possess as a mere means 
of communication, but at present we are 
apparently as far from it as Leibnitz was, 
though Jevons has shown by his Logical 
Abacus the possibility of drawing correct 
inferences by merely mechanical processes, 
which was one of the objects Leibnitz 
seems to have had in view. Babbage also 
gave some thought to the possibilities of 
a language calculus, but without producing 
anything. 

Referring the reader curious in such 
matters to A. Charma's *S'^^r V Etahlissement 
d'une Langue Universelle' (Paris, 1856), 



and to the same author's Essai sur le Lan- 
gage (Paris, 1846), where a list of some 
scores of names of inventors of ' Pasigra- 
phies,' 'Pasilogies,' ' LanguesUniverselles,' 
'Langues Philosophiques,' and the like, 
will be found, we pass to the considei^ation 
of a system which has sprung up within the 
last decade, and seems really likely to 
become a code of communication in com- 
merce at any rate, seeing that it has al- 
ready something like a quarter of a mil- 
lion adherents, while a dozen newspapers, 
&c., are printed in it. The inventor is 
Johann Martin Schleger, a Roman Catho- 
lic priest, who, having a wide knowledge 
of languages, has devoted himself to the 
task of (a) selecting the roots he considered 
best adapted for the bulk of civilised 
people, and (/3) building up a simple and 
regular system of grammar. The roots 
are for the most part monosyllables chosen 
or adapted from Aryan tongues, and may 
be roughly divided into three classes : (a) 
Teutonic, e.g. giv (gift), do {though), zug 
{ch-aio), (/?) Ptomance mod {mode), vin 
{toine), cem {room), (y) Roots, apparently 
arbitrary (or so slightly connected with 
existing ones as to be irrecognisable), e.g. 
fad {chance), fun {coiyse), nam {hand). It 
is claimed that more than forty per cent, 
of these roots are connected with EnglisH, 
but a lai^ge number of these belong to 
class (y). The pronunciation of the con- 
sonants is such as the inventor has thought 
best suited for the world in general, thus 
h, d, f, h, k, I, m, n, j), s, t, v, x, have their 
English sounds ; so has r, but it is used 
very sparingly ; g is ahvays soft (f/ave not 
gin) ; j is English sh ; c = English j, i, z, 
English ts ; the vowels are a, e, i, o, u, 
with their long and continental pronuncia- 
tions, together with the modifications a, o, 
u — which last two sounds are the only 
ones in the system not easy for English 
lips. Combinations difficult for any par- 
ticular people, e.g. th, dh, gh, ch, &c., are 
avoided. Tlie grammar is drawn up with 
a view to perfect symmetry and freedom 
from all irregularity, while the syntax 
resembles English very closely. A bare 
outline of the accidence of Volapiik (as 
its inventor names it), i.e. World's speech, 
may fitly close this sketch. The reader 
desii-ing more information may obtain it 
from KerckhofFs, Schleger's, Walther's, 
or Sprague's handbooks. 

Nouns and pronouns. — Nominative the 
stem ; Gen. add a, Dative e. Accusative i ; 



456 



UK 1 V KKSAL LANG U AG E ITNIYEKSITTES 



Sing-. Norn. Ob (,!> 

(ion. Ol>!i ^Mvino') 
P;it. Olio (,t» luo) 



for tho plunxl ailil .< to tho oorrospouding 
case of tho singular, o.g. : — 

Sini;. j;om. Vol OV^>iW^ Phi. Vol-. 

lu'U. Volii A olis 

l>;if. Vo'o N iilos 

Aoo. YoU VoHs 

lH>;is n>\\i> 
CUios (^10 u.-i) 
Obi.-i t^u.-;) 

Thoro is, of course, no grauiuiatioal 
goiidor for nouns nor for juljoi-tivos whioh 
need no intUwion, as tlioy inuuodiately 
Jollow tho noun thoy qualify ; any i\ouu 
gives rise to an adjeotivo by tlie addition 
of -ik, e.g. vol-ik {irorhili/) ob-ik {i)u)it') ; 
adverbs are adjeotives or noxms, plus tho 
tenuination -o, e.g. neit {nti/Iit), neit-ik 
{)ioctHr)Hxl), noit-o {at )U(fht), neit-ik-o 
(^uoctuntalli/). In the verb each person 
is denoted by thosutliKingof the personal 
pronoun, tense, and voice by augnuMits ; 
moreover, every grammatical function has 
a distinct intlexion, so that it is impossible 
to hesitate as to what part of speech, num- 
ber, tense, case, i<:c., a word nuiy be. 

The following illustrates the tense 
scheme : — 

Intiixitivo Ivom-iin (to ooiuo") Pivsont Tart. lvi>m-ol 
.Verfoot Pivvt. o-kom-ol Futuiv l';»rt. okom-ol 

liKlkiitivo Trcsout (^tv-'tkom-ob (^a-'lkiiinobs 
(a-Mvoiu-ol (a-'Ikom-ols 
(^a-'lkom-om {a-Mvoni-oms 
Imporfoot ji-kom-ob VoitVot o-kiim-ob 

riuportoot i-kom-ob Futmo o-koiu-ob 

Fmmv rert'oot vi-kom-ob 

The passive is precisely the same with a 
pi-otixed 'p/ e.g. p-u-let-ob = I shall have 
been left. 

^Whether the A'olapiikists will bo able 
to justify their motto, ' ]Menade bal, Fiiki 
lial ' (* for oi\e mankind, one speech "), is 
a very doubtful n\atter ; but the careful 
way in which the '\Veltsprache" has been 
constructed, and the method in which its 
inventor has adapted Scandinavian, .Hel- 
lenic, lUuuance, <.iernuin, and other pecu- 
liarities to his own system are worthy of 
the highest commendation, and should 
certainly connuaud the attention alike of 
the educator and the philologist. That 
any system of artiticial language would 
ever displace natural ones seems extremely 
improbable, but just as an aritluuetical 
calculation or a piece of music is at once 
intelligible to educated people of any na- 
tion whatever, so son\e such systent as 
A'olapiik might, like international signal- 
or telegraph- codes, be used in the trans- 



actions of con\mercial life, ai\d for other 
purposes where a limited number of ideas 
are required to be represented with accu- 
racy, but without tine shades of feeling^ 
or subtleties of thought. ' Words,' says 
Robertson in one of his sermons, ' are bvit 
couTiters the coins of intellectual ex- 
change." Adopting the metaphor, wo 
n\ay say that for some transactions it 
might be possible to have an ' international 
currency.' 

iruiversities. — The term university, 
like n\ost others that have lost their ori- 
ginal n\eaning, has come to be used so 
vaguely that it is in\possiblo to detine it 
in such a way as to be gejun'ally appli- 
cable. In America, especially tlie term 
has been so much abused that no one can 
form any accurate conception of the nature 
of any particular institution bearing that 
designation. The detinitions of the nature 
and functions of a university which havo 
been givei\ from tiu\e to time by leading 
scholarsdifler considerably from each other, 
but they usually range within certain re- 
cognisable limits. Speaking of a teaching- 
university. Professor Huxley recently said 
that by that term he did not mean a mere 
CO operative society of teacher-examiners, 
but a corporation which shall embrace a 
professoriate charged with the exposition 
of the higher forms of knowledge in all 
its branches. Cardinal Newman, more 
vaguely but still accui'ately enough, has 
detined a university to be a ' school of 
universal learning.' He envd, however, 
in thinking that this was the literivl mean- 
ing of the mediaeval designatioiv (ttudiitDt 
i/nu-rah: This loi\g-popular error has been 
abundantly refuted, aixd there can now be 
no doubt that the phrase had no reference 
to the sun\ total of knowledge, but n\crely 
to the catholic nature of the institution 
itself. The .ididinni (ft'uerah' of the Middle 
Ages was not a place in which instruction 
in every branch of human learning was 
imparted, but a counnon or public place of 
study — a centre of superior instruction 
open to every one who was ij\ a position 
to avail himself of it. This cosmopolitan 
feature characterised all the pre-Eeforma- 
tion universities. Like the Church, they 
recognised the Pope as their head. No 
university could be ei*ected without his 
coi\tirmaton' bull, and the papal intluenc*^ 
was maintained in the government of the 
university through its chancellor, who was 
[ almost invariably the bishop or archbishop 



UNIVERSITIES 



457 



of the diocese in wlucli it was located. On 
the overthrow of the supremacy of the 
papacy at the Reformation tlie universities 
lost their cosmopolitan character and be- 
came national or merely provincial. The 
gradual disuse of the Latin language in 
the class-rooms still further tended to iso- 
late them from one another, and to lessen 
the migration of scholars from the univer- 
sities of one country to those of another. 

It was long the custom to carry hack 
the origin of universities to a fabulous an- 
tiquity ; but the legendary nature of the 
claims formerly put forth on behalf of the 
antiquity of such universities as Bologna, 
Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge has now 
been demonstrated, and the researches of 
competent scholars are gradually placing 
academic history on a thoroughly scientific 
and trustworthy basis. Passing over what 
have been called the universities of clas- 
sical antiquity, Italy appears to have been 
the cradle of the mediaeval and modern 
university systems. At all events there 
appears to have been an institution at 
Salerno as early as the ninth century, 
having strong claims to be regarded as 
at least a rudimentary university. The 
earliest documentary evidence, however, 
of a satisfactory nature regarding the ex- 
istence of such institutions dates from the 
close of the twelfth century. It is scarcely 
possible to determine with exactness the 
relative antiquity of the oldest univer- 
sities. None of them was founded by a 
special act of any individual or commu- 
nity ; they all grew out of pre-existing 
educational institutions, but at what par- 
ticular time they ceased to be schools and 
developed into universities is a problem 
exceedingly difficult to solve. 

Looked at as a whole, the European 
universities present comparatively few 
points of contrast. They differ from each 
other in many minor details, but in the 
main they follow the same lines and seek 
to attain the same results. Their main 
object is to furnish a liberal education in 
the most advanced branches of knowledge 
to young men who have to some extent 
proved their fitness to profit by such in- 
struction by previous examinations. This 
instruction is designed to promote intelli- 
gence and culture, and to qualify men for 
the learned professions. They seek also 
to encourage, so far as their respective 
endowments permit, the prosecution of 
original research by men of exceptional 



ability after they have passed through the 
ordinary curriculum and taken their de- 
gree ; and in this connection they esta- 
blish libraries, museums, laboratories, and 
other agencies, with a view of affording 
facilities for increasing and perpetuating 
knowledge. And they further Vjestow re- 
wards in the shape of titles and degrees, 
not only upon meritorious students before 
leaving their walls, but upon all who dis- 
tinguish themselves in their respective pro- 
fessions or who make valuable contribu- 
tions to literature and science. 

Until the second quarter of the nine- 
teenth century university education in 
England was centred in Oxford and Cam- 
bridge. While in other countries univer- 
sities sprang up in most of the principal 
towns, and thus brought a university 
training within reach of the great bulk of 
the people. Englishmen were forced at 
much cost and inconvenience to send their 
sons to Oxford and Cambridge, or aban- 
don the idea of giving them a university 
education altogether. One characteristic 
which at once distinguishes these univer- 
sities from those of other countries is the 
great extent to which the college system 
has been carried on in them. Originally 
intended as feeders of the universities, 
they in course of time greatly exceeded 
them in wealth, and almost altogether su- 
perseded them as teaching bodies. The 
great wealth which gradually accumulated 
in these colleges from the donations of 
pious benefactors, while a source of un- 
doubted strength, was at the same time 
the generator of many of the weaknesses 
which so long hampered their usefulness. 
The extreme conservatism displayed all 
through their history also tended to the 
perpetuation of numerous abuses aiid to 
making their methods and subjects of in- 
struction lag far behind the actual re- 
quirements of the country. But since the 
public interest in university education was 
fairly aroused by the discussions connected 
with the erection of the University of 
London, the older universities have been 
subjected to much criticism as well as to 
legislative interference on the part of the 
Government. For some years they have 
been passing through a period of transi- 
tion amounting almost to a revolution. 
Opinions still differ as to the wisdom of 
many of these changes, but the general 
result has unquestionably been beneficial 
both to the universities themselves and to 



458 



UNIVERSITIES 



tlio oountry. One of tlio most striking 
defects of the Oxford and Cambridge sys- 
tem has been its exelnsiYeness, and in- 
ability to meet the ^vants of all elasses. 
This, ho^yeyer, has to a hvvgo extent been 
remedied, and the juunber of students has 
consequently steadily increased, although 
the percentage is still lower than it nnght 
be. These uniyersities are no^v open, ^Yith- 
out respect of birth, age, or creed, to all 
persons avIio can produce eyidenco that 
they fii't? likely to deriNO educational ad- 
vantage from their membership ; and every 
member is eligible to compete for all their 
prizes and distinctions, subject only to the 
necessary limitations of academical stand- 
ing. The only restricted degrei^s are those 
in diyinity, Ayhich are confined to meudiers 
of the Church of England. There is a 
decreasing display of Avealth an\ong the 
xmdei-graduates, and it is no^y possible for 
a student to live unattached to any college 
in a frugal manner without losing the re- 
spect of his richer associates. A general 
feeling in faA'our of economy has of late 
yeai's been steadily gixnviug, and the 
iiuthorities of most colleges make e\oi'y 
otVort to promote simplicity of li\ing and 
to provide for poorer students. Notwith- 
standing this, an Oxford or Candu-idgo 
career is still far from being inexpensiye. 
T"'he undergraduate ^yho wishes to li\e in 
comfort and to enjoy a few luxuries must 
ivckon on spending from 175/. to 200/. a 
year at Oxford, and from 120/. to 150/. at 
Cambridge. Many men of course eontriye 
to live upon much less, but tliey are obliged 
to deny themselves many of those social 
amenities Avhich are an impoi'tant fac- 
tor in academical culture. This influx 
of the plebeian elenient, wliich was so 
much dreaded in some quarters, has had 
no detrimental effect upon undei'gra- 
dnate life. Indeed, the tastes of the stu- 
dents as a Avhole ai-e more refined ai\d 
their manners more gentle tlian they were 
fifty years ago. The relations of the imi- 
versities to the genei-al educational system 
of the covi^dry are becoming closer every 
year. Their local examinations, conducted 
nt ditYd'ent centres ; their extension lec- 
tui-es, and their recogiution of the clainis 
of Avomen to the higliest educational train- 
ing, have brought tliem n\ore and more 
into contact with the people. These and 
other results of recent legislation, as well 
as of the voluntary action of the univer- 
sities themselves, have iindoubtedly tended 



to make tlicin more truly national, and 
they }n-obably neyer at any previous period 
exercised a greater intellectual inthu^nco 
o\ er the whole country than they do now. 
The go^■ernment of the C^iiiiyraiti/ of 
O.i'J'ord is vested in the following bodies : 
(1) Convoeation, which consists of all the 
nuMubers of the university who have taken 
the degrees of M.A., M.D., D.C.L., or 
P.P., whether resident or not ; (2) the 
Congregation, which consists of certain 
c.f ('///('<() nuMubers and of all members of 
ConNOcation who reside in Oxford for 
110 days in the academical year; and 
(;')) the 1 1 ebilomadal Council, which con- 
sists of the chancellor, the A'ice-cLau- 
cellor, tlie ex-vice-chancellor, for a cei'- 
tain period after the expiry of his term 
of otlice, the two pi'oetors, and eighteen 
n\embers elected by the Congregation. 
The Hebdomadal Council alone has the 
power of initiating legislation. A new 
statute framed by it must be pronudgated 
in the Congregation, Avhicli may adopt, 
reject, or amend it. In its approved 
form it must be subnutted to Convocation, 
which may adopt or reject but cannot 
amend it. Besides confirming or reject- 
ing statutes subnutted to it. Convocation 
transacts much of the ordinary business of 
the university by means of decrees ; con- 
fers honorary degrees, aiul degrees granted 
by decree or diploma ; sanctions petitions 
to Parliament ; authorises the atUxing of 
the iniiversity seal when necessary ; and 
its n\end»ers elect the university represen- 
tatives in Parliament. But no proposals 
can be made to Convocation which have 
not been sai\ctioned hf the Hebdomadal 
Council. The chancellor of the uvdversity 
being non-resident, the executive power 
of the x\niversity is chiefly in the hands 
of the vice-chancellor, who is nominated 
by the chancellor from among tlie heads 
of colleges, and \isually holds otttee for 
four years. The A-ice-chancellor is as- 
sisted in his duties by the proctors, who 
are annually elected by the colleges and 
halls in rotation ; ami by ^■arious com- 
mittees appointeil by the three governing 
bodies. The university is a body corpo- 
rate, invested, in addition to the usual 
powers of corporations, with various pecu- 
liar privileges, such as the right of exer- 
cising jurisdiction, civil and criminal, over 
its nuMubers, the right of returning two 
representatives to the House of Commons, 
and the power of conferring degrees. The 



UNIVERSITIES 



459 



members of the university are divided 
into two classes : (1) graduates, number- 
ing upwards of eight tliousand, and (2) 
undergraduates, numbering about three 
thousand. Only a small propoi'tion of 
the graduates are in residence, and these 
are chiefly engaged in the educational 
work of the university or in research. 
The non-resident graduates are those who 
have left Oxford after taking their degree, 
but have retained their position as mem- 
bers of the university by the payment of 
certain dues. Only those members who 
have taken a degree qualifying for mem- 
bership of Convocation have a share in 
the government of the university. 

The colleges are also corporate bodies, 
and, as such, are distinct from the uni- 
versity, and independent of its laws and 
regulations. They manage their own 
property and elect their own officers, and 
the university proctors have no power 
Avithin their walls. On the other hand, 
an intimate and harmonious relation be- 
tween the iiniversity and the colleges is 
maintained by the fact that the great 
majority of the members of the university 
belong to the colleges, and that all who 
belong to the various colleges are at the 
same time members of the university. 
The colleges were originally founded for 
the maintenance of a limited number of 
members, consisting, as a rule, of the 
head, the fellows, and the scholars, and 
sometimes a few other members with 
various titles ; but it is now the custom 
to i-egard as members of a college not 
only the persons who are on its foundation 
but all membei-s of the university whose 
names are on the college books. TJie 
duty of ascertaining the titness of candi- 
dates for admission to the university is 
in the hands of the colleges, and it is by 
them that scholarships and exhibitions 
are offered to those who are beginning 
or intending to begin their university 
course. 

The number of scholarships, exhilji- 
tions, and other endowments attached to 
the various colleges is very large. Scho- 
lars! lips are usually tenable for two years 
in the first instance, but this period may 
be extended to four or even to five years. 
They are partly open and partly restricted 
to students from particular schools or 
localities. The annual value of open 
scholarships was fixed by the University 
Commissioners of 1877 not to exceed SO/., 



inclusive of all privileges and allowances. 
But a number of valual^le foundations are 
exempted from this order, and there are 
in many colleges special funds for in- 
creasing the value of scholarships when 
necessary. Exhibitions are usually of 
less value than scholarships, averaging from 
40/. to 50/., but they are less restricted as to 
age, and are frequently confined to persons 
who produce evidence of their need of 
assistance. Both scholarships and exhibi- 
tions are, as a rule, awarded after a com- 
petitive examination. Besides the college 
scholarsliips the university possesses a 
number of scholarships and prizes which 
are awarded to persons after examinations 
or competitions, which are open only to 
members of the university of a specified 
standing. {See University SciiOLARsniPs). 

College fellowships are of two kinds : 
(1) prize fellowships and (2) official fellow- 
ships. The election is made after exami- 
nation, and candidates for the former 
must have passed all examinations required 
for tlie degree of B.A., and must be un- 
married, and not in possession of more 
than a certain income. The yearly emo- 
luments of a fellowship amount to 200/., 
together with, in most cases, rooms rent 
free, and an allowance for dinner in hall. 
The tenure is for seven years. These 
fellowships are simply rewards for pro- 
ficiency in the various subjects studied in 
the university, and the holders are, as a 
rule, under no obligation to reside, or 
to remain unmarried after election, or to 
serve their colleges in any capacity. The 
official fellowships are mainly intended to 
be held by members of the educational 
staff in the college, but they are also, in 
many cases, tenable by other college of- 
ficers. Their yearly value is generally 
200/., besides free rooms and allowance 
for dinner in hall. The length of tenure 
varies from two to fifteen years. 

Tlio following is a list of the twenty- 
one colleges in the University of Oxford, 
with the reputed dates of their founda- 
tions and the number of their members in 
1887. In addition to the colleges there are 
two academical halls, St. Mary, founded 
in 1333, Avith 87 members; and St. Ed- 
mund, founded in 1557, with 129 mem- 
bers. Their constitution difl'ers from that 
of the colleges, inasmuch as they are not 
corporate bodies, and have neither fellows 
nor scholars. Provision has recently been 
made for their dissolution on the occur- 



460 



UNIVERSITIES 



rence of the next vacancy in their respec- 
tive principalships. St. Mary Hall will 
be merged in Oriel College, and St. Ed- 
mund Hall will be partially united to 
Queen's College. 



College 


Date 


Jlenibers 


University 


87-2 


541 


Ualliol ." . . . 


12G3 


820 


Merton .... 


126-1 


481 


Exeter .... 


1314 


808 


Oriel .... 


1326 


429 


Queen's .... 


1340 


566 


Nevr .... 


1379 


684 


Lincoln .... 


1427 


325 


All Souls 


1437 


115 


Magdalen 


145S 


604 


Erasenose 


1509 


524 


Corpus Christi 


1516 


341 


Christ Church 


1546 


1,303 


Trinity .... 


1554 


570 


St. John's 


1555 


575 


Jesus .... 


1571 


244 


Wadham 


1612 


384 


Pembroke 


1G24 


323 


Worcester 


1714 


450 


' Keble .... 


1870 


532 


' Hertford 


1874 


329 



Thei'e are, moreover, two private halls 
— Charsley's, with 60 members, and Tur- 
rell's, with li members — founded under 
a statute passed in 1882, which enacted 
that any member of Convocation above 
the age of twenty-eight may, under cer- 
tain conditions, obtain from the vice- 
chancellor, with the consent of the Heb- 
domadal Council, a licence to open a 
suitable building as a private hall for the 
reception of academical students, with 
•the title of 'licensed master,' and make 
provision for the proper government of 
the students under his charge. They are 
subject to all other statutes of the uni- 
versity, and they partake in its privileges 
and are admissible to its degrees in the 
same way as other students. Previous to 
1868 no one could become a member of 
the vmiversity ^\ho was not already a 
member of a college or hall. In that year 
an enactment was passed under which per- 
sons are permitted, luider certain condi- 
tions, to become students and members of 
the university without being members of 
any college or hall. Such persons are 
known as 'non-collegiate students,' and 
keep their statutable residence in houses 
or licensed lodgings situated within a pre- 
scribed area. They enjoy all the rights 
of collegiate students, including that of 
being admitted to degrees and to all the 
subsequent privileges. Such students are 



placed under the supervision of a censor, 
who is charged with the care of their 
conduct and studies. In 1887 the number 
of non- collegiate students was 385. 

The University of Cambridc/e is an 
incorporation of students in the liberal arts 
and sciences, incorporated by the name of 
the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the 
university. In this commonwealth are in- 
cluded seventeen colleges and two public 
hostels, each being a body corporate, bound 
by its own statutes, but likewise controlled 
by the paramount laws of the university. 
The legislative body of the university is 
called the Senate, and comprises the chan- 
cellor, the vice-chancellor, doctors of di- 
vinity, law, medicine, science, and letters, 
bachelors of divinity, and masters of 
arts, law, and surgery, whose names are 
upon the university register. There is a 
council of the Senate, which must first 
sanction everything before it can be sub- 
mitted to the Senate for confirmation. 
This council consists of the chancellor, 
the vice-chancellor, four heads of col- 
leges, four professors of the university, 
and eight other members of the Senate. 
The Executive branch of the university 
is committed to the chancellor, the high 
steward, the vice-chancellor, the com- 
missary, and a number of other oificers. 
There is a general board of studies, and 
also special boards for the difterent de- 
partments of study, as well as a financial 
board for the care and management of the 
income of the university. The relations 
of the university to the colleges are prac- 
tically the same as at Oxford, and the 
general organisation of the whole institu- 
tion is someAvhat similar. The two uni- 
versities are, however, by no means copies 
of each other. Each has its own aims and 
methods, and they present numerous points 
of contrast to the student of academical 
constitution and administration. 

The public hostels are (1) Cavendish 
College, founded in 1876, with 141 mem- 
bers ; and (2) Selwyn College, founded in 
1882, with 156 members. There is also a 
private hostel named Ayerst Hall, founded 
in 1884, and having thirty-eight members 
on its books. Its object is to enable 
theological and other students to keep 
terms at Cambridge at the same cost as at 
the younger univei'sities and at theological 
colleges. As at Oxford, non-collegiate 
students have been admitted to the uni- 
versity since 1869, In 1887 these students 



UNIVERSITIES 



461 



numbered 203, and the total number of 
matriculations in the same year was 
1012. 

The following is a list of the seventeen 
colleges at Cambridge, with the dates of 
their foundations and the number of mem- 
bers upon their boards in 1887 : — 



College 


Date 


Members 


St. Peter's . 


12,57 


327 


Clare . 




1326 


503 


Pembroke 




1347 


481 


Gonvilleand Caius 




1348 ■ 


742 


Trinity Hall . 




13,50 


642 


Corpus Christ! 




13,52 


477 


King's . 




1441 


393 


Queen's . 




1448 


235 


St. Catharine's 




1473 


218 


Jesus 




1496 


522 


Christ's . 




1505 


657 


St. John's 




1511 


1,750 


Magdalene 




1519 


233 


Trinity . 




1546 


3,523 


Emmanuel 




1584 


553 


Sidney Sussex 




1594 


211 


Downing 




1800 


216 



Although the University of London, as 
it now exists, dates only from 1836, it 
actually had its origin ten years earlier. 
An institution bearing that title was 
founded in 1826, the primary object of its 
founders being to create in London a 
centre of research where the sons of Dis- 
senters, to whom the universities of Oxford 
and Cambridge were at that time inacces- 
sible, might obtain a liberal education 
entirely dissociated from all connection 
with religious sects or parties. The ex- 
clusiveness of the two ancient universities 
was not the only argument brought forward 
in favour of the establishment of a new 
seat of learning. The great cost of resid- 
ing at Oxford and Cambridge made these 
universities prohibitive to many who were 
not dissenters, and, besides, the natural 
■sciences, and especially medicine, were 
not taught in these universities. The 
Tiew university was founded by private 
munificence, and was opened on October 1, 
1828. A draft charter for its corporation, 
and for enabling it to confer degrees, was 
^approved in 1831 by the law officers of 
the Crown, but a change of Government 
prevented it from being granted. In 1836 
the institution was eventually incorporated, 
not, however, as a university, but as a 
•college of a university, under the title of 
University College, and a new body en- 
tirely distinct from it was empowered to 



assume the name of the University of 
London, and to grant degrees in the 
faculties of Arts, Law, and Medicine. At 
first it was necessary that candidates for 
these degrees should receive their education 
in colleges afiiliated to the university, but 
in 1858 the examinations were thrown 
open to all candidates, without restriction 
as to place of education. In 1867 a sup- 
plemental charter was obtained enpowering 
the university to hold examinations for 
women. The University of London has 
exercised an important influence on higher 
education all over the country, and its 
examination-statistics have increased from 
decade to decade. During the first ten 
years of its existence the number of persons 
who matriculated was 763, and during the 
same period 522 obtained degrees of various 
kinds. During the last ten years the num- 
bers reached 8,469 matriculated, and 2,375 
graduated. During these fifty years the 
total number of candidates who presented 
themselves for examination was 58,962, 
and altogether 18,832 persons matriculated, 
and 6,489 obtained degrees. It will be 
noticed that while the matriculations have 
increased more than tenfold, the gradua- 
tions have only been quadrupled. This 
seems to point to the conclusion that the 
middle-class schools of England are more 
and more adopting the London matricula- 
tion as their leaving examination. But 
while the University of London has been 
on its own lines a recognised success, there 
has of late been much discussion as to its 
future. A merely examining university 
does not commend itself to many educa- 
tionalists, and an association has been 
formed for the promotion of a teaching 
universty for the metropolis. This asso- 
ciation aims at the organisation of univer- 
sity teaching in and for London, in the 
form of a teaching university with the 
usual faculties, the conjunction of exami- 
nation with teaching, and the direction of 
both by the same authorities; the conferring 
of a substantive voice in the government 
of the university upon those engaged in 
the work of tuition and examination; the 
adoption of existing institutions as the 
basis or component parts of the university, 
to be either partially or completely incor- 
porated with the minimum of internal 
change, and an alliance between the uni- 
versity and such professional societies or 
corporations as the Royal College of Phy- 
sicians of London and the Royal College 



462 



UNIYERSITIES 



of Surgeons of England. This scheme has 
been in the main approved by the Councils 
of King's College and of University Col- 
lege, and has otherwise met with consider- 
able support. 

The University of Durham was instituted 
in 1832, under an Act of Parliament which 
empowered the Dean and Chapter of Dur- 
ham to appropriate an estate for the esta- 
blishment and maintenance of a university 
for the advancement of learning in con- 
nection with the cathedral church. The 
educational system and arrangements of 
the university were assimilated to those of 
Oxford and Cambridge, provision being 
also made for the residence of students 
within certain colleges and halls. In 1870, 
however, a regulation was passed providing 
for the admission of persons as members 
of the university who might be unattached 
to these colleges and halls, provided only 
they resided in lodgings approved by the 
warden and proctors. In course of time, 
the university extended its sphere of use- 
fulness by the incorporation and affiliation 
of colleges situated at a distance from the 
university seat. Consequent upon this 
change, the College of Medicine and the 
College of Physical Science at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne now form an integral part of the 
university, and Codrington College, Bar- 
bados, and Eourah Bay College, Sierra 
Leone, are affiliated to it. The university 
enjoys the power of conferring the custo- 
mary degrees in all the faculties. 

Victoria University was founded by 
Eoyal Charter, dated April 20, 1880, 
mainly on a petition of Owens College, 
Manchester (in which it was stated that 
in this country there exists a widespread 
and growing demand for the extension and 
benefits of university education, together 
with a conviction that, in respect of the 
opportunities of such an education, Eng- 
land, compared with several other coun- 
tries, remains deficient). The Yorkshire 
College of Science at Leeds concurred in 
this petition, and further sought to obtain 
the incorporation in the proposed univer- 
sity of other colleges than Owens. The 
constitution of the Victoria University, 
which resembles that of London in some 
respects, is essentially different in others. 
Colleges are not merely to be affiliated to 
it, but they are to be incorporated with it, 
so as to form part of the same organisation, 
and have a share in its general manage- 
ment, while retaining their own autonomy. 



At present (1888) the activity of the Vic- 
toria University is confined to Manchester 
and Liverpool — the only colleges incor- 
porated with it being Owens College, 
Manchester, which was constituted a col- 
lege of the university by its charter, and 
University College, Liverpool, which was 
admitted a college of the university by 
resolution of the Court of Governors on 
November 5, 1884. Degrees are granted 
by Victoria University in the faculties of 
Arts, Science, Law, and Medicine, and 
candidates are required on presenting them- 
selves to furnish certificates of attendance 
upon approved courses of instruction. 

The first Scottish Uni versity was founded 
at St. Andrews in 1 41 1 . This was followed 
by the University of Glasgow in 1450, 
and the University of Aberdeen in 1494. 
The University of Edinburgh was not 
founded until 1582. St. Andrews folloAved 
closely the organisation of Paris and Ox- 
ford, where its founder had been educated, 
and, in spite of repeated legislation, still 
retains distinct traces of its mediaeval 
origin, The constitution and organisation 
of the four Scottish universities has been 
practically uniform since the passing of 
the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1858, 
and the ordinances of the Executive Com- 
mission following thereon. For the ordi- 
nary four years' arts course students enter 
the universities in many cases direct from 
the primary schools at a comparatively 
early age, and without previous examina- 
tion. Eor the three years' course, however, 
an entrance exammation is compulsory. 
At the end of either course, and the passing* 
of satisfactory examinations in the so-called 
seven arts subjects, the degree of M.A. is 
obtained. In addition to the arts degree 
and the degrees in the professional faculties, 
degrees in science were recently instituted 
at Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews. 
The universities are the recognised training 
colleges for the ministry of the Scottish 
Churches, and for the legal, medical, and 
teaching professions. Great advances have 
recently been made in the department of 
medicine, and the University of Edinburgh 
has attained the position of one of the 
leading medical schools of the world. The 
Scottish universities have always been 
essentially popular institu.tions, in the sense 
of being accessible to rich and poor alike. 
This has been accomplished partly by the 
bm-sary system (see Bursaries), which is 
more closely identified with Scotland than 



UNIVERSITIES 



463 



with any other country, and partly by the 
moderate cost of living in the university 
towns, together with the lowness of the 
class fees. Women are not admitted to 
their class-rooms, but local examinations 
are conducted which are open to both 
sexes, and the University of St. Andrews 
has instituted a higher certificate for 
women, with the title of Literate in Arts. 
Although it may be claimed for the Scot- 
tish universities that they have hitherto 
fairly met the wants of the country, there 
has been during the past twelve years an 
urgent demand in various quarters for a 
comprehensive scheme of reform. Special 
stress has been laid upon the need there 
is of a more popular and representative 
element in the governing bodies of the 
universities, the necessity of an entrance 
examination, and a consequent elevation 
of the standard of teaching. The opening 
up of the M.A. curriculum has also been 
insisted on, so as to include a greater num- 
ber of subjects than at present. Also the 
specialisation of studies after a certain 
stage, somewhat after the manner known 
as the elective system in several of the 
leading American universities. Increased 
facilities are likewise required for the 
prosecution of special lines of study and 
original research by distinguished students 
after graduation. Still more liberal treat- 
ment on the part of the Imperial Treasury 
is also called foi', so that the financial 
condition of the universities may be less 
strained, and the respective senates enabled 
to make better provision for more thorough 
practical teaching in science subjects, which 
is a new departure in the Scottish Univer- 
sity system. 

Irish Universities. — Trinity College, 
Dublin, was founded by Queen Elizabeth 
in 1591, and was the only university in 
Ireland until the middle of the present 
century. Although frequently assailed 
from various quarters, it has throughout 
its history been the recognised centre of 
learning in Ireland. In its general orga- 
nisation Trinity College closely resembles 
the older English universities, on which 
it was to a large extent modelled ; but in 
several particulars it differs from them, as 
well as from most other universities of 
long standing. One noticeable peculiarity 
is the system of non-resident students, 
which appears to have sprung up, in con- 
travention of the statutes, about the middle 
of last century. In this way students 



may keep terms in certain faculties' by 
merely enrolling their names in the uni- 
versity books and coming up for the neces- 
sary examinations. This method of keep- 
ing terms has been as much as possible 
discouraged in recent years, but it is still 
in use, and has been taken advantage of 
by colleges outside Ireland as a means of 
enabling their students to acquire univer- 
sity degrees. In 1S45 colleges were esta- 
blished by Government at Belfast, Cork, 
and Gal way, aiid in 1850 the Queen's Uni- 
versity in Ireland was founded for the 
purpose of conferring upon the students 
of these colleges such degrees and distinc- 
tions as were usually conferred by other 
universities in Great Britain and Ireland. 
This university, however, was dissolved on 
February 3, 1882, and its place has been 
taken by the Royal University of Ireland 
(chartei-ed on April 27, 1880), which is 
an examining body framed on a wider and 
more popular basis than the Queen's Uni- 
versity, With the exception of theolog}', 
it confers degrees in all the faculties, in- 
cluding music. Its degrees, scholarships, 
and other distinctions are open to students, 
of either sex who have passed the matricu- 
lation examination, and its examinations 
are held not only in Dublin, which is the 
headquarters of the university, but in dif- 
ferent towns throughout Ireland. Although 
mainly an Irish university, its operations 
are not limited to that country, as its ex- 
aminations are open to students from the 
university colleges of England and Wales. 
The Universities of France. — At the end 
of last century there were twenty-three 
provincial universities in France, founded 
at dififerent epochs from a very early period. 
Of these Toulouse was the oldest, next to 
the central University of Paris, dating from 
1233 ; Montpelier was founded in 1289, 
and Orleans iii 1312. All these univer- 
sities were suppressed by a decree of the 
Convention on March 20, 1794 — the sup- 
pression including even the university of 
Paris itself — education at all its stages 
being turned over to private enterprise. 
Under the name of the Imperial Univer- 
sity of France, Napoleon I. instituted, by 
a law of May 10, 1806, a great lay corpo- 
ration, of which all the members were 
nominated by the Government, and which 
was exclusively charged with the conduct 
of public instruction throughout the French- 
teri-itory. In this vast organisation were 
comprised all the educational institutions 



46i 



UNIVERSITIES 



of the country, from tho primary school 
to the university — tlie central point of tlie 
scheme being that the Imperial University 
alone possessed the right of teaching. Su- 
perior instruction was given by the Facul- 
ties, which took the place of the old pro- 
vincial universities. No establishment for 
instruction of any kind could be foi-med 
outside tlie University and without the 
authoi"ity of its chief. To open a school 
and teach publicly it was necessary to be 
a member and a graduate of the Univer- 
sity. This unique organisation has been 
greatly moditied by repeated acts of legis- 
lation, but its general outline has not been 
essentially altered. In 187G, however, it 
became possible for the Roman Catholic 
Church to establish denominational uni- 
versities ; and by the decree of Decem- 
ber 28, 1885, concerning the organisation 
of the faculties and the schools for supe- 
rior instruction, the University of Paris 
has been again revived. It embraces the 
faculties of Protestant theology, law, me- 
dicine, science, and letters, togetlier with 
the school of pharmacy, and claims to be 
the most numerously attended university 
in the world. The following are the sta- 
tistics of attendance during its lirst ses- 
sion, 1885-86 : faculty of theology 35, 
law 3,786, medicine 3,696, sciences 467, 
letters 928. pharmacy 1,767 — total 10,679. 
This total is not quite accurate, as a num- 
ber of students are enrolled in more than 
one facultv, but the exact number is be- 
lieved to be not less than 10.000. There 
were foreign students in all the faculties ; 
and in the faculties of medicine, law, sci- 
ences, and letters there Avere in all 167 
women. 

Germcin Universities. — Nowhere have 
more thought and pains been taken for 
the development of a university system 
than in Germany. No people take more 
pride in their universities than the Ger- 
mans, and certainly no Government has 
lieen more liberal towards such institu- 
tions than the Geruian. The German uni- 
versities have thus reached a high degree 
of perfection, and their methods have been 
closely followed in other countries. The 
educational system of Germany resembles 
a vast and highly-organised machine, every 
pai-t of whicli tells on the other, and the 
popularity of tlie universities is so great 
and the cost of attending tliem so cheap 
that the increase of students has be- 
come such that it has been found neces- 



sary to make an eflort to clieck it. The 
Prussian Government lately requested the 
heads of gymnasia and high schools to 
cautitm young men who were leaving 
them against entering a university, as the 
chances of obtaining employment in the 
civil service were extremely small. The 
faculty of law is especially overcrowded, 
l^'rom 1860 to 1875 eveiy student of phi- 
lology was sure of an appointment on 
leaA'ing the university, but now they have 
to wait as long as law students. In Ger- 
many the imiversity is the recognised me- 
dium of admission to all the learned pro- 
fessions and all important offices of State. 
While largely engaged in purely tlieoreti- 
cal training, tending to the over-produc- 
tion of specialists in every department of 
knowledge, the German universities also 
gi\'e direct professional training, enabling 
men to become lawyers, judges, school- 
masters, physicians, and clergymen. The 
watchwords of the German system are 
' freedom of teaching ' and ' freedom of 
learning.' There is practically no curri- 
culum, and a student passes during his 
academic course from one university to 
another in a way scarcely known in other 
countries. Tlie number of universities 
throughout the empire is '22. Of these 
the largest in point of numbers is Berlin 
and the smallest Braunsberg. The follow- 
ing are some of the statistics of the winter 
session, 1886-87 : Berlin 2'd(}> teachers, 
6,880 students ; Leipzigl80 teachers, 3,328 
students ; Munich 165 teachers, 3,209 
students; Halle 110 teachers, 1,583 stu- 
dents ; "NViirtzburg 71 teachers, 1,531 
students ; Breslau 131 teachers, 1,448 
students. 

The Universities of Switzerland and 
Ai( stria closely resemble those of Gennany. 
The largest of these is Vienna, which in 
the winter session of 1886-87 had 301 
teachers and 6,157 students. The Hun- 
garian universities of Budapest and Klau- 
senberg have likewise a similar organisa- 
tion. The former was attended in 1885-86 
by 3,445 students dui'ing the tirst session 
and 3,255 during the second ; the latter 
by about 500 students, there being a slight 
increase in session 1886-87. 

J^ehjian Universities. — In Belgium 
there are State universities at Ghent and 
Lit^ge, and independent universities at 
Brussels and Louvain. The University of 
Brussels was inaugui-ated on November 20, 
1834. Being a new departure in academic 



UNIVERSITIES 



465 



usage its career lias been watched with 
much interest, and it is generally admitted 
that the experiment has been eminently 
successful. Its promoters designed that 
it should be a home of intellectual free- 
dom, where the search after truth might 
be absolutely unfettered. It was in fact 
a protest against the predominance of 
clerical influence in the educational sys- 
tem of the country. When at length the 
Roman Catholic Church obtained posses- 
sion of the ancient university of Lou vain, 
the leaders of the liberal party felt that 
this action on the part of the State could 
not be disregarded. The erection of a new 
university was at once resolved upon, and 
the community of the capital responded so 
heartily that almost immediately the de- 
sign was accomplished. Its method of 
erection was a new factor in academic 
history. It owed nothing to the two powers 
— the Church and the State — which had 
hitlierto been regarded as indispensable to 
the institution of such seats of learning. 
Its endowments were raised by subscrip- 
tions contributed between the years 1834 
and 1843. The number of students has 
steadily increased from 96 in the first ses- 
sion to 1,686 in the fiftieth. It embraces 
the faculties of philosophy and letters, 
law, science, medicine, and a polytechnical 
school. In one respect the Free Univer- 
sity of Brussels has been brought closely 
into contact with England, inasmuch as 
its system of medical graduation has en- 
aVjled many English practitioners to obtain 
by examination the doctorate of their 
faculty — a much coveted distinction not 
easily procured at home. 

Dutch Universities. — In Holland there 
are now no less than five universities, viz. 
the three State Universities of Leyden, 
Utrecht, and Groningen, the Communal 
University of Amsterdam, and the Free 
University, also located in the capital. 
Until 1876 the State universities pre- 
sented no distinctive features worthy of 
special notice ; but in that year a new law 
was passed under which the theological 
faculties in these universities were abo- 
lished. The State thus cut itself free 
from the recognition of divinity as a 
branch of academic study ; but the Dutch 
Reformed Church was allowed to appoint 
two professors in each of the universities, 
who might furnish the necessary dogmatic 
instruction to candidates for the ministry. 
This change led to much dissatisfaction 



throughout the country, which readied its 
climax when it became known that nearly 
all the new theological professors belonged 
to the modern or rationalistic school. The 
orthodox party at once set a movement 
on foot, under the leadership of Dr. A. 
Kuyper, a divine and statesman of marked 
ability and infiuence, which culminated in 
the foundation of the free university in 
1880. Although the university was mainly 
established for the teaching of divinity 
on ultra-Calvinistic principles, it also aims 
at ultimately providing instruction in all 
branches of secular knowledge. It has 
had a fair amount of success since its 
foundation ; but its lectures are not as yet 
recognised as qualifying for direct admis- 
sion to the ministry of the National 
Church. The University of Amsterdam 
dates from 1877, and is an expansion of 
the Athenaium, which flourished there for 
two and a half centuries. 

Scandinavian Universities. — The first 
Scandinavian University was founded at 
Upsala in 1477. It was immediately fol- 
lowed by a similar institution in Denmark, 
the University of Copenhagen being opened 
on June 1, 1479. Nearly two centuries 
afterwards (in 1668) a second Swedish 
University was founded at Lund, and, 
contemporaneously with the union of 
Sweden and Norway, a university was 
founded at Christiania in 1814. The.se 
universities follow, in the main, the Ger- 
man system, and are all flourishing and 
well-equipped institutions. The University 
of Copenhagen is under the control of the 
Minister of Public Instruction, but the di- 
rection of internal affairs and discipline is 
entrusted to an academic council, presided 
over by a rector. The university is richly 
endowed, and embraces the five faculties of 
theology, law and political science, medi- 
cine, philosophy, and the mathematical 
and natural sciences. In the faculty of 
theology the professors are not appointed 
to particular chairs, but divide the course 
of study among themselves. AVith a few ex- 
ceptions, the public courses of lectures are 
free, the professors receiving fixed salaries, 
which are regulated according to length of 
service. A matriculation examination 
must be passed before entering the uni- 
versity. There are no religious tests, and 
women are admitted to the classes and 
examinations for degrees on equal terms 
with men, but they are not allowed to 
proceed to degrees in divinity. Acade- 

II II 



466 



UNIVERSITIES 



mical degrees being of little practical 
value in Denmark, the number of gradu- 
ates is very small in proportion to the 
number of students. Admission to the 
professions and to public employment de- 
pends upon the passing of certain exami- 
nations, and not upon the possession of 
degrees. The academic year is divided 
into two sessions, the one extending from 
February 1 to June 9, and the other from 
September 1 to December 22. There are 
between forty and fifty teachers in the 
university, and over 1,200 students. The 
number of students at Christiania is even 
larger, there being as many as 1,510 in 
the second session of 1886. Of these the 
medical faculty had 313, the legal 340, the 
philological 130, and the theological 120. 
Russian Universities. — The number of 
Universities in Russia is seven, viz. Dor- 
pat, founded in 1632 by Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden, and entirely remodelled 
in 1802 by Alexander I., after having 
ceased to exist for some years ; Moscow, 
the first Russian university properly so 
called, founded in 1755 ; Kazan and Khar- 
kofF, both founded in 1804; St. Peters- 
burg, founded in 1819 on the basis of a 
pedagogical institute established in 1804; 
Kieff, formed in 1832 from a lyceum, in 
place of the University of Wilna, which 
was closed on account of political disturb- 
ances ; and Odessa, founded in 1865, also 
previously a lyceum. The course of Rus- 
sian academical legislation has in some im- 
portant respects been very peculiar. At one 
time the universities had the superinten- 
dence of the inferior schools, but this was 
withdrawn in 1835. In 1849 a decree of 
the Emperor Nicholas limited the number 
of students in each university to three hun- 
dred ; but this restriction was revoked in 
1856, In 1863 the universities were the sub- 
ject of comprehensive legislation, with the 
view of placing them on a uniform basis, 
and numerous changes have since been in- 
troduced. Severe measures were taken in 
1885. Explicit regulations for the inter- 
pretation of science were laid down, and 
restrictions laid upon the teaching of phi- 
losophy and natural science generally. 
Comparative legislation was excluded from 
the programme, and teaching in Russian 
instead of in German was ordered at the 
University of Dorpat. At the same time 
the students were placed under rigorous 
regulations in regard to their life outside 
the universities. These repressive mea- 



sures, and the undercurrent of Nihilism 
which appears to prevail at most of the 
university seats, have frequently brought 
the students into collision with the autho- 
rities, and not a few of them have in conse- 
quence found their way to Siberia. The 
university statutes of 1885 are extremely 
unpopular, and were the occasion of serious 
disturbances at nearly all the Russian uni- 
versities during the winter of 1887-88. 
They have also had a depressing effect 
upon the attendance, as may be inferred 
from the following statutes of the Univer- 
sity of St. Petersburg. On January 1, 1886, 
the number of students in thaV university 
amounted to 2,880 ; on the same day in 
1887 they numbered 2,627; and on the cor- 
responding day in 1888 they had fallen to 
2,053. The Russian students, as a rule, are 
hard-working, and usually very intelligent. 
Mostly sons of the peasantry, they live in 
extreme poverty, and support themselves 
by tutorial and other work. The standard 
of teaching in the universities is high, 
and may be favourably compared with 
that of the German universities. In ad- 
dition to the universities in Russia proper, 
there is a university at Warsaw, founded 
in 1869, in place of a high school, and 
another at Helsingfors in the province of 
Finland. A university has also been pro- 
jected for Tomsk in Siberia, the first insti- 
tution of its kind in that part of the 
Russian Empire. 

Universities of Spain and Portugal. — 
Education in general is in a very back- 
ward state in Spain. But it is a curious 
fact that while 75 per cent, of the popu- 
lation are iinable to read and write, the 
proportion of university graduates to the 
whole population equals that of France and 
Germany. These graduates are absorbed 
almost wholly in the professional classes, 
journalism, etc. The number of univer- 
sities in the country is ten ; but it is very 
difficult to obtain an accurate idea of the 
state of instruction within them ; for even 
where the programmes and methods are 
similar the value of the teaching is widely 
different. The most important are at 
Madrid, Barcelona, and Salamanca. The 
reforms effected at the last mentioned in 
1878, whereby a number of small bursa- 
ries were formed, are said to be Avorking 
well. In Portugal the University of Oo- 
imbra has faculties of theology, law, me- 
dicine, and philosophy, and enjoys a fair 
reputation for efficient teaching. 



UNIVERSITIES 



467 



Universities of Italy. — Superior in- 
struction in Italy is furnished by collegiate 
institutions, special schools, and universi- 
ties. The universities are twenty-one in 
number, seventeen of which are State 
universities and four free universities. 
The latter, although maintained by the 
province or commune, ai-e subject to the 
State as far as uniformity of study is con- 
cerned. During the five years ending 
1885-86 the number of students has in- 
creased from 12,442 to 14,768. The largest 
attendance is at Naples, which had 3,398 
students in 1885-86; Turin had 2,073; 
Bologna 1,298; and Eome 1,216. The 
free universities are all small — Came- 
rino, the largest, having only ninety-nine 
students. 

American Universities. — According to 
the Report of the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, the number of universities and 
colleges in the United States in the year 
1885 amounted to 365, with 4,836 in- 
stx'uctors and 65,728 students. No State 
or territory in the Union is Avithout its 
university or college, and in Ohio there 
are as many as thirty-three. In connection 
with these statistics it has to be borne in 
mind that educational terms are very much 
abused in the United States. Scores of 
institutions which call themselves univer- 
sities are quite unworthy of this desig- 
nation ; and, judged by the European 
standard, there are few institutions in 
America which can be called complete 
universities. Nevertheless, there are some 
well-planned and prosperous foundations 
that are full of proixdse for the future. 
The older colleges — originally organised 
on the English type — began early in this 
century to develop into universities. Thus 
Harvard, in addition to its college, has 
now its schools of law, medicine, and 
theology, its museum of comparative 
zoology, its botanical garden, astronomical 
observatory, and its scientific and tech- 
nical schools. A similar development, 
though less extensive, has been made by 
Yale and Columbia Colleges, and several 
others. It is admitted that the American 
college system, as such, is capable of im- ! 
provement in details, and that it might 
be rendered more liberal, efiicient, and 
complete. But it is also claimed for it 
that it is an indigenous growth adapted 
to the people, and that it is doing good ' 
work. What is chiefly needed is pro- 
vision for the prosecution of studies be- i 



yond the undergraduate course, which 
would qualify men thoroughly for histori- 
cal and scientific investigation. There is 
even now a considerable number of post- 
graduate students at such universities as 
Johns Hopkins, Harvard, Princeton, Yale, 
Cornell, and Vanderbilt ; and the Illinois 
Wesleyan University has established non- 
resident andpost-graduate courses of study, 
with the view of afFoi'ding inducements to 
graduates to prosecute studies for the pur- 
pose of earning advanced degrees. Much 
interest has also been taken in the experi- 
ment projected by Harvard, and imitated 
in a restricted sense by other three pro- 
minent colleges. This experiment is the 
alternative presented between a prescribed 
curriculum and an elective one. Experi- 
ence, so far as it has gone, is wholly 
favourable to the elective system, and this 
success in the universities has unfortu- 
nately led to its adoption in schools, for 
which it is of course altogether unsuited. 
This elective curriculum is by no means a 
new thing in American universities. It 
has been pursued, on a somewhat difierent 
plan, by the University of Virginia from 
its opening in 1825. The organisation of 
this university is unlike that of any others, 
but it holds an important place in the 
maintenance of a high order of educa- 
tional work in the States. The distinctive 
feature of the Virginia system is the ar- 
rangement of the subjects of instruction 
into nineteen separate schools. Of these 
six are literary, six scientific, and seven 
are professional schools. Each is inde- 
pendent of all the others, so far as its 
methods and course of instruction are 
concerned. Within the limits of each par- 
ticular chair the greatest freedom is al- 
lowed in the selection of subjects and 
arrangement of the course, 'freedom of 
teaching' being thus secured. A student 
who enters the university is supposed to 
have arrived at such an age as to know 
what he wishes to study (and the average 
age of an entrant at Virginia is nineteen 
and three-quarter years). On entering he 
finds at least ten schools open for his se- 
lection, three of which he is required to 
take. If he is a candidate for a titled 
degree he will find these schools grouped 
in accordance with the requirements of 
that degree, but the order in which he 
shall take up the specified schools is left 
entirely to his own selection. If he is not 
a candidate for a titled degree he may 

HH 2 



468 



UNIVERSITIES 



select any three schools he pleases. There 
is absolutely no restriction upon his choice 
but that necessarily imposed by the schedule 
of lecture hours. In this way ' freedom of 
learning ' is also secured. Subsidiary to 
the titled degrees there is attached to each 
school the degree of graduate in that school, 
to obtain which a rigorous examination 
must be passed, and at least three-fourths 
of the total available marks secured. The 
degree of M.A. is conferred upon candi- 
dates who have in this way 'graduated' 
in Latin, Greek, French, German, moral 
philosophy, pure mathematics, natural 
philosophy, and chemistry. 

Canadian Universities. — In Canada 
the American system of denominational 
college-universities largely prevails, but a 
scheme of federation has been recently 
under discussion, which is expected to 
issue in the grouping together of most of 
the existing universities. In the province 
of Ontario alone there are at present six 
universities, viz. (1) the University of 
Toronto, projected in 1798 and chartered 
in 1827, but, for want of sufficient endow- 
ment, not opened until 1843 ; (2) the Uni- 
versity of Victoria College, Coburg, founded 
in 1832, and opened in 1841 ; (3) the Uni- 
versity of Queen's College, Kingston, pro- 
jected in 1839, incorporated in 1841, and 
opened in 1843 ; (4) the University of 
Trinity College, Toronto, founded in 1851, 
and opened in 1852 ; (5) the University 
of Ottawa, founded in 1848, and opened 
in 1866 ; (6) the Western University, 
London, founded in 1877, and opened in 
1878. The University of Toronto was by 
its foundation charter virtually placed 
under control of the Episcopal Church. 
This circumstance led to a fierce contro- 
versy in Upper Canada, and the charter 
was subsequently modified in deference to 
public opinion ; but it was not until 1849 
that a law was passed under which the 
university became a purely national in- 
stitution and free from denominational 
control. This change largely increased 
the popularity of the university, and it is 
now in a highly efficient state. Under 
the new statutes the University of Toronto 
became an examining body only, which 
prescribes the requirements for degrees, 
scholarships, and prizes ; appoints exam- 
iners, and confers degrees in the faculties 
of law, medicine, and arts, and in civil en- 
gineering. The teaching institution is Uni- 
versity College, with which the university 



is incorporated. Women are admitted to 
the college lectures as well as to the uni- 
versity examinations. The University of 
Victoria College at Coburg originated with 
the Wesleyan Methodists, and was the first 
institution of the kind established by royal 
charter unconnected with the Church of 
England throughoiit the British colonies. 
It has been administered with conspicuous 
ability, and has taken high rank among 
the Ontarian universities. Queen's College 
and University at Kingston is a Presby- 
terian foundation. It opened with eleven 
students only, and for many years had a 
chequered, and at times precarious, ex- 
istence. Its financial condition, however, 
has considerably improved, and in recent 
years new buildings have been provided 
and the teaching staff has been increased. 
There are faculties of arts, theology, and 
law, attended by a total of about two 
hundred students. The University of 
Trinity College, Toronto, is in connection 
with the Church of England, and had its 
origin in the nationalisation of the Uni- 
versity of Toronto, which included the 
suppression of the faculty of divinity. 
The university embraces faculties of arts 
and divinity, together with an affiliated 
medical school and women's medical col- 
lege. The course of study for women was 
established in 1883; and candidates who 
may pass any of the university examina- 
tions are entitled to receive certificates, 
but they are not admitted to degrees. One 
of the distinguishing features of the col- 
lege curriculum is the place assigned to 
theology as an art subject, including an 
honours course in that department. The 
University of Ottawa is under the direc- 
tion of the Roman Catholic Church. It 
confers degrees in arts, science, and litera- 
ture, and has a total of about three hun- 
dred students. The classical course lasts 
seven years, and the commercial course 
four years. The Western University at 
London, the latest addition to the On- 
tarian universities, is an institution in 
connection with the Church of England 
in Canada, and is empowered to confer 
degrees in arts, medicine, law, and di- 
vinity, subject to certain conditions con- 
tained in the act of incorporation. Huron 
College, a similar Church of England in- 
stitution, has been incorporated with it, 
and forms its faculty of divinity. It is a 
small and tentative institution, its absorp- 
tion into a larger university system being 



UNIVERSITIES 



469 



specially provided for in its constitution. 
In the province of Quebec there are three 
universities. The principal of these is the 
M'Gill University at Montreal, which re- 
ceived its first charter in 1821, and an 
amended one in 1852. The university 
itself is an examining body, all educa- 
tional work being carried on in M'Gill 
College and in the affiiliated colleges and 
schools. Its statutes and regulations are 
framed on the most liberal principles, with 
a view to affording to all classes the greatest 
possible facilities for the attainment of 
mental culture and professional ti-aining. 
It embraces the faculties of arts, applied 
science, law, and medicine, and the usual 
degrees are granted in each. A new build- 
ing for the medical faculty was opened in 
1885, which has the reputation of being- 
one of the most complete structures of its 
kind in existence. The facilities it gives 
for the thorough and practical teaching of 
the primary branches are said to be equal 
to those of the most advanced European 
medical schools. The other two univer- 
sities in the province are of a denomina- 
tional character, the University of Laval 
(1852) being governed by the Roman 
Catholic Church, and the University of 
Bishop's College in Lennoxville (1853) by 
the Protestant Episcopal Church. The 
earliest academical foundation in Nova 
Scotia was King's College and University 
at Windsor. It originated in a recom- 
mendation made by a committee of the 
House of Assembly in 1787, was founded 
by Act of Parliament in the following 
year, and received a royal charter from 
George III. in 1802. It is an institution 
of limited extent, and is cotanected with 
the Church of England. Dalhousie College 
and University at Halifax was founded 
in 1821, but did not come into operation 
until 1838. Even tlien it had a struggle 
for existence, and for some years was 
actually closed altogether. The college 
was reorganised in 1861, and received 
further legislation in 1875 and 1881. In 
1868 a faculty of medicine was added, 
W'hich ultimately developed into an affili- 
ated college ; and in 1883 a faculty of law 
was established. Between 1879 and 1884 
several new professorships were endowed 
by the liberality of private persons, and 
the erection of new buildings was com- 
menced in 1887. 

In South America universities and 
kindred institutions are spreading rapidly. 



The Imperial College of Brazil at Rio de 
Janeiro has a staff of more than twenty 
professors. Its course of study extends 
over seven years, at the end of which the 
degree of Bachelor of Aits may be ob- 
tained. There are also in Brazil faculties 
of law and medicine, the latter of which 
confers degrees after a curriculum of six 
years. A number of Brazilians are usu- 
ally in attendance at the University of 
Coimbra in Portugal, where not a few 
have gained considerable distinction. In 
the Argentine Republic superior educa- 
tion is given in two universities, com- 
prising faculties of law, medicine, and 
engineering, and attended by a total of 
about 900 students. Universities and 
colleges were founded in Peru very soon 
after the Spanish Conquest. The central 
university of San Marcus at Lima is the 
most ancient in the New World. Its 
charter was granted by the Emperor 
Charles V. in 1551, who conceded to it 
all the privileges enjoyed by the Univer- 
sity of Salamanca, and the existing build- 
ings were commenced in 1571. It has 
faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medi- 
cine, political science, and applied sciences. 
The University of Chili has a staff of 
nearly forty professors, besides assistants, 
and is attended by about 700 students. 
It is a free university, and embraces the 
faculties of theology, law, medicine, hu- 
manity, and mathematics, in all of which 
it grants degrees. In the United States 
of Venezuela there are two universities, 
with nineteen federal colleges and over 
2,500 students. In accordance with a 
recent decree of the President of the Re- 
public the central university of Venezuela 
commenced the publication of a monthly 
Revista Cientifica in September 1887. 

Indian Universities. — In India the 
Universities of Bombay, Calcutta, and 
Madras were founded in 1857, on the 
model of the University of London. These 
universities are therefore merely examining 
boards, all instruction qualifying for their 
degi'ee examinations being carried on in 
colleges and other institutions recognised 
by or affiliated to them. The special 
function of the Indian universities, accord- 
ing to their charters of incorporation, is 
to ascertain by means of examinations the 
persons who have acquired proficiency in 
different branches of literature, science, 
and art, and to reward them by academical 
degrees. Originally, the granting of de- 



470 



UNIVERSITIES 



grees was confined to the departments of 
arts, law, medicine, and civil engineering, 
but in 1860 an Act was passed enabling 
the universities to confer additional degrees 
in other departments of knowledge, and 
in 1884 the power of granting honorary- 
degrees was also granted. The universities 
control the whole course of higher educa- 
tion in India by means of their examina- 
tions. The matriculation examination is 
open to all, but when that is passed candi- 
dates for higher stages must enrol them- 
selves in one or other of the affiliated 
colleges. Many fall off at this stage, and 
few proceed to the higher degrees. Cal- 
cutta possesses the great majority of gra- 
duates in law and medicine, while Bombay 
is similarly distinguished in engineering. 
The number of native institutions recog- 
nised by the University of Bombay for 
the purposes of graduation examination is 
fifteen. The number recognised by Cal- 
cutta University is much larger, viz.; in 
arts, up to the B.A. standard, forty-nine ; 
up to the first arts standard, twenty- six ; 
in law, nineteen; in medicine, one; in 
engineering, two. Such recognition is 
only obtainable by institutions which have 
the means of educating up to the standard 
of the highest degree in the faculty in 
which recognition is desired. Reasonable 
assurance is also required that they are 
established on a more or less permanent 
basis. At Bombay, within the past few 
years, there has been a great increase in 
the number of candidates presenting them- 
selves for examination. The course of 
study for the science degree has been 
revised and extended. The study of French 
has been introduced, and Indian palaeogra- 
phy has been added as an optional subject 
for the degree of M.A. in languages. At 
the matriculation examination of 1886-87, 
2,452 candidates presented themselves, 
of whom only 527 passed. The large 
percentage of failures is accounted for by 
the defective state of primary and secon- 
dary education in the provinces. By far 
the greater number of failures occui'red in 
the case of candidates who had been pri- 
vately educated. Of these only 42 out of 
1,066 were successful. These examinations 
are taken advantage of by candidates of 
various religions and nationalities. The 
lists regularly include Parsees, Brahmans, 
Hindoos, Mahommedans, Jews, native 
Christians, and Europeans. A fourth 
university has been founded at Lahore, 



for the Punjab. Its constitution is similar 
to that of the other three, but it includes 
the teaching element, and follows more 
Oriental lines. It dates from 1882, when 
its first convocation was held at Lahore, 
in the presence of the Viceroy. The in- 
stitution rapidly gained in popularity, and 
even in its second session it may be said 
to have rivalled Calcutta University, so 
far as natives of the Punjab are con- 
cerned. A singularly unfortunate circum- 
stance affecting the Indian universities is 
the difficulty of preventing frauds in con- 
nection with their examinations. This 
circumstance was the subject of a Govern- 
ment inquiry at Lahore in the spring of 
1888, and the syndicate of Bombay Uni- 
versity was about the same time urged to 
appoint a committee to investigate into 
the real cause of the failure of so many 
candidates at the university examinations. 
Australian Universities. — New South 
Wales has the credit of having founded 
the first university, not merely in the 
Australian colonies, but in the southern 
hemisphere. The Act of Incorporation of 
the University of Sydney received the 
royal assent on December 9, 1851. It 
empowered the new university to confer, 
after examination, degrees in arts, law, 
and medicine, and endowed it with an 
annual income of 5,000/. The University 
Extension Act of 1884 increased its gradu- 
ation powers to all branches of knowledge 
except theology. The same Act admitted 
women to all its privileges equally with 
men. There are nominally four faculties 
in the university, but there are as yet no 
professorships in the faculty of laAv. The 
object of the university is to supply the 
means of a liberal education to all orders 
and denominations without any distinction. 
The lectures of the professors are accord- 
ingly open to persons not members of the 
university, on payment of a moderate fee 
for each course, and undergraduates of 
other universities are received ad eundem 
statum under certain regulations. Provi- 
sion was made as early as 1854 for the 
foundation of colleges within the univer- 
sity in connection with the various religious 
denominations, iia which students of the 
university might enjoy the advantages of 
residence, instruction in the doctrine and 
discipline of their respective Churches, and 
tuition supplementary to the professorial 
lectures. Three such colleges have been 
established — one in connection with the 



UNIVERSITIES 



471 



Church of England, another with the 
Presbyterian Church, and a third with 
the Roman Catholic Church. In addition 
to the ordinary courses, evening lectures 
are provided by the university, embracing 
all the subjects necessary for the degree of 
B.A. This evening curriculum extends 
over a period of five years, but attendance 
only qualifies for graduation in the case of 
those who have matriculated, and whose 
circumstances are such as to preclude 
them from attendance during the day. 
The University of Melbourne was estab- 
lished under a special Act of the Legislature 
of Victoria, which was assented to on 
January 22, 1853. This Act, as amended 
in 1881, provides for the endowment of 
the university by an annual payment out 
of the general revenue, as well as for the 
government and administration of its af- 
fairs. The foundation stone of the uni- 
versity buildings was laid on July 3, 1854, 
and the opening ceremony took place on 
October 3 in the following year. In 1880 
the university was thrown open to women, 
who are now admitted to all its privileges, 
except as regards the study of medicine. 
Two colleges have been afliliated to it — 
one in connection with the Church of 
England, and another in connection with 
the Presbyterian Church. Since the open- 
ing of the university 2,084 students have 
matriculated, and 955 degrees have been 
granted, of which 694 were direct, and 
261 ad eundem. In 1886, 908 candidates 
presented themselves for matriculation, of 
whom 327 passed. Among recent changes 
may be mentioned the introduction of 
biology as the subject of a new professor- 
ship, the division of mental and moral 
philosophy into separate courses, and the 
fuller and more practical teaching of chem- 
istry, botany, and zoology. The University 
of Adelaide dates from 1875, and largely 
owes its origin to the generosity and 
public spirit of a wealthy colonist. It has 
been further endowed by Government, and 
has received a constitution and organisation 
similar to those of the two older Australian 
universities. 

The University of New Zealand is a 
.colonial institution not confined to any 
particular province, estabKshed under an 
Act of the General Assembly in 1870. 
Its work is chiefly carried on by afiiliation 
to it of the higher educational bodies in 
the different provinces. The university 
does not, however, confine itself entirely 



to working through the affiliated institu- 
tions, but grants degrees in the same 
mamier as other universities, and from 
the funds at its disposal establishes scho- 
larships and other aids to the prosecution 
of study. Besides some minor establish- 
ments, the following important educational 
institutions have already been affiliated to 
the university: the University of Otago, 
Dunedinj the Canterbury College (Christ- 
church), and University College, Auckland. 
Another university college is to be estab- 
lished at Wellington, the capital of the colo- 
ny, and a scheme is in contemplation for the 
reorganisation of the university as a whole. 
The University of Otago was founded in 
1869 by an ordinance of the Provincial 
Council, with a view of promoting sound 
learning in the province, and was opened 
in 1871 with the modest staff of three 
arts professors. In the following year its 
endowments were materially increased, and 
considerable additions made to the staff" 
of professors and lecturers. On its affili- 
ation to the University of New Zealand 
in 1874, the University of Otago relin- 
quished the power it had received of con- 
ferring degrees — all examinations for gra- 
duation, as well as for scholarships and 
matriculation, being thereafter conducted 
by the more comprehensive university. 
This agreement was the means of still 
further increasing its revenues, and in 
1877 the colonial Government voted an 
annual grant for the establishment and 
support of a school of mines. The univer- 
sity now contains a faculty of arts, and 
schools of medicine, law, and mines. There 
is no theological faculty, and no religious 
tests are imposed upon its members. The 
library, laboratory, and museum are in an 
efficient state, and a number of valuable 
scholarships are open to competition. 

The University of the Cajje of Good 
IIo2:>e was established by an Act of Parlia- 
ment assented to on June 26, 1873, and 
is an examining body forming the cope- 
stone of the system of public instruc- 
tion in the colony. Grants in aid are 
voted from the public revenue towards 
the general expenses of the university, 
including bursaries, and also towards the 
salaries of professors and lecturers in 
colleges which offer facilities to students 
to qualify themselves for degrees in the 
university. In the year 1885 the university 
and colleges absorbed 8,000Z. of the Govern- 
ment expenditure for public education. 



472 



UNIVERSITIES 



There are over nine hundred matricuhxted 
studpnts in the llvo oollogos rocoiving siu^h 
(iovonui\out assistaiioo. I'p to 18S7 the 
iuuhIkh' of graduatos was ir)r>, i-hiotly in 
arts. 

The Impevtal Unhrrsltii of Japan at 
Tokio had its oiigiu in the iuteUeotual 
activity whieh t'olUnved tlu^ politieal revo- 
lution of I8t)8. The oUl system of edu- 
eation was then east aside and a new 
system devised, wliieh shortly aftia-wards 
beeame established by law. The history 
of tlu> university, although brief, is some- 
what eomplioated, the institution haAing 
passed through various phases before it was 
placed on its present basis. The faculties 
of law, inathematieal and physieal science, 
and literature, spring from a school which 
in 18()9 received the name of the ' Uni- 
\ersity of tlu^ Soxith,' to distinguish it 
from another which was founded about 
the sauui tinu\ and which afterwards 
came to be called tlie ' Ihiiversity of the 
East.' In 1877 tliese two imiversities 
were united, the latter becoming the me- 
dical faculty of the new university of 
Tokio. In 1881 the university received a 
new constitution, which provided for the 
appointn\eut of a president, four deans of 
faculties, professors, assistant professors, 
teachers, and other officers. The faculties 
were also to some extent rearranged, and 
regulations regarding the curriculum of 
studies issued. In the following year the 
curriculum was enlarged, so as to include 
the study of the Japanese language and 
antiquities and other subjects ; and in this 
year the custom of sending selected stu- 
dents to Europe to prosecute their studies 
was inti'oduced. A new degree was in- 
stituted in 188;>, and changes of ditferent 
kinds were etVected in succeeding years, 
ending with the reorganisation of the uni- 
A-ersity and its erectioii into the Imperial 
University of Japan in 1880. The new 
university comprises live colleges or sec- 
tions : (1) law, {-2) medicine, (o) engineer- 
ing, (4) literature, (A) science. Each of 
these is placed under a Japanese director, 
and the whole institution is under the 
control of the IMinister of State for Edu- 
cation, and depends for its revenue on 
annual allowances from the treasury of 
the imperial Government. The constitu- 
tion of the univei'sity eud)races many of 
the best features of the European systems. 
Students before entering must ha>e under- 
gone a satisfactory preparatory training. 



In at least two of the faculties the study 
of English and German is compulsory, ami 
tlu> ailditiou of French is reconunended 
where prai-tii-able. T'he course of study 
in the medical faculty extends over four 
years ; in tlie other faculties it is one year 
shorter. The university is well eipiipped 
with libraries, laboratories, and museums ; 
and a marine zoological station was esta- 
blished at JNlisaki in December 1880. Its 
nuunbers h;ue latterly displayed consider- 
able literary activity, as well as capacity 
f(U' scientitic investigation. The official 
publications of tlie xuiiversity incliuh' 
Joarxa/ft of the tSclcnce axd Medical Co/- 
/('(/cs-and Mfiitoirs of the LUemture Co/hu/r. 
Tlie number of students on the roll for 
the year 1887-88 was 097, of whom "J') 
were prosecuting original research in the 
University Hall 

Lite rat tor. — There is a distinct want 
of a comprehensi\e work giving a general 
account of uni\ersities and university 
systems throughout the world. Such iu- 
forniation can only be gleaned from a 
great variety of sources, many of them 
more or less unsatisfactory and incom- 
plete. Professor C Meiners' (iesehichte 
der hohen Schulen, 4 Bde., Gottingen, 
1802-5, was never a satisfactory perform- 
ance, and is now quite out of date. The 
iirst serious attempt to deal adequately 
with the early history of universities Avas 
that made by E. C. von Savigny in his 
(leKchiehto des Q'oDiischen liechfa, Bd. o, 
iHe. Ausg., Heidelberg, 1834; but this, 
too, has been superseded by Eather Hein- 
ricli Henitle s really epoch-making work, 
/)/(■ I'll irersifdteii den Jlifte/a/ters bis 1 400, 
of which only the tirst volume has yet 
appeared (Berlin 1885). Alongside Denitle 
may be placed E. Paulsen s (lesehiehte. des 
(/elehrfen Uiiferriehtti, Leipzig, 1885, and 
the same author's articles on Die Oriin- 
diDKj, Otyaiiisatiou uvd Lehensordnutn/en 
der dentscheik Univen>ifdte)i des Mittel- 
alters in von Sybel's JUstoriscke Zeit- 
schrift, Bd. 45, 1881. Among less im- 
portant but suggesti\e works may be 
mentioned ^'oll Hollinger's Die Universi- 
tdteii sonst ■and Jetzf, Miinchen, 1807 ; 
J. H. Newman's Idea of a Universiti/ 
defined a lid ill list ra ted, 'ovdcd\t\on,ljondou, 
187o (Pickering) ; INIatthew Arnolds 
Schools and Uiiiirrsitiesoii the Coiitinenty 
London, 1808 (Macmillan); and Professor 
S. S. Laurie's Lectures on the Rise and 
Early Constitution of Universities, Lou- 



n 



UNIVERSITIES 



473 



don, 1886 (Kegan Paul). Much accurate 
and interesting information regarding 
some of the more noted German, Austrian, 
Belgian, Dutch, and English universities 
is contained in the Etudes de la Societe 
2)our V etude des questions d'enseigne'ment 
superieur, Paris, 1878, Dr. A. Kuyper's 
Ilet recht tot universiteitsstichting, Am- 
sterdam, 1880, although mainly a contro- 
versial dissertation, contains an able dis- 
cussion of an interesting constitutional 
question. An intelligent account of 
university education in Great Britain is 
given in the elaborate report by MM. 
Demogeot et Montucci, De I'enseignement 
superieur en Angleterre et en Ecosse, Paris, 
1870. On the English universities F. W. 
Newman's translation of V. A. Huber's 
Die englisclien Universitdten, 3 vols., 
London, 1843, will still be found worth 
consulting. Mr. H. C. Maxwell Lyte's 
History of the University of Oxford, Lon- 
don, 1886 (Macmillan), extends only to 
the year 1-530 ; the only general history 
of recent date being the short sketch by 
the Hon. G. C. Brodrick, London, 1886 
(Longmans). Valuable documents illus- 
trative of Oxford University life and 
study are to be found in the Munimenta 
Academica, edited by the Rev. H. Anstey, 
2 vols., London, 1868 (Rolls Series), and 
in the publications of the Oxford His- 
torical Society, commenced in 1884. Eor 
a full and trustworthy view of the current 
working of the university, reference may 
be made to Oxford : its Life and Schools, 
edited by A. M. M. Stedmaji, London, 
1887 (Bell & Sons) ; and to the Student's 
Handbook to the University, 9th edition, 
Oxford, 1888 (Clarendon Press). The 
statutes as revised by the University 
Commissioners were published at the 
Clarendon Pi-ess in 1885. The standard 
history of Cambridge University is Mr. 
J. Bass Mullinger's, of which two volumes 
have appeared, bringing the narrative 
down from the earliest times to the ac- 
cession of Charles I., Cambridge, 1873-84 
(University Press). It is a work of con- 
spicuous ability and of permanent his- 
torical value. The magnificent Architec- 
tural History of the University, by Pro- 
fessor R. Willis and J. W. Clark, 4 vols., 
Cambridge, 1886 (University Press), is 
by no means so restricted in its scope as 
the title would seem to indicate. A fourth 
edition of the indispensable Student's 
Guide was issued in sections between 



1880 and 1882 by Deighton, Bell & Co. ; 
and the revised Ordinances of the Uni- 
versity were published at the Cambridge 
Warehouse in 1885. Tlhe Story of the 
University of Edinhtirgh has been told 
by Sir Alexander Grant, 2 vols., t London, 
1884 (Longmans) ; but the other Scottish 
universities have not as yet found his- 
torians, although the muniments of Glas- 
gow and Aberdeen have been printed by 
the Maitland and Spalding Clubs. The 
Scottish university system may best be 
studied in the various reports of Royal 
Commissions extending from 1830 to 
1878, and in the numerous occasional 
publications connected with them. The 
history of the University of Paris has 
been very fully but not very accurately 
recorded in the six stout folios of Bulseus, 
Paris, 1665-73, condensed and translated 
into French by Crevier, 7 vols., Paris, 
1761, and continued to its suppression, 
with an index of documents by Jourdain, 
Paris, 1862-66. The early regulations 
of the University of France are given in 
the various editions of the Code Universi- 
taire, and a short record of progress is 
given by Jourdain in his Rapport sur 
Vinstruction puhlique, Paris, 1867. An 
interesting work of a popular kind is 
Vallet de Viriville's Histoire de Vinstruc- 
tion publiqice en Europe et pirincipalement 
en France, Paris, 1849. The most recent 
work on the Universities of Germany is 
J. Conrad's German Universities for the 
last fifty years, translated by J. Hutche- 
son, Glasgow, 1885. J. M. Hart's Ger- 
man Universities, New York, 1874, is a 
well-written sketch from personal observa- 
tion, and there are chapters of a similar 
kind but from a different point of view in 
Father Didon's Tloe Germans, Edinburgh, 
1884 (Blackwoods). The older works of 
Schaff", Tholuck, Howitt, Mayhew, and 
others, may still be consulted with advan- 
tage. The work of C. Laverrenz, entitled 
Die Medaillen tend Geddchtnisszeichen der 
deutschen Hochschulen, 2 Bde., Berlin, 
1885-87, is not of much historical value, 
but it treats of the subject in a new Kght. 
K. von Raumer's Die deutschen Universi- 
tdten, 4te Aufl., Gutersloh, 1874, is a good 
outline of the German University system 
in moderate compass. J. F. W. Koch's 
Die preussischen Universitdten, 3 Bde., 
Berlin, 1839-40, is a collection of ordi- 
nances bearing upon the constitution and 
government of these universities. There 



•I7tl 



rMVi:K81TlKS ITNlVl'.KslTV KX TKNSlON 



juvalso histoi'ios of most ol' tlio iiuli\ idual 
univorsitios of (^orumny, so»m> of tluMu 
lioing AvorkvS of jyivut morit. M\w\\ has 
also boon doi\o in tho way of pviutinij 
orii^iual iloouinonts, inohuliuij uiHtrioula- 
i\o\\ ami ^Tadnation ivijistoi"s. t"ounda(ioi\ 
ohartors, stntutos. Ao. A lu-iof oompari 
vson botwoou Itulian aiul Uonna»\ luiivor 
irtitv motluxls is givou in L. Oooi's La 
ri/ornm to»Mv*v»/<»n(r, lvo\ua, IS8J» ; and 
aUo in l.ru/i'tlinioiif* .f^'ohtntii'ii t'oiii}>(U'<ita, 
l''ironi-t\ 1877. Thojv aiv also sovonil 
jitHnl historios of iudiviilual univorsitios, 
and soiiu^ important oontrilnitions to tho 
oarlv historv oi ln>U\y;na I'nivtM'sity woro 
pviblislioil in oonnootion with tho oolobnx- 
tionof its oiiihth oontouarv in .luno l^v'^S. 
Tho bo^t aoooviutof tho Spanish uuivoi*si- 
tvos is that ijv\ou by O. N'ioouto do la 
Kuonto in l»is //iatoria dt' fas iniiiYmi- 
t AriAv, t'tc, fut Kitpai)a., of whioh t wo voluinos 
havo boon publishod, Madrid. 188t-;">. A 
ourious tablo of stntistios Nvjis issuod fivtu 
Madrid in 1870 xnulor the hoadiug of 
/id f*i,NV /)<»*» ;r» unirrrsitat'ia f*» /Caitttfia. 
Tho boginninsi-s of univoi-siiy history in 
liussia may bo tniood in Count O. A. 
Tolstoi's />*V «fX'(n/f'mj\vv/(<' Vnirrmitat iiu 
18. JaJtr/nnhi<'rf, St. IVtorsburiv. 188(5. 
Tl»o subsoquont history, orsianisation. and 
rosults must bo gsvtliorod from otlioial 
publioations and fix>m tho works of suoh 
writors as l"\'ka»iU. Stopuiok, and Tik- 
homiixu". Tho most- roooi\t lo^islation is 
disoussod in tho Corman publioation, A\- 
j'orm (/f-r r»vs>*»,sv/if*» VnitYr^itafr'ih Leipzig, 
1880. Thoiv is no gvnonvl dosoriptiou of 
tho i^oandinavian univorsitios. but thoiv 
JUY' oxooUont historios of oaoh — Matzen's 
A'johr-iiJniniii rniirr.tittts Krtitfii'^tonf- bo- 
ing quito a nuistorly work. Tho annual 
roports of tho Couvmissionor of Kduoatiou 
publishod at Washington sinoo 1870 con- 
tain tho bost availablo infonnation in 
sliort spaoo on .\n\orioan univoi-sity odu- 
oation. but dotailsof sopanito institutioiis 
must bo sought for in thoir otUoial publi 
oations or in spooial monogniphs. N oarlv i 
all tho British, .VnuM-ioan. a»\d Colonial I 
univorsitios issuo aiuxual oalondavs or } 
oataloguos which ai\> iiulisponsablo to ; 
i»\tonding students and to all who wish I 
to ui\dorsta>»d tho soopo at\d woi"king of ! 
partiovdar institutions. In tunnnaiw a 
goi\oiul Cnh't'rititatiiktdi^uJtr \» publishod ; 
iwioo ;v yoar at Inn-lin. and tho various 
lootuiv lists aiv also ivgularly pritxtovl in ; 
tho Likninixht}^ CiittntlbUxtt at Leipzig. I 



I'oriodioul publioations in oonnoot ion with 
univorsitios havo usually boon shortlived. 
Tho bost o.\isting organ of superior in- 
struction is the /I'fTja' iiitcninfioiuilfi (/<« 
rhiafntctlon linpt'i'lrHtiy, publishod at Varis 
since 1881. // T'/j/rov/M isagood Itiilian 
periodical, issued by a iSocioty of Piv 
fossors at i^ologna since 1887, although 
soniowhat local in its ;utus. 

TJiiiversity Collego, London, t^m 
l^NlVKi;srriKS. 

University CoUeg'es, Liverpool, Dun- 
dee. SoutJi Wales. &c. Sr*e Puovincial 
Coi.i.ki;k.s. 

University Extension. - .\ university 
oihu-atiou. in its fullest sense, oai\not be 
obtained without residence at a univivrsity 
seat. But exporionco lias sliown that 
\inivoi-sity teaching nuiy, to a coi'tain ex- 
tent, bo oarriod on successfully in towi\sfar 
removed fixun a univorsity^cnt re. This has 
luHM\ accon\plishod by nu\ins of UkuI lec- 
tures anil classes conducted by university 
men. ai\d isthoivsuH of what is ki\own as 
thol' i\ivorsity V^iXtonsion Movement. This 
movement dates frou\ 1 87 'J, and owes its 
origin to an invitation which was sent to 
ri"ofessiir iStuart of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, by an association for tho higluu* 
odvu'ation of women (^with vsocietios in Li- 
verpool, Manchester, Shotliold, and IahhIs), 
asking him to give a. course of loctuivs on 
tho art of teaching, rrofossor 8tuart do- 
clinod-to lecture oi\ teaching, but engaged 
to give a course of lectmvs on a«t ixnunny 
in all four towns, going fixnn one to tlie 
other each week. This experiment -wjis 
in tho highest degree successful, and soon 
after its completion Professor Stuart began 
.a t\ow course at Uochd.ilo. th\ tho expo- 
rionct^ g-ivinod at those two courses the 
I'nivorsity Kxtonsion schen\o as it now 
exists was founded and org'jxnisod. 

Tho aiuv of tho inovonuMit is tho for- 
niatioi\ of ai\ itiiuM-ant teaching organis;i- 
tion connecting the universities with the 
t\atiot\ at largo. It is uuxinly occupied 
with carrying university teaching to the 
doors of peopK^ who cannot conu'> up to 
the universities. At tho saute tinvo it 
endeavours by its institution of athliatod 
students to oncouriigi^ and facilitate tvsi- 
deuco in tho uni\ersity as a civwuing 
point in the educational systotn of whicli 
it is a pjvrt." It has throughout been a 
joint movoiueitt between tho universities 
and tho towns, tho intluence of tho oiu» 
being as iutportant as that of tho other. 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 



475 



The universities undertake the educational 
organisation ; the towns provide the funds 
and attend to the local management ; the 
whole constituting a network of local 
branches, working independently in asso- 
ciation with the universities as a common 
centre. The cost of each course of lec- 
tures to a locality varies from 601. to 701. 
The university fee for the lecturer and 
examination is 461., to which must be 
added the local expenses of printing, ad- 
vertising, hiring rooms, &c. In a period of 
ten years up to 1887 eight hundred courses 
of lectures were delivered, with an aggre- 
gate attendance of eighty thousand stu- 
dents, of whom about thirty-eight thousand 
did home-work and over ten thousand pre- 
sented themselves for examination. The 
session extends from the end of September 
to April, and contains two terms of three 
months each. No limit is placed on the 
subjects of the lecture-courses, but in 
practice they may be divided into three 
groups — (1) literature and history, (2) sci- 
ence, and (3) art. The method pursued in 
the movement is based upon the recogni- 
tion in all that is done of two kinds of 
people to be dealt with : (1) popular lec- 
ture audiences, (2) in every audience a 
nucleus of students. Those are regarded 
as students who are willing to do some 
home-work, however little, between one 
lecture and another. The combination of 
these two kinds of people is found to be 
for the advantage of both. The presence 
of students raises the educational character 
of the lectures, and the association of 
students with a popular audience gives to 
the teaching an impressiveness that mere 
class teaching could never attain. For 
such audiences and students the movement 
provides courses of lectures accompanied 
by classes, weekly exercises, and examina- 
tions for certificates. The lectures are 
given weekly in connected courses, and in 
order to ensure a complete and thorough 
handling of the subject each course con- 
sists of not less than twelve lectures. In 
no case can single lectures be given, or 
series of lectures on disconnected subjects, 
the movement having no intention of 
competing with regular institutions for 
popular lecturing. The lecturers are for 
the most part young men who are willing 
to devote themselves to teaching as well 
as to lecturing, and the intention is that 
the lectures should be as interesting as 
other popular lectures, with the differ- 



ence that they chiefly aim at the interest 
of continuity. The substance of every 
course of lectures is laid down in a printed 
syllabus, which is meant to avoid the ne- 
cessity of note-taking on the one hand 
and of forming a condensed text-book of 
the course on the other. References to 
other books, for fuller details, are made 
whenever necessaiy. This syllabus con- 
tains, among other things, weekly exer- 
cises in the subjects of the lectures adapted 
to students of all sorts, and intended to 
be done by them in working at home and 
at their leisure. The working of these 
exercises is entirely voluntary, and stu- 
dents may even send in their answers 
anonymously. The lecture usually lasts 
an hour, another hour being taken up witli 
class work, in which the lecturer, in a less 
formal way, seeks to elucidate and drive 
home the matter of his subject. 

At the close of each course of lectures 
and classes a final written examination is 
held (conducted, not by the lecturer, but 
by an independent examiner selected by 
the university) upon the matter of the 
lectures as indicated in the syllabus. This 
examination is also voluntary, but is only 
open to those who have done the weekly 
class exercises to the satisfaction of the 
lecturer. In connection with each three 
months' course certificates are granted by 
the university to students who satisfy a 
double test, viz. (1) the lecturer's report 
on the weekly exercises, and (2) the spe- 
cial examiner's report on the final exami- 
nation. Great importance is attached to 
this double basis upon which the certifi- 
cates are awarded, as it entirely obviates 
many of the disadvantages of the more 
common system of examination-tests. The 
certificates granted are of two kinds. Pass 
and Distinction ; but order of merit and 
competition generally have no place in the 
working of the movement. The chief fea- 
tures of the University Extension scheme 
are thus the circuit, the lecture, the class, 
the syllabus, the examination, and the cer- 
tificate. 

An extended plan of study has been 
laid down by the syndicate of Cambridge 
University, in the form of a combination of 
single courses, for w^hich special university 
privileges are offered. This extended course 
will occupy, as a rule, three years, and will 
be accepted by the university in place of 
the first year of the regular university 
course. Students who have followed this 



476 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSIOK 



university extension course and obtained 
certificates for the different parts of it 
will receive the title of 'Students affiliated 
to the university/ and have the right at 
any subsequent time to proceed to the 
university and obtain its degrees after 
two years' residence in place of three. But 
the purpose of this institution of affi- 
liated students goes further than this. 
It is intended to encourage continuity of 
study, and to give the arrangement of a 
properly organised plan of work ; and in 
fulfilling their functions as national insti- 
tutions the universities believe that it is 
eminently desirable that, in addition to 
those who can become full members of 
them by residence, they should have a 
large body of students all over the country 
attached to them as associates, with every 
encouragement given them to become full 
members. The principle on which this 
course for affiliated students is arranged 
is as follows : (1) The greater part of it 
belongs to the special department of study 
to which the student's inclinations lead 
him ; (2) as in the full university course, 
it is recognised that special studies require 
to be supplemented with a certain amount 
of introduction to more general studies; 
(3) this combination of special and general 
constitutes the scheme of study, but before 
admitting to the position of an affiliated 
student it is necessary for the university 
to take some guarantee that the student 
has received that minimum of elementary 
education which all the universities agree 
in requiring before they admit persons 
into formal connection with them. Ac- 
cordingly, the course for affiliated students 
falls into three parts: (1) the special series 
of courses, (2) the general series of courses, 
and (3) the elementary examination, which 
embraces Latin and one other foreign 
language, the first three books of Euclid, 
and algebra to quadratic equations. 

The extension movement has reached 
all classes of society without distinction. 
Audiences as miscellaneous as those of the 
congregation of a church or chapel have 
been repeatedly secured — an important 
feature of the scheme being that it is 
entirely free from religious or political 
bias. In some towns the lectures have 
been so successful as to lead to the founda- 
tion of permanent educational institutions. 
The University College at Nottingham 
is a conspicuous instance of this — the 
original endowment of 10,000/. having 



been given on condition that the Town 
Council would erect buildings for the ac- 
commodation of the university extension 
lectures, and to the satisfaction of the 
University of Cambridge. Similar results 
have followed in Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds, 
and other places. 

Although the University Extension 
scheme has been chiefly identified with 
Cambridge, the other universities have by 
no means stood aloof from it. Durham 
University has actively co-operated with 
Cambridge in the north of England, where 
the movement has been remarkably suc- 
cessful ; and the University of Oxford has 
since May 1885 taken its share of the 
work. Within two years its weekly courses 
of lectures and classes had been conducted 
in twenty-two towns and attended by more 
than 6,000 students, of whom the greater 
part were working men. The delegates 
of the University have also established 
travelling libraries containing the chief 
text-books and authorities recommended 
by the lecturers. These libraries have 
proved to be of the greatest value to stu- 
dents in towns where access to suitable 
books for study and reference is difficult. 
In London the movement is associated 
with the Universities of Oxford, Cam- 
bridge, and London, and is carried on 
with much energy by the London Society 
for the Extension of University Teaching, 
which was instituted for the purpose in 
1876. 

The work of the movement has also 
extended to Wales, where it is now carried 
on independently by the three University 
Colleges at Bangor, Aberystwith, and 
Cardiff. Each of these colleges arranges 
for Extension lectures in its own district, 
and, especially in North and South Wales, 
they have been taken advantage of by an 
encouraging number of regular students. 

The University Extension movement 
has been somewhat slow in taking root 
in Scotland. This may to some extent be 
accounted for by the general accessibility 
of the Scottish universities themselves, 
for there is much truth in the remark 
once made by Lord Reay, that the prin- 
ciples of the Church of Scotland and of 
John Knox had made such a movement 
in Scotland superfluous. Notwithstand- 
ing this, the scheme has been agitated, 
and experiments have even been tried. 
Perhaps the most favourable of these 
was in the case of the University of St. 



UNIVERSITY EXTENSION UNIVERSITY REFORM 



477 



Andrews, which, as early as the winter 
of 1875-76, conducted five courses of lec- 
tures in the neighbouring town of Dundee. 
In point of attendance these lectures 
were a decided success, and those who 
underwent the prescribed examinations 
acquitted thenaselves in the main with 
considerable credit. But the enthusiasm 
which met them at the outset was not 
maintained, and in the second and third 
series the attendance fell off by about one- 
half. The lectures were accordingly dis- 
continued, and are now rendered unneces- 
sary by the subsequent foundation of a 
University College in Dundee. In the 
winter of 1886-87 a provisional com- 
mittee was formed in Edinburgh for the 
purpose of elaborating and, if possible, 
carrying out a scheme of Scottish univer- 
sity extension. The subject was also 
brought under the notice of the senates of 
the four Universities, and several of the 
larger towns were visited by the promoters 
of the scheme, with a view to securing their 
co-operation. A circular was drawn up 
and distributed, together with syllabuses 
of some of the proposed courses of lec- 
tures, the result being highly encouraging. 
At Perth, Montrose, Dunfermline, and 
Dumfries, societies were immediately es- 
tablished that those towns might avail 
themselves of the advantages offered by 
the movement. A course of lectures on 
botany was delivered to about seventy 
students at Dunfermline in the summer 
of 1887, and was followed by a more 
largely attended course in the autumn. 
At Dumfries a course on geology was 
equally well attended ; while at Perth, 
the more ambitious, two courses before 
and two after Christmas was tried with 
a success that exceeded all anticipation. 
The courses on English literature, phy- 
sical geography, political economy, and 
Greek literature were attended by over 
600 students in all. In each case the 
evening lectures had to be repeated next 
day. The tutorial classes following the 
lectures were in all cases successful, and 
much work was done in the form of exer- 
cises and essays ; while the final exami- 
nation conducted by external examiners 
showed that a high standard had been 
attained. From Perth the movement 
spread to neighbouring towns, in which 
the course in English literature was re- 
peated to audiences even larger, in pro- 
portion to the population, than in Perth 



itself. These towns, by forming a joint 
local committee, secured the advantages 
of the scheme at a very moderate expense. 
The University of Glasgow has established 
a University Extension Board consisting 
of seventy-three persons, with an execu- 
tive committee of sixteen, to take charge 
of the western district of Scotland. This 
is more especially the outcome of the 
Queen Margaret Guild, in connection with 
the Queen Margaret College for women in 
Glasgow, by which in 1886 courses of in- 
struction were organised in Ayr, Helens- 
burgh, Paisley, Hamilton, Kilmarnock, 
and Lenzie. The general council of the 
University of Glasgow made a represen- 
tation to the university court in favour 
of the movement, and the senators, with 
the approval of the court, definitely or- 
ganised its extension scheme. The Uni- 
versity of St. Andrews formed a similar 
Board in March 1888, consisting of eighty 
persons, for the promotion of the move- 
ment, more especially in the counties of 
Fife, Forfar, and Perth ; and about the 
same time the University of Edinburgh 
prepared an Extension programme. Lec- 
turers licensed by any one of these uni- 
versities are eligible as lecturers in con- 
nection with any of the others. The 
provisional extension committee of 1886 
is now superseded by these formal uni- 
versity boards. See The U7iiversity Ex- 
tension Movement, by R. G. Moulton, M. A., 
London, 1886; The Health Exhibition Lite- 
rature, vol. 16, London, 1884 (papers by 
Albert Grey, M.P., and E. T. Cook, with 
discussion) ; and the official publications of 
the various University Extension Boards. 
University Reform. — All that can here 
be attempted is an account of the reforms 
that have been carried within this genera- 
tion, and a suggestion of those reforms 
which are called for in the immediate fu- 
ture. The legislation of 1854 forms the 
natural starting point. The agitation for 
this reform was set on foot by Mr. Hey- 
wood, a Unitarian educated at Cambridge, 
who, in 1850, moved ' a humble address 
for a commission of inquiry into the state 
of the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, 
and Dublin, with a view to assist in the 
adaptation of these important institutions 
to the requirements of modern times.' A 
royal commission was granted by Lord 
J ohn Russell's G o vernm ent, which reported 
in 1852. In accordance with this report 
a Bill was introduced in 1854, which, in. 



478 



UNIVERSITY REFORM 



spite of violent opposition from the Church 
tincl Tory party, and with considerable 
modifications in committee, passed both 
Houses. The Universities Reform Act 
of 1854 (17 & 18 Yict., cap. 81) and the 
College Ordinances framed under its pro- 
visions effected wide and sweeping reforms 
both in the constitution of the universities 
and their curriculum. For the Hebdo- 
madal Board, consisting of heads of houses 
and the proctors, it substituted an elective 
council (with only four ex-officio members). 
The old Congregation, which had as little 
real power as the Homeric Agora, was re- 
placed by a deliberative assembly embrac- 
ing all resident members of Convocation. 
Fellowships generally were thrown open 
and awarded for other subjects besides 
classics and mathematics, and the number 
of scholarships was largely increased. 
Lastly, religious tests were abolished, ex- 
cept for the M.A. and higher degrees. 
The stimulus given by this Act to higher 
education may be roughly gauged by the 
growth of numbers. At Oxford, in the 
thirty-four years that have elapsed since 
the passing of the Act, the total of under- 
graduates in residence has risen from about 
1,300 to over 2,500. A new college bear- 
ing the honoured name of John Keble 
has been erected, and another foundation, 
Hertford College, has been revived. A 
new class, the unattached or non-collegiate 
students, has been added to the univer- 
sity. 

But the Act of 1854 had no claim to 
be a settlement of the university. It was 
merely an enabling Act. The colleges 
were not remodelled, nor were incomes 
touclied. But the Act settled once and 
for all two fundamental principles : first, 
the right of Parliament to overhaul the 
accounts of the universities, and to deter- 
mine how its corporate property should 
be disposed of ; secondly, the right of all 
intellectually qualified students, whatever 
their creed, to be admitted to the univer- 
sities, as national institutions. It was not 
till 1877 that these principles were pressed 
home. 

The commission to inquire into aca- 
demical property and revenues appointed 
by Mr. Gladstone in 1873 resulted in the 
Oxford and Cambridge Universities Bill, 
passed by the Conservative Government 
of 1877. The principle of the bill is to 
make larger provision out of college reve- 
nues for university purposes. A commis- I 



sion for each university with large execu- 
tive powers was appointed, but the interests 
of the colleges were in some measure safe- 
guarded by a provision that each college, 
while its affairs were being discussed, 
should be represented on the commission 
by assessors elected ad hoc. The commis- 
sions sat for several years, and their pro- 
ceedings resulted in the transference, in 
round figui'es, of some 25,000/. a year from 
the colleges of each university to the uni- 
versity, the assessment being determined 
in each case by the wealth of each college 
as compared with its numbers. A respite 
also was allowed before enacting the full 
subsidy fixed by the commissioners. The 
income thus accruing to the university 
was assigned to various new pi'ofessor- 
ships, readerships, and lectureships, and a 
certain amount of university income was, 
by the same process, set free for the main- 
tenance of buildings, libraries, and mu- 
seums. The commissioners, moreover, in 
conjunction with the college assessors, 
remodelled the whole system of fellowships. 
'Idle fellowships,' i.e. prize fellowships to 
which no conditions of residence or teaching 
are attached, were reduced in number and 
made terminable in seven years, and the 
majority of fellowships were attached to 
university or college offices. Clerical tests 
on fellowships and headships were, with a 
few exceptions, abolished. The value of 
college scholarships was restricted to 80/. 
a year, and nineteen was fixed as the limit 
of age. 

To pass to reforms which have origi- 
nated within the universities it will be 
sufficient to mention the Oxford and Cam- 
bridge Local Examinations, dating from 
1858, by means of which the univex'sities 
have to a great extent assumed the control 
and supervision of middle-class education ; 
the Joint Board Examination, instituted 
at the instance of the Head-masters' Con- 
fei^ence, wliereby the same regulation was 
extended to the public schools and the su- 
perior class of grammar schools ; the Uni- 
versity Extension (q.v.) movement, ori- 
ginated in 1867 by a course of lectures 
that Pi'ofessor James Stuart delivered in 
Liverpool and other northern towns, has 
taken firm root in London and in several 
of the northern centi-es of industry ; and 
lastly the admission of women to the ex- 
aminations, though not as yet to the 
degrees of the older universities. 

It will be convenient to begin with 



UNIVERSITY REFORM 



479 



the last point mentioned in the discussion 
of impending reforms. Students of Newn- 
ham and Girton College were first allowed 
by the courtesy of individual examiners 
to take the papers in certain Tripos exa- 
minations ; then these informal examina- 
tions were recognised first by Cambridge, 
and afterwards, with certain restrictions, 
by Oxford ; but the Cambridge Senate in 
1888 refused even to entertain a motion 
pressing this permission to its logical 
conclusion, and granting to women who 
had passed the required examinations the 
university degree. The main argument 
adduced by the opponents of this reform 
is most instructive. If, it was said, we 
admit women to honours degrees we must 
also admit them to pass degrees. But 
examinations for a pass represent such a 
narrow circle of studies and such a low 
intellectual standard that to admit women 
to these examinations would invite a class 
of idle women undergraduates, and would 
react injuriously on the curriculum of the 
high schools. Such an admission shows 
how far Oxford and Cambridge are still 
from being pure seats of learning. An 
Oxford professor has characterised re- 
sponsions and pass moderations as ' exa- 
minations which it is an indignity to re- 
quire a man to undergo who has arrived at 
years of discretion.' According to Prof. 
Sayer they represent ' the power of perpe- 
trating a piece of Latin prose, which would 
have made even a provincial stone-cutter 
of the fourth century sick to read, of 
reproducing in a mangled shape the im- 
possible English of some third-rate crib, 
without the faintest understanding of the 
thought or language of the original, and 
of setting down Greek forms which have 
no existence save in the pages of obso- 
lete and unscientific grammai^s.' Yet no 
reformer has yet had the courage to propose 
a i-aising of the standard, because a severer 
test would scare away young men of rank 
and wealth whose presence lends to Ox- 
ford and Cambridge their peculiar social 
charm. Yet Oxford and Cambridge have 
survived the extinction of the fellow- 
commoner, and we cannot doubt that 
they will proceed on the path of reform 
by enforcing more strictly the "Winchester 
motto, Aut disce aut discede. 

Another cognate reform that has often 
been mooted presents a more difficult pro- 
blem. That scholarships founded for the 
maintenance of indigent scholars should 



be held," as they too commonly are, by 
the sons of well-to-do or even wealthy 
men is an obvious abuse, yet it is not easy 
to suggest a remedy. To modern notions 
an enforced test of poverty would appear 
invidious and inquisitorial, and past ex- 
perience shows that such tests are sure to 
toe evaded. We must rather look to the 
growing influence of public opinion which 
will make it seem as disgraceful for a rich 
man to accept a scholarship for his son as 
it is for himself to accept a Ci\dl Service 
pension. At the same time, though much 
has been done, particularly in the case of 
Keble College, to diminish the cost of a 
university education, it is clear that it is 
still artificially enhanced. 

Another and a more pressing question 
remains — the relation of the university 
and the colleges. The last commission 
sought to strengthen the central authority 
and to increase its teaching power. This 
augmentation of the university was neces- 
sarily made at the expense of the colleges, 
and the colleges have, in consequence, 
been straitened in their means, and their 
efficiency has, to a certain extent, been im- 
paired. Whether this loss has as yet been 
compensated by the extension of the pro- 
fessoriate is doubtful. On this point some 
statistics gathered from a parliamentary re- 
turn, granted on the motion of Mr. Thorold 
Rogers, 1886, are instructive. At that 
date there were at Oxford and Cambridge 
617 fellows ' ; of these 245 were employed 
in college work, and 79 were employed in 
university work. The attendance at the 
lectures of university professors varies 
from a maximum of 122 at Oxford (the 
Regius Professor of Divinity's lectui'es) 
and of 140 at Cambridge (the Professor of 
Anatomy's) to nil in either case. At 
Oxford the Camden Professor of An- 
cient History reports that in 1885 he of- 
fered a course of lectures, but no students 
sending in their names, he has not since 
attempted to lecture. At Cambridge the 
Professor of International Law had not 
lectured since 1880, when he was deterred 
from lecturing by his ministerial duties, 
and allowed to appoint a substitute. The 
Professor of Latin offered classes in three 
consecutive terms, but no classes could be 
formed. The defence advanced for these 
classless professors and the plea which 
some of them put forward is that they are 

1 This is exclusive of fellowships at All Souls' 
College, most of which are honorary. 



480 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



engaged in the work of research. But in 
this plea there seems to lurk a fallacy. 
The examples of Faraday, of Huxley and 
Tyndall, and a crowd of German professors, 
show that original investigation is stimu- 
lated rather than impeded by being pur- 
sued in conjunction with educational duties, 
provided these duties are not too onerous. 
' Experience has shown that in any uni- 
versity where education is duly cared for re- 
search will take care of itself. '^ The present 
is a state of transition ; the university has 
ceased to be an aggregate of colleges, but 
it has not yet assumed its pi'oper function, 
to supply the highest teaching in every 
branch of knowledge, and at the same 
time to co-ordinate the tutorial teaching 
of the colleges. It has not yet perceived 
that something more than learning is re- 
quired in a professor, that he must be 
able to attract students and to kindle en- 
thusiasm. It would be well if his salary 
were made in part dependent on fees, and 
if the professorship were held only for a 
stated period and subject to re-election. 

A larger question remains which we 
can only glance at. To many it seems 
that the older universities have already 
reached a point at which accession of num- 
bers is no longer an accession of strength, 
and that the best hope for the future of 
higher education in England lies in the 
foundation of new institutions in the chief 
centres of industry and commerce on the 
lines of the Victoria University. A Royal 
Commission was appointed in 1888 to 
consider the requirements of London. The 
University of London, as has been often 
pointed out, is a misnomer. It is nothing 
but an Imperial Board of Examinations. 
Its degrees and diplomas have a high com- 
mercial value, and justly so, but the only 
genuine work of a university, the pursuit 
of knowledge and the training of facility, 
is not even attempted. A university, 
to borrow the words of Burke, is ' a part- 
nership in all science, in all art, in every 
virtue, in all perfection.' 

University Robes. — Academical life, 
and indeed educational life generally, has 
in all ages and amongst peoples of every 
kind and variety of confession sustained 
a close relation, whether in the way of 
parallelism or of reciprocal action, with 
the life of the cloister and the temple. 
The school has commonly been the ex- 

1 Paper by G. W. Hemming, Q.C., International 
Conference on Education Proceedings, vol. iii. p. 334. 



pansion and the perpetuation of the 
shrine ; the college has frequently been 
the appanage and the survival of the con- 
vent. Thus it happens that the rise and 
progress of public schools and colleges, 
with the peculiar nomenclature inherited, 
developed, or affected by them, as well 
as the distinguishing habits which they 
adopted, are to be so largely traced in the 
history of monasteries or other ecclesias- 
tical foundations. The scholars— ior fel- 
lows, notwithstanding that the expression 
is met with in Chaucer, is a name of com- 
paratively later date — were monks and 
clerks, clerici ; the abbot was the custos, 
rector, warden, or magister of the dif- 
ferent orders ; bishops and abbots were 
(/radicates, and were so denominated, and 
distinguished by their dresses ; and the 
different habits are but habits of the old 
religious orders, somewhat improved. The 
monastery itself was called coUeghim ; 
and its language, its rules, and discipline 
all passed, by an easy transition, into the 
college forms still existing in the more 
ancient of our universities. 

Mr. Edmund Carter, a somewhat en- 
thusiastic historian of the University of 
Cambridge, forbears the endeavour ' to 
ascertain the original appointment of the 
several sorts of dress which have from 
time to time been appropriated to each 
degree ' conferred by the university. * I 
am of opinion,' he says, '■tha.t Acadetnical, 
or graduate habits of Universities, are 
much more ancient than those used by 
monastic orders ; yet, at the same time, 
it must be allowed that the present set 
of Academical habits are much altered 
from those worn by the Greeks, Romans, 
or ancient Jeivs, or by the Magi in Per- 
sia, or by the Druids in our own nation. 
Nor was it possible for them almost to 
escape the general alteration which was 
made by the long dominion of the Monks, 
Friars, and Canon-Regidars, over the 
minds, persons, and constitutions of this 
land. Thus it is we see an undergraduate 
in a gown of a novice of the Friars- 
Preachers ; the Masters of Arts in the 
habit of a Canon-Pegular of St. Augus- 
tine, a Doctor of Divinity nearly approach- 
ing to the dress of a Benedictine Monk. The 
cap is exactly borrowed from the said 
Canons ; and the colour of all those habits 
that are not black, and the shape of the 
hoods belonging to the several degrees, 
are only small variations from the dress ; 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



481 



and the large cowl, which, to this day 
(1753), some of the Monastics wear, more 
for ornament than for use. But in this 
thing we are very happy, we use these dis- 
tinctions as the most pure ages have set 
us an example, for the well ordering the 
body politic, and not superstitiously to 
persuade the people they contain any 
merit in themselves, or convey any virtue 
or grace. Some badges of honour and 
ornament of learning have always been 
allowed of, amongst the most conscien- 
tious : and as the present habits of our 
graduates serve only to convey an imme- 
diate idea of their standing in the Univer- 
sity upon sight, they are not to be con- 
sidered evil in themselves, nor as conveying 
any of those superstitions which the Re- 
formation has banished from our Univer- 
sities.' 

A more particular reference — seeing 
that it is conversant about one religious 
fraternity only — of academical or univer- 
sity robes to the distinguishing habits of 
monastic orders, is made by Anthony a 
Wood, the annalist and historian of Ox- 
ford, a scholar with whom the honour of 
his Alma Mater was a ruling passion, 
strong in his life, strongest of all in his 
death. ' The next distinction for scholars, 
besides degrees, are habits and formalities, 
which have been used in this university,' 
says' Wood, ' from the days of King Al- 
fred (if not before) to these times. For 
when literature was restored by certain 
Benedictine monks whom that king ap- 
pointed to read in Oxford, the scholars 
did from that time, as we may suppose, 
take their fashions, that is to say, Ocreee, 
aut Vestes, vel Habitus de pulla chimera, 
i.e. boots, and garments, or habits of a 
black colour or resemblance. As for other 
formalities, which they did wear, as cap 
and hood, I am not certain whether the 
scholars followed the fashions of them 
or not, but as far as I can yet under- 
stand they did. Joh. Wolfius in speak- 
ing of the order and habit of the Bene- 
dictine monks, saith thus : " In vestitu 
veteres usi fuerunt cuculla, tunica, et 
scapulari : cuculla est cappa supra tuni- 
cam inferiorem quam Meloten quidam 
appellant : a nonnullis Tax dicitur : scapu- 
lare etiam a scapulis, quod scapulas tegit, 
&c." Which hood, coat, and scapular (the 
last being a narrow piece of cloth hanging 
down before and behind) were used (though 
since much enlarged) by our old scholars, 



as I have seen it on ancient glass windows, 
seals, &c.' The wide-sleeved gown which 
has for ages been the cliai-acteristic habit 
of the Benedictines, an order to whose 
members literature owes the gratitude 
due to splendour of service, was anciently 
used by the generality of scholars ; being 
at first, according to trusted authorities, ' 
no more than an ordinary coat, tunica, 
and i^ each ing only a little lower thaii the 
knees. The shoulders were but slightly 
gathered, if they were gathered at all ; 
and the sleeves, which afterwards gradu- 
ally came to be much enlarged, were ori- 
ginally not much wider than an ordinary 
coat. The form of the gown suggested 
the fashion of the surplice, or dahnatica 
— so called from the circumstance that, 
it was first produced in Dalmatia, where 
it was originally worn as a royal robe — 
which was in the beginning very scanty 
and slender, but afterwards wider than 
the gowns. When degrees ca'me to be 
more frequent, as. they did towards the 
close of the twelfth century, certain modi- 
fications of the gown were introduced for 
the sake of distinction, not only in rela- 
tion to the degrees themselves, but also 
to the various faculties in which they were 
taken ; the wide sleeves still being worn 
withal by bachelors, and by undergraduate 
holders of scholarships — 'worn at first 
black, then in several colours, and at 
length, when Dr. Laud was chancellor, 
black again by every scholar, unless the 
sons of noblemen, who may wear any 
colour. To conclude,' Wood proceeds, 
' though there was a common distinction 
in vestitu made between the masters or 
doctors of theology, medicine, law, and 
arts, yet in solemn assemblies and peram- 
bulations or processions of the university, 
the fashions of their vestitus were all the 
same, only differenced by colour ; as for 
example, the fashion that masters or doc- 
tors or professors of theology used, was 
a scarlet gown with wide sleeves (not of 
a light red as now, but red with blue or 
purple mixt with it) faced with certain 
beast skins furred both costly and pre- 
cious. Over that was a habit of the same, 
viz. half a gown without sleeves, close be- 
fore, and over all a hood lined with the 
same matter that the gown is faced with. 
The fashion of a doctor or professor of 
law or medicine was the same with the- 
ologists, only distinguished by the facing 
and lining of another colour ; but that 

1 1 



482 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



of artists was commonly black, as their 
habits also were, but faced and lined with 
furs or minever. As for bachelaurs of arts, 
law, and physic, their gowns, which were 
of various colours, as russet, violet, tawny, 
bkie, &c., were also wide-sleeved, but not 
faced, and their hoods (for they had no 
habits) of the same colour with their 
gowns, but not lined, only edged with 
lamb or cony skin. The gown that a 
doctor of divinity now wears, as also that 
by a master of arts, or such that are in 
holy orders, hath no cape, only long 
sleeves with a cross slit to put the arms 
through. Which gown is not ancient, 
and never known to be worn by any be- 
fore the time of John Calvin, who, as 'tis 
said, was the first that wore it, but had 
the slit longways, and facing lined with 
fur.' 

With reference to the cap, pileum, or 
cappa, Wood remarks that the wise men 
of the ancient world and the priests were 
wont constantly to appear with the head 
covered, velato capite, i.e. pileato ; and 
that this custom was demanded of them 
severally by considerations of dignity and 
religion. ' The fashion being taken up by 
the philosophers at Athens did give occa- 
sion to the Parisians and afterwards to 
Oxonians to use them, they being imitators 
of their customs. Of what form we at 
the first used them, whether close, stepled, 
plaited, square or round, I know not. 'Tis 
probable we did in process of time imi- 
tate the Benedictines, as in other matters 
we did ; but then again, whether they in 
most ancient time did use the same 
fashioned cap as now, it may be a ques- 
tion, because by the acts of several coun- 
cils and chapters among them, alterations 
have been made. The square form, with 
the upper part something stepled, is an- 
cient, as hath been proved by pictures in 
ancient glass windows ; but when the 
laws and school divinity entered the uni- 
versity, the doctors of those faculties and 
of medicine wore round caps; the first and 
the last wear them still ; but some years 
before the Reformation of the Church of 
England, the theologists wore square, with- 
out any stifning in them (which caused 
each corner to flag), such as judges andjus- 
tices itinerant now use ' (Wood's History 
and Antiquities of Oxford). It is prob- 
able that the use of round caps Avas con- 
fined to doctors or mastei-s in divinity, 
who in the reign of Henry III., and an- 



tecedently, wore them when they preached 
either ad clerum or to the people. ' And 
as divines,' to revert to the ijysisshna verba 
of Wood, ' preached in caps (as they did 
in square afterwards, used by the Catho- . 
lick party in England, till Queen Mary 
died, and religion altered) so the auditors, 
if scholars, sate in them, which continued 
so till the late unhappy times ; but 
when K. Ch. II. was restored, then the 
auditors sate bare, lest if covered, should 
encourage the laical party to put on their 
hats, as they did all the time of rebellion. 
Some before the Reformation would preach 
in cappis clausis, but that they could not 
do without a dispensation.' In a note upon 
the foregoing extract from Anthony a 
Wood, it is stated that ' divines preached 
in square caps in the reign of Q. Mary, 
as may be seen .in the burning of Ridley, 
Latimer, and Cranmer, recited by Mr. 
Fox. Dr. Smith preached at the burn- 
ing of Ridley and Latimer ; Dr. Hen. 
Cole at Cranmer's recantation.' And Wal- 
cott remarks that 'until the Restoration, 
the preacher and academical congregation 
wore their caps in sermon time at the 
universities.' 

Du Cange thinks that the square cap 
of the university was formerly that part 
of the amice — or furred hood, having long 
ends which hung down the front of the 
dress, something like a stole, and which 
was worn by the clergy for warmth when 
officiating in the church during inclement' 
weather — which covered the head, and 
afterwards became separated from it, that 
is from the amice. Mr. Fairholt, flavour- 
ing his remarks with a soupgon of raillery, 
says that ' the square caps, still worn at 
our universities, originated about the time 
of the Reformation, and were generally 
worn by grave and studious men.' It has 
undergone some modification from its 
original form; and, ' in its descent to our 
own days, the warm overlapping sides are 
discarded, and a plain, close skull-cap takes 
the place — the broad pointed top being 
imitated by a hard, square, flat piece of 
pasteboard and cloth, destitute of mean- 
ing and utility : preserving the form of 
antiquity, deprived of its spirit.' 

With regard to the hood, of which 
there have been several kinds, it is to be 
observed that the most ancient variety 
was that which was sewn or tied to the 
vipperpartof the coat or gown, and brought 
over the head for a covering, like a cowl_ 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



483 



* Such a hood,' as Anthony a Wood says, 
' which was for the most part used as an 
ornament for the head, was Latin'd capa, 
and sometimes cappa, epitheted several 
times with categorica, which probably did 
belong to sop listers or bachelaurs. I 
find it also to signify a hood for the 
shoulders, as in one of the University 
Registers, wherein 'tis ordered that no 
regent in arts or decrees or divinity read 
his lectures "in capa manicata, sed in 
pallio, vel in capa clausa.'" But the prin- 
cipal variety of hood requiring mention 
in this connection ' is such,' according to 
Wood, ' that is worn for an ornament of 
the shoulders, lined formerly with certain 
beasts' skins, but now and for several 
years since with taffeta, and hath its ori- 
ginal from the form. The Latin word being 
cucuUum, or caputium, is explained by 
some to be " os tunicje vel alterius vestis, 
nnde caput mittitur;" whence in the book 
of Job 'tis said, "capucio tunicse succinxit 
me." At fii'st the hood was but little and 
veiy scanty, and was used sometimes as 
a covei'ing for the head ; but when caps 
came to be generally used, then those hoods 
became only an ornament for the shoulders 
and back, and being by degrees enlarged, 
were lined with skins. A certain author 
(Dr. Thomas Gascoigne, of whose Theo- 
logical Dictionary, tlie manuscript of 
which is in the library of Lincoln Col- 
lege, Oxford, only "selected passages" 
have been published) tells us, that in 
ancient time the justices (itinerant, I 
suppose he means) of England used hoods 
Imed with lamb-skins and not with er- 
mine or minever, for then only bishops, 
doctors, and masters in the universities 
used minever and pure white and pure 
grey ; which lining, being afterward used 
by others of lower degrees, a statute 
whicli is ancient, was made, that none 
should wear such skins or fine linen or 
.silk in their hoods, but those that were 
of noble and royal blood, or a master or 
licentiat in any faculty, or one that had 
a seat in parliament, or one that could 
spend sixty marks de claro from a bene- 
fice, or pati'imony, under the pain of 20s. 
toties quotios.' 

Another ' formality ' appertaining to 
the University of Oxford in ancient times, 
and still lingering in a modified form in 
the time of Anthony a Wood, was that 
of boots, also ' had from the Benedictine 
monks ; inasmuch that I find it recorded, 



that there was anciently no master or 
doctor of arts proceeded but in bootes, 
as a token of respect to be had to the 
men of that order, who were the founders 
and restorers of literature before the time 
of K. Alfred. The ancient form and 
fashion of them was but small and came 
up to the middle of the leg, with little or 
no tops to them, even almost like to high 
shoes. . . . Plowever the fashion was, 
boots, styled in some of our registers 
botys, were used by masters of arts at 
their inception ; which continuing till the 
degrees of Doctor of Divinity and Decrees 
came in fashion were then used by them; 
and instead of bootes the masters were 
afterwards contented to wear pantables, 
which some have called sandals, others 
slippers, some again slopps and pynsons, 
Latin'd in our old books sandalia, liripi- 
piati, solutaria, &c., which I say they 
wore at their inception, that is in the 
time we call the Act and several weeks 
after, till such time they were dispensed 
with to leave them ofil The masters wear 
these by the name of slopps to this day, 
during the time only of the Act, for the next 
day after it is ended, at which time they 
are made regents, they are cut off" from 
their shoes.' The academical 'formality' 
of boots is so nearly obsolete, that even 
its symbolism is generally forgotten. Mr. 
Walcott is one of those who would rescue 
it from oblivion. 'The boot,' he says, 
' was buttoned up the side of the leg like 
a gaiter ; hence, probably, the modern use 
of the latter by the bishops, who have 
always a doctor's degree. The doctor 
of divinity stood booted and spurred at 
his act, as if shod with the preparation of 
the Gospel, and ready always to preach 
God's Word.' 

It may be pertinent in this place to 
describe the robes of the personnel of the 
University of Oxford ; which, without 
any affectation of settling their several 
claims to precedence in the order of time, 
may be bracketed with Cambridge as the 
premier univei-sities of the world-wide 
empire of Great Britain. For these two 
venerable institutions present all the ap- 
paratus of the most fully-equipped uni- 
versities ; and they recognise, to an ex- 
tent beyond all others, the distinctions of 
rank which find expression in the costumes 
of their students, preserving also, beyond 
others, the differences between robes of 
state and ceremony, and of ordinary aca- 

ii2 



484 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



clemical life. Further, they include in 
their economy every variety of function 
and graduation, except only for the 
omission of some minor or incidental 
office, or of some exceptional or quasi- 
local degree. With regard, then, to the 
robes of the officers of the University 
of Oxford, it is to be observed that 
the dress of the chancellor is of black 
damask silk, richly ornamented with gold 
embroidery, a rich lace band, and square 
velvet cap, with a large gold tassel. The 
proctors wear gowns of prince's stuff, the 
sleeves and facings of black velvet ; to 
the left shoulder is affixed a small tippet. 
To this is added, as a dress, a lai'ge ermine 
hood, which varies as black silk lined 
with black silk at Cambridge, and, at 
Dublin, as black silk lined with ermine. 
The pro-proctor wears a master of arts' 
gown, faced with velvet, with a tippet 
attached to the left shoulder. The col- 
lectors wear the same dress as the proc- 
tors, with the exception of the hood and 
tippet. The esquire bedels wear silk 
gowns, similar to those of bachelors of 
law, and round velvet caps. The yeo- 
man bedels have black stuff gowns, and 
round silk caps. The dress of the 
verger is nearly the same as that of 
the yeoman bedel. Bands at the neck 
are considered as necessary appendages 
to the academic dress of the vice-chan- 
cellor and proctors, particularly on public 
occasions. 

The doctor of divinity, the most au- 
gust of the graduates of any university 
conferring that distinction, has three 
dresses : the first consists of a gown of 
scarlet cloth, with black velvet sleeves and 
facings, a cassock, sash, and scarf. This 
dress is worn on all public occasions in 
the theatre, in public processions, and on 
certain Sundays and holydays specified in 
the University Calendar. The second is 
a habit of scarlet cloth, and a hood of the 
same colour lined with black, and a black 
silk scarf; the master of ai-ts' gown is worn 
under this dress, the sleeves appearing 
through the armholes of the habit. This 
is the dress of business ; and it is used 
in Convocation, congregation, and at morn- 
ing sermons on Sundays during term (ex- 
cept on Quinquagesima Sunday and the 
Sundays in Lent) and at afternoon ser- 
mons during Lent. The third, which is 
the usual dress in which a doctor of di- 
vinity appears, is a master of arts' gown, 



with cassock, sash, and scai-f. Tlie vice- 
chancellor and heads of colleges and halls 
have no distinguishing dress, but appear 
on all occasions as doctors in the faculty 
to which they belong. The dresses worn 
by graduates in law and physic are nearly 
the same. The doctor has three : the- 
fii-st is a gown of scarlet cloth, with sleeves: 
and facings of pink silk, and a round black 
velvet cap. This is the dress of state. 
The second consists of a habit and hood of 
scarlet cloth, the habit faced and the hooci 
lined with pink silk. This habit, which 
is perfectly analogous to the second dress^ 
of the doctor in divinity, has lately grown 
into disuse ; it is, however, retained by 
the professors, and is always used in pre- 
senting to degrees. The third or common 
dress of a doctor in law or physic nearly 
resembles that of the bachelor in these- 
faculties ; it is a black silk gown richly 
ornamented with black lace ; the hood of 
a bachelor of laws (worn as a dress) is of 
blue silk, trimmed with white fur. The- 
dress worn by the doctor of music on pub- 
lic occasions is a rich white damask silt 
gown, with sleeves and facings of crimson 
satin, a hood of the same material, and a 
round black velvet cap. The usual dresses^ 
of the doctor and of the bachelor of music 
are nearly the same as those of law and' 
physic. 

The master of arts wears a black gown^, 
usually made of prince's stuff or crape,, 
Avith long sleeves which are remarkable 
for the circular cut at the bottom. The 
arm comes through an apei'ture in the 
sleeve, which hangs down. The hood 
of a master of arts is of black silk 
lined with crimson. The gown of a 
bachelor of arts is also usually made of 
prince's stuff or crape. It has a full 
sleeve, looped up at the elbow, and ter- 
minating in a point ; the dress hood is 
black, trimmed with white fur. Noble- 
men and gentlemen-commonei's who take 
the degrees of bachelor and master of arts 
wear their gowns of silk. Of the under- 
graduates the first calling for mention is 
the nobleman, who has two dresses : the 
first, which is worn in the theatre, in 
processions, and on all public occasions-, 
is a gown of purple damask silk, richly 
ornamented with gold lace. The second 
is a black silk gown, with full sleeves ; 
it has a tippet attached to the shoulders. 
With both these dresses is worn a square 
cap of bla,ck velvet, Avith a gold tassel. 



I 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



485 



Tlie gentleman-commoner — corresponding 
very nearly with the fellow-commoner, 
or greater pensioner, of Cambridge — used 
to have two gowns, both of black silk : 
the first, considered as a dress gown, al- 
though worn on all occasions, at pleasure, 
being richly ornamented with tassels. 
The second, or undress gown, the only 
one at present in use, is ornamented with 
plaits at the sleeves. The dress of com- 
xaoners is a gown of black prince's stuff, 
without sleeves ; from each shoulder is 
appended a broad strip, which reaches to 
the bottom of the dress, and towards the 
top is gathered into plaits. The cap is 
square, of black cloth, with silk tassel. 
Commoners correspond with the pen- 
sioners of Cambridge and Dublin. The 
student of civil law, or civilian, wears — 
-or, as it might be more correctly said, used 
to wear, for the status of S.C.L. is now ob- 
solete — a plain black silk gown, a hood of 
blue silk, and square cloth cap, with silk 
tiassel. Students who are unattached to 
any college or hall wear the dress of com- 
. moners. 

The undergi'aduates of the Scottish 
:universities — except those of Edinburgh, 
who, in spite of a somewhat spasmodic 
and desultory agitation of the question, 
are still unrobed — -wear a red cloth gown 
differenced by the form of the sleeves, or 
the absence of sleeves, and the occurrence 
or the absence of ci'imson velvet as an 
ornament. 

The severe and simple basis upon 
Tvhich is reared the elaborate fabric of 
academic apparel, in all its wideness of 
range and its manifold variety, is the 
"black gown of silk or stuff; an austere 
and sombre robe which, whilst it forms the 
principal part of the ordinary dress of 
evexy rank of the hierarchy of the several 
faculties about which the most ancient 
.and the most compr-ehensive of our uni- 
versities are maternally concerned, refers 
back the original habits of these to the 
ancestral habits of the monastic orders, 
and especially of the learned fraternity 
who followed the rule of St. Benedict. 

' In the fifteenth century,' to adopt a 
few sentences of pertinent epitome from 
the article ' Costume' in the JSncyclojycedia 
JSritannica, ' when distinctions appear 
£rst to have been introduced into the 
-costumes of masters and bachelors of 
.arts, tlie gowns of the latter were shorter 
than those of masters, and had full sleeves 



reaching to the wrists and pointed at the 
back. The capes and hoods of bachelors 
also were bordered with white fur or wool. 
By various peculiarities of form, colour, 
and lining, the gowns, capes, and hoods 
of graduates of all the higher ranks cer- 
tainly were distinguished; but in the com- 
paratively rare examples of monumental 
effigies represented in academic habit, 
which almost without exception are de- 
stitute of colour, these distinctions are not 
shown in any regular or marked and de- 
cided manner. Throughout the last 200 
years, if not for a still longer period, the 
academic habits of the University of Ox- 
ford have retained their forms unaltered. 
They may generally be classified in two 
groups — ecclesiastical and civil. The gowns 
of the former, worn by all graduates in 
botli divinity and arts, and also by all 
members on the foundation of any col- 
lege, have loose sleeves, are destitute of 
collars, and gathered in in small plaits at 
the back, and bear a general resemblance 
to what is known of the more ancient 
habits, the sleeves of the masters' gowns 
still having slits (now cut horizontally, 
instead of vertically) for the passage of 
the arms. On the other hand, the gowns 
of graduates in law and the other facul- 
ties, and of undergraduates who are not 
on the foundation of any college, besides 
being of less ample proportions, have fall- 
ing collars and closer sleeves, which lat- 
ter in the undergraduates' gowns have 
dwindled into mere strips ; and they evi- 
dently derive their origin from parts of 
the ordinary dress of civilians in the six- 
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The 
gowns of graduates of the University of 
Cambridge for the most part are the same 
as those worn in the sister university ; 
but at Cambridge the undergraduates, not 
being on the foundation, of almost every 
college have a gown appropriated to their 
own college.' 

The black gown, to make a definite 
statement for which the way has been 
already prepared, is, academically speak- 
ing, a universal standard of reference, 
a standard by which to judge identities, 
departures, approximations, divergences. 
For the gown is the article of dress, par 
excellence, in which the tendency is exhi- 
bited on the part of the relatively junior 
universities of the British Empire all the 
world over, and even of those in their 
infancy, to select, adjust, or regulate their 



486 



UNIVERSITY ROBES 



robes by the robes so long in vogue in the 
more venerable institutions of Oxford and 
Cambridge. With ^this tendency, and 
independently of this tendency, there is 
a concurrent disposition, as amongst the 
Scottish universities, to aftect the vestia- 
rian traditions of the University of France, 
or other of the moi-e ancient of the Conti- 
nental universities, several points of whose 
economy and administration — notably 
their divisions and their divisional voting 
by nations, as at Glasgow and Aberdeen 
on occasions when the body of the stu- 
dents become an electorate for such acade- 
mical and non-political purposes as the 
choosing of a Lord Rector {see Rector) — 
they have for the most part assimilated. 

Upon occasions of state and ceremony, 
as has already been indicated with re- 
ference to the single, but typical. Univer- 
sity of Oxford, the ordinary academic 
robes of the senior graduates are suscep- 
tible of transformation in the general 
direction of brilliancy and elaboration. 
The doctorate in all the faculties of Ox- 
ford, Cambridge, Durham, Dublin, and 
the Royal University of Ireland — with 
the exception of the doctorate of music, 
to the more efficient splendour of which, 
as one of the fine arts, a greater prismatic 
variety contributes — generally affects scar- 
let as the uniform colour of the full-dress 
gown, which is faced and lined with the 
colour of the hood of the respective facul- 
ties in which the doctorate is taken. In 
the University of London the ordinary 
dress of the doctor of music is ' a blue 
silk gown of the same shape as for the 
doctor of medicine,' whose ordinary gown, 
as that of the doctors in the other facul- 
ties of law, science, and literature, is of 
black silk or stuff". All the doctors of the 
University of London — which, it is to be 
obsei'ved, has no faculty of theology — are 
entitled, however, if members of Convoca- 
tion, to wear a gown of scarlet cloth, 
faced with silk of the colour of that with 
Avhich their hoods are lined — the Convo- 
cation hoods being also of scarlet cloth, in 
all the faculties. A proportionate acces- 
sion of dignity and significance is also im- 
ported into the robes of the holders of the 
lower degrees who are members of Convo- 
cation ; bachelors of arts, laws, medicine, 
and science being entitled to wear a white 
silk lining to their hoods, in addition to 
the colour of the edging of their degrees. 
At St. Andrews masters of arts wear ' a 



gown of black silk, or inferior stuff", still 
worn by professors in several of the fa- 
culties in the University of France, with 
cincture or belt of black silk, and a cap of 
black velvet, silk, or other material, after 
the fashion of that still worn in the Uni- 
versity of France.' For doctors of divinity, 
laws, medicine, and science it is stipulated 
that ' if on occasions of high ceremony a 
distinctive dress is deemed desirable,' they 
shall wear 'robes respectively of ^dolet, 
scarlet, crimson, and amaranth silk, or 
cloth with facings ; cinctui'es and caps 
after the fashion used by the professors in 
these faculties in the University of France. 
The hoods of the graduates in all the 
faculties to be after the pattern of those 
of the University of Cambridge, as most 
nearly resembling the form of the hood on 
the rector's robe of this university,' that 
is, of St. Andrews, the bachelors of wliich, 
in the several faculties, are entitled to 
wear the hoods of their faculties, with the 
gown and cap of master of arts. At 
Glasgow, ' on ceremonial occasions, the 
graduates are expected to appear in the 
gown and hood proper to their degrees. 
The ordinary gowns to be worn by gradu- 
ates of the University of Glasgow are of 
black silk or stuiF, of similar shape to those 
appropriated to the corresponding degrees 
in the British universities.' At Aberdeen 
' the gowns are the same in all the facul- 
ties, viz. black silk or stuff". The distinc- 
tive part of the costume is in the hoods,' 
Finally, 'full dress gowns for doctors of 
the Univei'sity of Edinburgh are made of 
superfine scarlet cloth, loose sleeves, lined 
with rich silk of the colour of the lining 
of the hood of the graduate's degree.' 

After all the numerous changes, how- 
ever, in the foi'm, material, colour, or detail 
of ornament, of the gown as an academic 
robe, it remains that the hood is the most 
salient and distinguishing of all the articles 
recognised in collegiate costume. 

By the fifty-eighth Canon, 1604, of 
the Church of England, it is enacted that 
' such ministers as are graduates shall 
wear upon their surplices such hoods as, 
by the orders of the universities, are 
agreeable to their degrees, which no 
minister shall wear (being no graduate) 
under pain of suspension. ISTotwithstand- 
ing, it shall be lawful for such ministers 
as are not graduates to wear upon their 
surplices, instead of hoods, some decent 
tippet of black, so it be not silk.' Much 



UNIVERSITY ROBES- UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS 



487 



has been said, at various times, both for 
and against the hoods or tippets of the 
theological colleges in England. On the 
one hand it has been argued that the 
Canon just quoted permits only graduates 
to wear any kind of a hood over their 
surplices, and restricts all non-graduates 
alike to a plain stuff black tippet. It is 
replied, on the other hand, that the Canon 
was framed before theological colleges 
were contemplated, and that it cannot 
apply, therefore, to these recognised insti- 
tutions for training candidates for holy 
orders. Besides, it has been said that a 
distinguishing mark, even a coloured lin- 
ing to the ' decent tippet of black,' is no 
infringement of the Canon. On these 
grounds some of the theological colleges 
have for years adopted a coloured lining 
or edging to their hoods, in more than 
one case with the express permission of 
the Archbishop of Canterbury at the time 
it was introduced. In allusion to this 
practice Lord Grimthorpe, with an out- 
spokenness which is at least fully flavoured 
by his characteristic jealousy for academi- 
cal and ecclesiastical convenances, says 
that ' sundry theological colleges have 
taken' upon themselves, with some pre- 
tended licences from archbishops, to au- 
thorise their students to wear hoods of 
their own invention. But they are en- 
tirely illegal " ornaments " in church, so 
far as they differ from " a black tippet not 
of silk," which alone is lawful for non- 
graduates, accoixling to Canon 58' (article 
Hood, in Hook's Church Dictionary, 14th 
edit. 1887). 

In accordance, Ave assume, with the 
direction of the Canon, however, it has 
been authoritatively recommended — as 
by the Upper House of Convocation of 
the province of Canterbury, in February, 
1882 — that all the Theological Colleges 
of the Church of England should have a 
uniform hood for their non-graduate 
members, to be in substance the same for 
all, and to be, according to the Canon, 
' black, but not of silk ; ' each college, 
however, being at liberty to add to the 
hood a coloured edging, border, or bind- 
ing, by which its own students might be 
distinguished. Some of the theological 
colleges promptly adopted the plan pre- 
scribed in the Resolution of Convocation ; 
but a difficulty in the way of its univer- 
sal acceptance arose from the unwilling- 
ness of such institutions as had formerly 



adopted or possessed a lining for their 
hoods, to relinquish this distinction for a 
narrow border. Nevertheless, at a Con- 
ference of the Principals and Tutors of 
Theological Colleges held at Oxford in the 
month of April following, the Resolution 
was received and confirmed ; so that it 
may be takeii as embodying a duly au- 
thorised custom, and, practically, the law 
on this subject. 

Finally, it is to be recorded that the 
Archbishop of Canterbury has the faculty, 
one of the few relics of his ancient power, 
as official Legate of the Pope, of confer- 
ring degrees in arts, divinity, law, medi- 
cine, and music, upon persons of approved 
and competent merit ; and the holders 
of these distinctions, which are known 
as Lambeth Degrees, wear, by long-esta- 
blished custom, the same gowns and hoods 
as if they had received them from the 
University of the Archbishop conferring 
them. 

■' (Du Cange's Glossarixim ad Scrijitores 
MedicB et Infimce, Lcotinitatis, 1733 j Mr. 
Edmuiid Carter's History of the. Univer- 
sity of Cambridge, 1753 ; Anthony a 
Wood's History and Antiquities of the 
University of Oxford, 1792 ; Mr. F. W, 
Fairholt's Costume in England, 1846 ; 
Rev. Mackenzie E. C. Walcott's Sacred 
Archceology, 1868 ; Mr. J. B. Mullinger's 
University of Cambridge, 1873; Rev. T.W. 
food's Degrees, Goivns, and Hoods, 1883 ; 
Calendars of the Universities of Oxford, 
Cambridge, Durham, London, and Vic- 
toria ; Dublin and the Royal ; St. An- 
drews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Edin- 
burgh ; Windsor (Nova Scotia); New 
Brunswick, Toronto, Trinity College 
(Toronto), Lennoxville, Kingston, and 
McGill (Montreal) ; Sydney, Melbourne, 
and Cape of Good Hope; Calcutta, Madras, 
and Bombay ; and others.) 

ITniversity Scholarships. — In the strict 
sense of the term these are scholarships 
(prizes in money paid for one or more 
years) open to all members of the univer- 
sities, including scholars of colleges who 
have not exceeded a certain number of 
terms. Thus the Hertford Scholarship at 
Oxford, and the Bell University Scholar- 
ship at Cambridge, are 'blue ribbons.' Par- 
ticulars will be found in the University 
Calendars. Special subjects, which change 
annually, are periodically announced in the 
Oxford University Gazette and the Cam- 
bridge Reporter. Information is given 



488 



UNIVERSITY SCHOLARSHIPS FOR WOMEN 



by the registrars or the proctors. A 
scholarship at a university is generally 
understood to mean an entrance scholar- 
ship at one of the colleges. Men may of 
course obtain scholarships after they have 
matriculated as commoners, but few do. 
School scholarships, or exhibitions, do not 
entitle the holder to wear a scholar's 
gown. Each college has its own time 
and system for election to scholarships; 
but it is now very usual for several to 
combine in one examination. In this 
case the candidate has. to state his order 
of preference. The dates and subjects do 
not vary much. The limit of age is gene- 
rally nineteen ; but some scholarships are 
quite open. There are usually no restric- 
tions as to creed or colour. Scholarships 
are rarely worth more than 80/. for four 
years. All lOOZ. scholarships, except those 
at Hertford College, and a few special 
ones, were cut down at Oxford by the last 
Commission. It is usual to re-elect after 
the first two years. At Cambridge scholars 
are oftener elected with a lower sum than 
SOI., but this is increased after subsequent 
examinations. There are a few worth 
100/. for seven years at Cambridge. Most 
scholarships there are for mathematics and 
natural science ; but this preponderance is 
not so marked as that for classics at Oxford. 
There are about five hundred scholars in 
residence at one time at Oxford. About 
one hundred and twenty are elected an- 
nually, and about the odd twenty are 
elected for proficiency in science, mathe- 
matics, or modern history. Some only of 
the colleges give science scholarships. A 
few depend upon the local or joint-board 
examinations. A scholar is generally ex- 
pected to begin residence in the Michaelmas 
term. Some men have been able to live 
on their scholarships, but this is not usually 
the case. Others have been known to 
live on 60Z. a year as non-collegiate stu- 
dents. The controversy as to what a man 
may live on is obviously a complex one. 
In a college, it is certainly nearer 120/. 
than 80/. Boys who think of going to the 
universities should consult their masters 
in good time. Parents who wish their 
sons to take up non-classicalsubjects should 
satisfy themselves that the school has a 
really good 'modern side,' or much time 
will be wasted. In selecting a school they 
should ascertain whether the school has 
any scholarships attached (see Cassell's 
Educational Year-Booh). The general par- 



ticulars about scholarships will be found 
in the calendars of the respective univer- 
sities, e.g. Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Aberdeen, St. Andrews, London, Vic- 
toria University, &c. For Oxford or Cam- 
bridge it is best to consult The Student's 
Guide (Cambridge; G-. Bell & Co., London, 
2s. 6c^.), or The Student's Handbook (Ox- 
ford: Clarendon Press; London: Fi-oude, 
Amen Corner, E.C., 2s. 6c/.) They con- 
tain outlines of all the university courses. 
New editions appear at intervals. The 
Entrance Scholarship papers at Cambridge 
are annually published with others in 
Palmer's Cambridge University General 
Alnia7iack and Register (London: 32 Little 
Queen St., E.C._, 3s. 6d net). The best 
general account is in Dr. Pott's Cambridge 
Scholarshijjs and Examinations (Long- 
mans, 1883). This explains the ways of the 
different colleges. There are no exactly 
similar books at Oxford. Information 
and specimen papers are given by the 
senior tutors of the different colleges. The 
conditions of examination are advertised 
months beforehand in the Oxford Univer- 
sity Gazette. There is a handy manual 
on Classical Scholarshijjs, published by 
J. Thornton, Oxford, price 3s. 6d. A series 
of 'guides' to the different schools in the 
university is also appearing. Candidates 
on coming up are usually assigned rooms 
in college by coui'tesy ; but sometimes they 
have to find lodgings. (See Scholarships 
and Bursaries.) 

University Scholarships for Women 
are awarded partly on the results of the 
higher examinations, and partly by exa- 
minations at Cambridge and Oxford. A 
good general idea of conditions and possi- 
bilities is given in chapters x. to xii. of 
Pascoe's Schools for Girls, and Colleges 
for Women (Hardwicke & Bogue, 1879, 
3s. Qd.). Those likely to go to Cambridge 
should write to the mistress or secretary 
of Girton College, or the lady principal 
of Newnham College. At Oxford, to the 
lady principals of Lady Margaret Hall, 
Somerville Hall, or St. Hugh's Hall. The 
average value of scholarships at Lady 
Margaret Hall is 35/. yearly for three 
years ; the Hall fees are 75/. yearly, with 
from 15/. for lecture fees. At St. Hugh's, 
from 45/., exclusive of lecture fees. (See 
Scholarships.) There are also scholar- 
ships and degrees for women at London 
University. Residence in a college is not 
always necessary; the chief ones in London 



USHER UTILITARIANISM 



489 



areQaeen's College, 43 Harley Street, W.; 
Bedford College, 8 York Place, Baker 
Street, W.; North London College, San- 
dall Road, Camden Road, N.W. There 
ure other ladies' colleges, as the Crystal 
Palace, Twickenham (St. Margaret's Ptoyal 
Naval Female School), Cheltenham (Miss 
Beale), Exeter (Miss Hall), Hastings (Miss 
Eaton), Jersey (Miss Roberts), Guernsey 
{Miss Gilbert), and the new palatial Royal 
Hollo way College (for those over eighteen), 
Egham, Surrey (Miss Bishop). The various 
high schools, the Girls' Public Day Schools 
(Office : 21 Queen Ann's Gate, London, 
S.W.), Church Schools Company (Office: 2 
Dean's Yard, Westminster, S.W.), usually 
afford the best preliminary training for uni- 
versity scholarships for women. They sub- 
sequently utilise the invaluable provincial 
colleges (q.v.) at Birmingham, Bristol, 
Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester (Owens Col- 
lege, Women's Department, 223 Brunswick 
Street), Nottingham, Sheffield, Aberyst- 
with, Bangoi", Cardiff, Dundee, &c. Medi- 
cal scholarships for women are also avail- 
able. The S.P.C.K. (Northumberland 
Avenue, London, W.C.) offers scholarships 
of 7dl. or less for four years under cei^tain 
conditions of going abroad. Scholarships 
are sometimes provided under the auspices 
of local associations, about which the girl- 
student should make inquiry. In most 
cases the secretary of the Teachers' Guild 
(14 Buckingham Street, Strand, W.C.) 
woukl be able to give addresses of local 
correspondents and other information. 
The local secretaries of the Higher Ex- 
aminations and the University Extension 
(q.v.) Lectures should also, if necessary, be 
addressed. 

Usher. — This word means literally 
' a doorkeeper,' or one who introduces 
strangers. Even as late as the middle of 
the seventeenth century it was not an 
uncommon thing for a head-master of a 
school, especially in a country district, to 
have no assistant. When he was allowed 
or could afford one, this assistant teacher 
was called an usher. Later the term was 
only applied to the junior assistant in a 
school, and later still to the poorly-paid 
assistants of j^rivate schools. The term, 
which had thus acquired a contemptuous 
meaning, has now almost entirely disap- 
peared from use in English schools. It 
still, however, in the older seiise, lingers on 
in courts of law. 

Utilitarianism.— The influence of the 



principles known severally as Utilita- 
rianism and Rationalism upon systems 
and methods of education is so nearly 
identical, that these names for two streams 
of tendency may be taken for the purpose 
of this article as very nearly convertible. 
It will add to ease and lightness of move- 
ment, therefore, and to economy of ex- 
pression, if in the following remarks the 
more particular Utilitarianism is gene- 
rally assumed to be included in the more 
comprehensive Rationalism, and is scarcely 
ever found to demand a separate and 
nominal mention. A formal definition of 
Utilitarianism may on this account be 
dispensed with ; whilst of Rationalism it 
may be said that it is a spirit, tendency, 
principle, or system, which characteristic- 
ally refers every subject of investigation 
to the reason, i-atio, as the canon or cri- 
terion of judgment and authority. In 
religion, it is a certain cast or bias of 
thought, rather than any class of definite 
doctrines or criticisms, which claims for 
the unaided human reason the right of 
deciding matters of faith, and which leads 
men on all occasions to elevate the dic- 
tates of reason and conscience over dog- 
matic theology, and, as a necessary con- 
sequence, greatly to restrict the influence 
of the latter on life and conduct. It pre- 
disposes men, in history, to attribute all 
kinds of phenomena to natural rather 
than to miraculous causes ; in theology, 
to esteem succeeding systems as the ex- 
pressions of the wants and aspirations of 
that religious sentiment which is planted 
in all men ; and in ethics, to regard as 
duties only those of which conscience de- 
clares the obligation. It is an expression 
of that decline of the sense of the mii-acu- 
lous which is assumed to be one of the 
fruits of civilisation ; and its spirit has 
shown itself in an analogous movement 
of secularisation which has passed through 
every department of political and social life. 
Such a word as Rationalism could 
scarcely have escaped the misfortune of 
so many others which not unreadily lend 
themselves to abuse and equivocation. 
As it is incidental to humanity that all 
persons should profess and believe them- 
selves to be rational, and should deprecate 
the holding of any views about religion 
but such as are founded on good reasons, 
it has followed that the terms rationalism 
and rationalist are frequently mere con- 
ventional epithets, originally assumed by 



490 



UTILITARIANISM 



persons who arrogated, severally, for their 
systems and themselves an exceptional 
degree of reasonableness. Fondly de- 
scribed by its friends as ' the grand cha- 
racteristic of modern thought and civili- 
sation,' the original specific application 
of the term Rationalism is to a particular 
phase of Biblical interpretation. Thus, 
whilst it is a universal principle running 
unceasingly through the ages, and already 
ti"aceable, so far as it is to be regarded 
in its relation to Christianity, to almost 
the earliest days of its propagation, it is- 
not to be supposed that the term Ra- 
tionalism is of exclusively recent origin 
either as a word or as expressive of a 
type of scepticism or modified belief. 
Neither was the word, whether in a theo- 
logical or a philosophical sense, an im- 
portation from Germany into England ; 
where, at the time of the Commonwealth, 
there Avas a sect of Rationalists who called 
themselves such exactly on the same 
grounds as their successors have done in 
more recent years. ' The Presbyterian 
and Independent agree well enough to- 
gether. But there is a new sect sprung 
up among them, and these are the Ra- 
tionalists ; and what their reason dictates 
to them in Church and State stands for 
good, until they be convinced with better; 
and that is according as it serves their 
own turns ' [State Papers collected hy 
Edivard Earl of Clarendon, under date 
October 1647). 

The word Rationalism has been used, 
especially in Germany, in various senses; 
and Bretschneider, for instance, whom 
Professor Halm praises as having set on 
foot the best inquiry on this point, says 
that the word Rationalism has been con- 
fused with the word Naturalism, since 
the appearance of the Kantian philosophy, 
and that it was introduced into theology 
by Reinhard and Gabler. In fact, Ra- 
tionalism is at once the antithesis of the 
Naturalism, or simple Deism, which arose 
in the sixteenth century and was spent 
in the seventeenth, and with which it is 
sometimes confounded, and of Super- 
naturalism, which is the formal and literal 
exclusion of Naturalism. 

The spirit of Rationalism is a projec- 
tion and continuation of the spirit of the 
Reformation, and a variety, indeed, of its 
expression — that of a revolt against au- 
thority, with its assertion of the right 
and the peril of private judgment and of 



individual responsibility. It was the pro- 
vince of the Reformation to resist the . 
insolence of the Church in its imposition 
of fetters upon religious opinion ; and 
when, with the abandonment of the tra- 
ditional method, it became necessary to 
ascertain another basis of belief, it was 
in no bad faith that the early German 
Rationalists declared that the evidence 
for Cliristianity was found in its harmo- 
nising with the instincts and the needs of 
the soul. In the Protestant system the 
supremacy and the appeal were trans- 
ferred from the Church to the Bible ; 
against the authority of which the spirit 
of Rationalism, once docile, tractable, and 
amenable, came in time to rebel, as au- 
thority based on claims to insiDiration 
which were not unimpeachable, and which 
might be attacked more unerringly than 
they could be defended. 

A survey of the course of English 
theology during the eighteenth century 
would readily reveal the circumstance 
that throughout all discussions, under- 
neath all controversies, and common to 
all parties, lies the assumption of the 
supremacy of reason in matters of reli- 
gion. Whilst the history of the term 
Rationalism is confessedly hard to trace, 
the first technical use of the adjective 
rational, to express a school of philosophy, 
seems to have taken place early in the 
seventeenth century. Into this use it 
had probably passed out of the old sense 
of dialectical. Sir Thomas North, the 
translator. of Plutarch's Lives, says, in his 
life of Plutarch, that ' Morall Philosophy 
was his chiefest end : for the Rational!, 
the Naturall, and Mathematicks {the 
which he had greatly studied), they were 
but simple pastimes in comparison with 
the other.' An occurrence of the word 
Rationalist in the Apophtlieginis of Lord 
Bacon throws light upon its fortunes 
and significance : — ' He likewise often 
used this comparison ; the Empirical 
philosophers are like to pismires ; they 
only lay up and use their store. The 
Rationalists are like to spiders ; they 
spin all out of their own bowels. But 
give me a philosopher, who like the bee, 
hath amiddle faculty, gathering far abroad, 
but digesting that which is gathered by 
his own virtue.' About the same time 
the Aristotelian Humanists of Helmstedt 
were called Rationalists ; and later in 
the century Amos Comenius applied the 



UTILITARIANISM 



491 



term, also in a depreciatory sense, to the 
Socinians. The treatise of Locke, who is 
sometimes called the Father of English 
Rationalism, on the Reasonableness of 
Christianity, caused Christians and Deists 
to appropriate the term, and to restrict 
it to religion. Thus by Waterland's 
time it had acquired the meaning of false 
reasoning on religion. ' All such claims,' 
says Waterland, in a Charge delivered in 
1731, and published under the title of 
Tlie Wisdom of the Ancients borroived /o'om 
Divine Revelation; or, Christianity vin- 
dicated against Infidelity — ' All such 
claims brought to exclude Scripture are 
enthusiastic and fanatical, false and vain. 
But some persons may ask, can those 
then be enthusiasts, who profess to follow 
reason 1 Yes, undoubtedly, if by reason 
they mean only conceits. Therefore such 
persons are now commonly called reccson- 
ists and ratiooialists, to distinguish them 
from true reasoners or rational inquirers. 
For their great fault is that they will 
not suffer reason to have its free course 
or full exercise, nor allow it sufficient 
light. Reason desires and requires all 
useful notices, and all the friendly inti- 
onations that can be procured : but these 
her most insidious adversaries, under a 
false plea of sufficiency, confine her to 
short measures, and shut up the avenues 
of improvement.' 

Passing into Germany, Rationalism ap- 
pears to have become the common name 
to express philosophical views of religion, 
as opposed to supernatural, in which sense 
it is ascertained to have been used so early 
as 1708. The name has often been appro- 
priated to the Kantian, or critical philo- 
sophy, in which Rationalism was distin- 
guished from that variety of so-called 
Naturalism which maintained the sufii- 
ciency of natural religion to the discredit 
of revelation. During the period when 
Rationalism was predominant as a method 
in German theology, the meaning and 
limits of the term were freely discussed — 
a period which may be taken as occu- 
pying the interval when the Wolffian 
philosophy had given place to the Kantian, 
and the philosophy of Fichte and Jacobi 
had not yet produced the revival under 
Schleiermacher. This form of Rationalism 
also continued to exist during the lifetime 
of its adherents, contemporaneously with 
the new influence created by Schleier- 
macher. The discussion was not a verbal 



one only, but was intimately connected 
with facts. The rationalist theologians 
wished to define clearly their own position, 
as opposed, on the one hand, to deists and 
naturalists, and on the other to super- 
naturalists. The result of the discussion 
seems to show two kinds of Supernatural- 
ists, the Biblical and the Philosophical ; 
and two kinds of Rationalists, the Super- 
natural Rationalists, like Bretschneider, 
who held, on the evidence of reason, the 
necessity of a revelation, but required its 
accordance with reason, when communi- 
cated ; and the pure Rationalists, like 
Wegscheider, Rohr, and Paulus, who held 
the sufficiency of reason, and, while ad- 
mitting revelation as a fact, regarded it as 
the republication of the religion of nature. 
This Rationalism stands distinguished from 
Naturalism, that is, from philosophical 
naturalism, or deism, by having reference 
to the Christian religion and Church ; but 
it difiers from Supernaturalism, in that 
reason, not Scripture, is its formal prin- 
ciple, or test of truth ; and virtue, instead 
of ' faith w"orking by love,' is its material 
principle, or fundamental doctrine. 

The sources and the forces of the 
Rationalism which found its typical arena 
in Germany were various, and were to a 
great extent of alien origin. The deism 
of England, as pointed out by Bishop 
Hurst, the leading American historian of 
Rationalism, one of the most polished and 
powerful of all forms of free thought, was 
industriously propagated in Germany, 
^\^here the works of Lord Herbert, Hobbes, 
Shaftesbury, Tyndal, Woolston, and Wol- 
laston were widely circulated amongst the 
people in their own vernacular. ' In Hol- 
land,' says Dr. Hurst, ' the philosophy of 
Descartes and Spinoza was very powerful, 
and its influence was very decided east of 
the Rhine, particularly in the universities 
of Germany. The pantheism of Spinoza 
was very attractive to many minds, and 
was regarded as a welcome relief from 
the cold and heartless banishment of God 
from His own creation. France, however, 
was the chief foreign country which contri- 
buted to the rise and sway of German Ra- 
tionalism. The influence of Voltaire and 
the Encyclopaedists was very great, and 
Berlin became as much a home to these 
men as Paris had ever been. The domestic 
causes were, first of all, the philosophy of 
Leibnitz, popularised and simplified by 
Wolff at Halle University ; the destructive 



492 



UTILITARIANISM 



theology of Semler ; the influence of the 
sceptical court of Frederick the Great, 
with its French surroundings ; the Wol- 
fe iihilff el Fragments, published by Lessing, 
nnd the Universal Gennati Librari/, issued 
by Kicolai. Rationalism was in the as- 
cendant in Germany from 1750 to 1800, 
but with the beginning of the new century 
it began to lose its hold upon the best 
minds. Schleiermacher was the transi- 
tional theologian from the old rationalistic 
to the new evangelical faith of Protestant 
Germany. His Discourses on Religion 
diverted public attention from the ration- 
jilistic criticism to the necessity of feeling 
-and a sense of dependence on God. Jacobi 
was really the first to introduce the sense 
of dependence into the domain of religious 
philosophy, but Schleiermacher was the 
first to apply it to the man of general cul- 
ture. Neander, the Church historian, was 
the first positive theologian of tlie so-called 
■"mediatory " school. His historical works 
breathe a fervent and devout spirit, at 
the same time that they evince the pro- 
found scholarship of the original student. 
In 1835 a new impulse was givei^ to 
rationalistic criticism by Sti'auss's Life of 
Jesus — a work proceeding directly from 
the Hegelian school. It advocated the 
mythical origin of the Gospels. This work 
was promptly replied to by ISTeander, Ull- 
mann, Tholuck, and many other represen- 
tatives of evangelical thought. The most 
recent phase of rationalistic thought is 
■materialistic. The views of Biichner, Carl 
"Vogt, Moleschott, and others, have gained 
TX wide influence. Evangelical theology is, 
'however, in the ascendant again in most 
of the German universities. The Broad 
'Church of England, represented by Mat- 
theAv Arnold and others, has aflinities with 
the Rationalism of Germany.' 

Thus it is seen, as has, indeed, already 
5jeen indicated, that the Kantian philo- 
sophy did but bring forward into light, 
imparting to it at the same time a scientific 
form and recognised position, a principle 
which had long unconsciously guided all 
treatment of religious topics both in Ger- 
many and in England. Rationalism was 
■not an anti-Christian sect outside the 
'Church, making war against religion ; it 
was rather a habit of thought ruling all 
minds under the conditions of which all 
alike tried to make good the particular 
opinions they might happen to cherish. 
The principle and the priority of natural 



religion formed the common hypothesis, 
on the ground of which the disputants 
as to whether certain given doctrines or 
miracles were conformable to reason or 
not, argued Avhether anything, and what, 
had been subsequently communicated to 
mankind in a supernatural manner. It is 
ditficult to fix the position of persons in 
the very act of oscillating between the 
exti-emes of the too-much and the too- 
little of faith, between superstition and 
unbelief ; and no classification could be 
regarded as infallible. Hardly one liere 
and there, as Dr. Newman charges Hume 
with having done, ' avowed the principle 
of Rationalism in its extent of Atheism ; ' 
whilst the great majority of writers were 
employed in constructing a via media 
between Atheism and Athanasianism, the 
more orthodox of them being diligently 
employed in hewing and chiselling the 
Christian dispensation into an intelligible 
human system, which they ' represented, 
when thus mutilated, as affording a re- 
markable evidence of the truth of the 
Bible, an evidence level to the reason, and 
superseding the testimony of the Apostles ' 
{Tracts for the Times, No. 73. On the 
Tntrochiction of Jiationalistic P7'inciples 
into Religion). The title of Locke's cele- 
brated treatise on the Reasonableness of 
Cliristianity may be said to have been 
the solitary thesis of Christian theology 
in England for great part of a century. 

If we are to put chronological limits 
to this system of religious opinion in 
England, we might, for the sake of a 
convenient landmai'k, say that it came in 
with the Revolution of 1688, and began 
to decline in vigour with the reaction 
against the Reform movement about 1830. 
Locke's first publication of his Reasonable- 
ness of Christianity, 1695, would thus 
approximately open, and the commence- 
ment of the issue of the Tracts for the 
Times, 1833, thus approximately mark 
the fall of, the regime of Rationalism. 
' Not that chronology,' as the Rev. Mark 
Pattison has pointed out, 'can ever be 
exactly applied to the mutations of opinion; 
for there were Rationalists before Locke, — 
e.g. Hales of Eton, and other Arminians ; 
nor has the Church of England unani- 
mously adopted the principles of the Tracts 
for the Times. But, if we were to follow 
up Cave's nomenclature, the appellation 
seculumrationalisticum might be affixed to 
the eighteenth century with greater pre- 



UTILITARIANISM 



49S 



cision than many of his names apply to 
the previous centuries : for it was not 
merely that Rationalism then obtruded 
itself as a heresy, or obtained a footing 
of toleration within the Church ; but the 
rationalising method possessed itself abso- 
lutely of the whole field of theology. With 
some trifling exceptions, religious literature 
was drawn into the endeavour to " prove 
the truth " of Christianity. Every one who 
had anything to say on sacred subjects 
drilled it into an array of argument against 
a supposed objector. Christianity appeared 
to be made for nothing else but to be 
" proved" : what use to make of it when it 
was proved was not much thought about. 
Reason was at first offered as the basis 
of faith, but gradually became its substi- 
tute. The mind never advanced as far as 
the stage of belief ; for it was unceasingly 
engaged in reasoning up to it. The only 
quality in Scripture which was dwelt upon 
was its "credibility." Even the "Evange- 
lical " school, which had its origin in a 
reaction against the dominant Rationalism, 
and began in endeavours to kindle religious 
feeling, was obliged to succumb at last. 
It, too, drew out its rational " scheme of 
Christianity," in which the Atonement was 
made the central point of a system, and 
the death of Christ was accounted for as 
necessary to satisfy the Divine Justice.' 

It is when it is found as a dominating 
factor in theology that the profoundest 
and most momentous significance attaches 
to the action of the spirit of Rationalism ; 
a significance which, for the jDurpose of 
this article, is intensified when Rational- 
ism determines the quality of the religious 
truths and systems in which the young 
are to be instructed, and the methods by 
which their education is to be ruled and 
accomplished. Contemporaneously with 
the series and succession of literary in- 
fluences which were the soul of the power 
and prestige of Rationalism, and which 
may be said to have culminated with the 
constellation of genius that has illustrated 
for ever the otherwise humble archives 
of Weimar, there was a gradual trans- 
formation of the training and instruction 
of the youth of Germany, the saturation 
of whose minds with doubt seemed all 
that was needed to complete the sove- 
reignty of scepticism. 

Two leaders in this movement are 
entitled to special attention, Basedow 
and Nicolai, the former eminent as an 



innovator in the depai'tment of education^ 
and the other in that of periodical and 
popular literature. The education of 
youth and the periodical popular press, 
are both agents on whose relation to the 
Church much is dependent ; and at the- 
time in question ' the school,' in tlie wordis. 
of Dr. K. R. Hagenbach, ' stood under 
the sceptre of the Church, and periodical 
literature under a censorship. But now 
began a change : education claimed to be- 
independent of the fostering care of the 
Church, and a broad current of literature- 
spread over a domain of life which had 
hitherto been familiar only with the Bible, 
a few books of devotion, and some scanty 
and barren facts of science. The new 
educational system and the new popular- 
philosophy played into each other's handSj, 
and contested the right of the Church to- 
be the only instructor of youth, the only 
guardian of the people. Not content with 
that, after they had gained an indepen- 
dent existence, they turned their united 
forces against the Church. The ancient 
edifice, with its Gothic towers and windows,, 
with its gloomy aisles and monuments,, 
seemed to be no longer a fitting place for 
the instruction of light-hearted childhood ;. 
the church must become a cheerful school- 
room, the quaintly carved pulpit, with its 
stone staircase, must be transformed into 
the awkward desk. It would be hard to 
say whether this great change would 
more fitly call out the song of triumph o£ 
one, the elegy of another, or the satire of 
still a third. For my own part, I con- 
sider it a matter alike worthy of joy and 
of sorrow, and to treat it thus is the duty 
of the impartial historian.' 

It will not now be disputed that there 
were serious defects in the educational 
system of the time ; and that a great' 
reform in education was needed. The 
Latin schools instituted by Melanchthon 
were still in existence, but they had be- 
come mere machines. Children were com- 
pelled to learn by heart particulars the 
least interesting. The most useless exer- 
cises were elevated into great importance ; 
and years were spent in the study of 
many branches that could be of no pos- 
sible benefit either for tlie handicrafts 
or the professions. The primary schools 
were equally defective. There was no 
such thing as tlie pleasant, developing 
influence of the mature over the youthful 
mind. The religious education of youth, 



494 



UTILITARIANISM 



to instance a general statement in one 
vital particular, had been narrowed down 
to the mere committal of the catechism 
to memory, and the crowding of the mind 
with Biblical and theological details which 
Avere admirably calculated to remain un- 
digested in their primary receptacle, and 
utterly without assimilation with the in- 
tellectual life into the overladen organ- 
isms of which they were intruded. There 
was little in the educational field of Ger- 
many from which good could be expected. 
Up to the time of the eighteenth century, 
there was no true science of education. 
What, hitherto, had been left to nature, 
to habit, and to traditional prejudices, 
had to be corrected and raised to the 
place and dignity of an art. Good ele- 
ments had to be reduced to laws, and 
evil elements had to be excluded. It was 
necessary to regard man as a whole, as 
truly man ; and his education was in- 
complete if it did not involve or attain a 
symmetrical development of body, mind, 
and soul. It was a noble task, but a diffi- 
cult one — one to whose accomplishment 
the rapid years of a single century, what- 
ever its degree of enlightenment might 
be, was all unequal. 

Certainly such a process, as pointed 
out by Dr. Hagenbach, could not be 
effected ' without deadly offence to every 
conservative influence of society ; and as 
the goal of every educational process is 
religious development, it is not to be 
wondered at that this new movement 
produced instant strife with the theolo- 
gians — for the ground pi'inciples of edu- 
cation ai-e connected in the most intimate 
manner with tlie views wliich are taken 
of the nature of man. Whoever adopts 
the old doctrine of human depravity 
must insist on education as a process 
from without, inward. Its work must 
be to break the natural will, as if it were 
a hard and petrified thing, and to do it, 
if need be, by the sternest measures. The 
historical and doctrinal elements of Chris- 
tianity, according to this view, cannot be 
too early impressed upon the sou.1 of the 
child, and it is of prime importance that 
they be held as an imperishable possession. 
Whoever, on the other hand, adopted the 
new ideas which began largely to prevail, re- 
garded human nature as a germinating seed 
in which a good and noble impulse dwells, 
and requiring only fostering care, the edu- 
cational process going on from within, out- 



ward. Religion was not only to be cai'ried 
into the soul of the child, but was also to 
be drawn from that soul, and only so much 
was to be carried in as was adapted to its 
immature grasp, and to the necessity of 
adequate inward stimulus. Very speedy, 
however, was the transition from one ex- 
treme to the other, from the denial of 
human sensibility to goodness, to the de- 
nial of sin and a fallen nature ; from an 
overestimate of historical and positive 
Christianity, to an underestimate of the 
same. Then came another change. The 
old educational system had borrowed much 
from the Church ; to promote the interests 
of the Church was its great end. A large 
proportion of all the studies of the gym- 
nasium and the university looked towards 
theology and the clerical profession — hence 
the value laid on the ancient languages ; 
but the modernised educational scheme 
aimed at educating men for the world and 
for practical life. For what use, tlien, it 
was said, are the ancient languages and 
ancient history 1 Even men of the most 
rigid orthodoxy, like Frederick William I., 
expressed themselves against the study of 
Latin; and further, even Thomasius had 
declared the uselessness of it for those who 
were not students by profession. Thus 
education was transferred from a narrow 
ecclesiastical field to broad cosmopolitan 
ground, from a positive Christian basis to 
a so-called philanthropic one. Rousseau 
had given a great impulse to this move- 
ment by the publication of his Emile. 
Basedow was his interpreter and advocate 
in Germany. To Basedow succeeded Saltz- 
mann and Campe ; to them the more 
noble and reliable Pestalozzi.' 

The great tendency of the Rationalistic 
movement was to refer everything to the 
standard of practical utility, under the 
influence of which the homiletics of the 
day exhibited a reaction against the stiff 
and formal presentation of mere doctrine, 
and in favour of the inculcation of simple 
ethical practices and principles. The pul- 
pit became moral, benevolent, beneficent, 
philanthropic, and, withal, characteristic- 
ally secular, the vehicle for the dissemi- 
nation of little more than that kind of 
instruction which tended to make people 
happy in this world, honourable and use- 
ful as citizens, dutiful as children, obe- 
dient as servants, dignified and paternal 
as heads of families. To the prophets 
and interpreters of utility, the interests 



UTILITARIANISM 



495 



of the heart and the emotional nature 
■were the amiable disguise of a foolish and 
goalless fanaticism. All thought of the 
supernatural and of the unseen world 
was evaded, or crowded to one side, if, 
indeed, it were not alternatively confronted 
as being antagonistic to popular elevation 
and enlightenment. Sermons were every- 
where preached which were conversant 
about such subjects as the care of the 
health, the necessity of industry, the ad- 
vantages of scientific agriculture, the ex- 
pediency of acquiring a competence, the 
correlative duties of superiors and subor- 
dinates, the evil effects of litigation, and, 
not least, the folly and imbecility of super- 
stition of fact or of opinion. The tradi- 
tion is still extant that the season of Christ- 
mas was turned to account to lead up 
from the pathetic story of the Child born 
in a manger to the most approved methods 
of feeding cattle ; and that the appearance 
of Jesus walking in the garden at day- 
break on Easter morning was used to en- 
force the benefits of early rising, and of 
taking a walk before breakfast. ' Not a 
Avord,' Professor Hagenbach records, ' was 
heard regarding atonement and faith — sin 
and the judgment — salvation, grace, and 
the kingdom of Christ. A selfish love of 
pleasure, and a selfish theory of life, put a 
selfish system of morals in the place of a 
lofty religion. The old-fashioned system 
of religious service had to be modified and 
adjusted to this new style of preaching, 
which was as clear as water, and as thin 
as water also. Everything symbolical, 
the relation of which to practical life 
was not immediately apparent, was cast 
aside, however instruraental it may have 
been to the edification and growth of 
the soul. The sacraments were an empty 
ceremony ; the festivals of the Christian 
year were unworthy of commemoration ; 
and even the person of Christ was of in- 
different value, provided always that the 
morals of Christianity should be retained.' 
Pestalozzi, the ' schoolmaster of the 
human race,' is currently regarded as 
Avoi'thily occupying the first place on the 
roll of the educational reformers who 
flourished during the meridian strength 
of the Rationalistic movement ; in common 
with whose a,dherents he believed in man's 
natural goodness, and maintained that true 
education consists not so much in the in- 
tision or incorporation of what is foreign 
iQ the nature or character of the child, as 



in evolving or educing what is native and 
inherent in the same. But he warmly 
advocated an early acquaintance with the 
Bible, and held the history of Christ to be 
an indispensable ingredient in the training 
of the youthful mind. But while Pesta- 
lozzi and a few others of a kindred spirit 
were contributing by their writings and 
their practical energies to the improvement 
of the. youth of Germany, there sprang up 
a large class of writers whose morbid and 
multitudinous productions are described as 
having been as plentiful as autumn leaves. 
Some of these wei'e sentimental, having 
imbibed their spirit from Siegwart, La 
Nouvelle Heloise,dun^ similar works. Their 
influence worked in the direction of con- 
verting young men and women into mere 
dreamers, and children of eveiy social 
condition were unwholesomely forced into 
becoming pi-ecocious and portentous specu- 
lators about love, romance, and suicide. 
'Whoever could wieldapen,'says Dr. Hurst, 
'■thought himself fit to write a book for 
children. There has never been a period 
in the whole current of history when the 
youthful mind was more thoroughly and 
suddenly revolutionised. The result was 
very disastrous. Education, in its true 
import, was no longer pursued, and the 
books most read were of such nature 
as to destroy all fondness for the study 
of the Bible, all careful preparation for 
meeting the gi'eat duties of coming ma- 
turity, and every impression of man's in- 
capacity for the achievement of his own 
salvation. 

' The teachers in the common institu- 
tions of learning having now become im- 
bued with serious doubts concerning the 
divine authority of the Scriptures, their 
pupils suffered keenly from the same 
blight. In many schools and gymnasia 
miracles were treated with contempt. Epi- 
tomes of the Scriptures on a philosophical 
plan were introduced. Ammon, in one of 
his works, tells the young people that 
the books of the Old Testament have no 
divine worth or character for us, except 
so far as they agree with the spirit of the 
Gospel. As to the New Testament, much 
must be figuratively understood, since 
many things have no immediate relation 
to our times. Christ is a mere man. 
Dinter was a voluminous writer on theo- 
logical subjects, and in his books tells 
children of imperfect notions of former 
times as to God, angels, and miracles. 



496 



UTILITARIANISM 



He gives teachers directions liow to con- 
duct themselves cleverly in such matters, 
and afterwards, in agreement with the 
pi-inciples he recommends, he lays down 
plans of catechising. For example, there 
are to be two ways of catechising about 
Jonah ; one before an audience not suffi- 
ciently enlightened, and Avhere all remains 
in its old state ; another for places which 
have more light. In the pi'ophecies con- 
cerning the Messiah, a double explanation 
is given for the same reason. One is the 
old orthodox way, the other a more prob- 
able neological plan. A clever teacher is 
to choose for himself ; a dull one may ask 
the parish clergyman how far he may go.' 
The crusade instituted by Rationalism 
against sentiment and the emotions in 
religion, no less than against the dogmatic 
in theology and the miraculous in the 
evangelic history, at length took the par- 
ticular form of an attack, which was too 
often an outrage, upon the affluent hym- 
nology of German Protestantism. This 
aggregate of hymns, some eighty thousand 
in number, and comprising some of the 
finest sacred lyrics extant in any language, 
were altered or distorted into scientific 
precision, decorum, and sterility ; and 
everything that savoured of inspiration, 
or of any of the once vital doctrines which 
had been already rejected from prose lite- 
rature, was as nearly as possible oblite- 
rated. Every element of fancy, every 
appeal to sacred passion, every trace of 
Oi'ienta.l imagery, was excluded from the 
various collections of hymns, which were 
so modified or so composed that congre- 
gations might sing pure and undiluted 
Rationalism. Good common sense was 
the nearest approach to the divine afflatus 
which the hymnographers or the hymn- 
manipulators of Rationalism sought after 
— an excellent quality in its place, but 
not pre-eminently the quality appropriate 
to worshippers who are supposed periodi- 
cally to anticipate in the devotion of the 
earthly courts the ecstatic service of the 
heavenly temple. The meagreness of the 
old hymnology, as the Rationalists under- 
stood it, was supplemented by hymns of 
their own production on such themes as 
a good use of time, on friendship, on thrift, 
frugality, and moderation. The carol, 
which had heretofore been a soaring and 
cloud-dividing song, was so maimed and 
mutilated as scarcely to flutter above the 
srround. The music shared the fate of the 



hymns which it accompanied. From the 
most venerable melodies all suggestion of 
sentiment, all idea of sublimity or solem- 
nity, was pui'posely extracted. Secular 
music was introduced into the sanctuary ; 
an operatic overture played the congrega- 
tion into church, and a march or a waltz 
dismissed them. Sacred music was no 
longer cultivated as an element of devotion ; 
the masses of the people began to sing 
less, and the period of coldest scepticism 
in Germany, as in other lands under simi- 
lar conditions, was the period when the 
congregations sang least, with the , least 
earnestness, and with no enthusiasm. 

But educational Rationalism, or Ra- . 
tionalism as expressed in systems or me- 
thods of education, besides its religious 
ancestry, has also a secular and philoso- 
phical succession. In this connection the 
fomnal origin of modern European Ra- 
tionalism has been regarded as approxi- 
mately coincident with the first publication 
of the Essais of Montaigne in 1580. It 
was Montaigne who raised the earliest 
articulate protest against the pedantry 
into which, as if by a necessity of their, 
organisation, the schools of his time, 
whether those of the older Church or of 
the Reformation, had degenerated. Mon- 
taigne was the advocate of common sense 
in the direction of practice rather than 
theory, of wisdom as contradistinguished 
from learning; of a general or liberal, 
rather than a professional or technical 
type of education, Avith a tendency to the 
secular as a reaction against what had 
been almost exclusively ethical and reli- 
gious ; of informal instruction from natu- 
ral objects, and of first-hand observation 
and knowledge, as against the formal 
didactic instruction out of books, the 
result of which was knowledge at second- 
hand only ; of the conception of education 
as a process of growth rather than of manu- 
facture ; of teaching whose purpose should 
be, not the aggregation of unordered facts, 
but the formation and training of cha- 
racter ; and of a comparatively mild and 
humane discipline in substitution for a 
rule that was harsh and repellent, with 
the consequence, involved in the former, 
of the substitution of a finer code of con- 
duct and civility for the antecedent rude- 
ness and coarseness of manners and dis- 
position. He conceived of the ideal tutor 
as one gifted to draw out the pupil's own 
power and originality, to teach how to live 



UTILITARIANISM 



497 



well and to die well, to enf oi'ce a lesson by- 
practice and example, to put the mother 
tongue before foreign languages, to teach 
all manly exercises — in short, to educate 
the perfect man. He deprecated force 
and compulsion, and he denounced severity 
and the rod. ' Notwithstanding some 
^rave defects,' Dr. Compayre concludes 
that ' the pedagogy of Montaigne is a 
pedagogy of good sense, certain parts of 
■which will always deserve to be admired. 
The Jansenists, Locke, and Rousseau, in 
<lifferent degrees, drew their inspiration 
from Montaigne. In his own time, it is 
true, his ideas were accepted by scai'cely 
any one save his disciple Charron, who, in 
his treatise, Be la Sagesse, 1595, has done 
little or nothing more than distribute in 
methodiccxl order the thoughts scattered 
throughout the Essais. But if he had no 
influence on his own age, Montaigne has 
at least remained, after three centuries, a 
sure guide in the matter of intellectual 
■education.' 

More than a hundred years after Rous- 
seau, John Locke, whose name may be 
cited in brilliant illustration of the facility 
of the transition from philosophy to edu- 
cation, made a still more powerful and 
■systematic attack upon useless knowledge. 
His work, entitled Some Tltougltts Co7i- 
cerning Education, 1693, has enjoyed a 
universal acceptance and success ; and the 
hearty and discriminating praise of Leib- 
nitz placed it above another and more 
celebrated treatise of the same author, 
published three years before, under the 
title of an Essay Concerning Human 
Understanding, 1690. Locke sets before 
himself the production of the man ; and 
the desiderated result of education as the 
-ensuring of a sound mind in a sound body. 
' He recommends home education,' in the 
Avords of Mr. Oscar Browning, ' without 
harshness or severity of discipline. Emu- 
lation is to be the chief spring of action ; 
knowledge is far less valuable than a well- 
trained mind. He prizes that knowledge 
most which fits a man for the duties of 
the world, speaking languages, accounts, 
history, law, rhetoric, natural philosophy. 
He inculcates the importance of drawing, 
dancing, riding, fencing, and trades. The 
part of his advice wliich made most im- 
pression on his contemporaries was the 
teaching of reading and arithmetic by 
well-considered games, the discouragement 
of an undue compulsion and punishment, 



and the teaching of language without the 
drudgery of grammar. In these respects 
he has undoubtedly anticipated modern 
discoveries. He is a strong advocate for 
education under a private tutor, and his 
bitterness against public schools is as vehe- 
ment as that of Cowper.' 

The doctrines of Locke exercised an 
undoubted influence on the educational 
writings and theories of Rousseau, with 
their defiance of convention and their 
social aggression, and on the treatise of 
Claude Adrien Helvetius, entitled De 
V Homme ; de ses Facultes intellectuelles et 
de son Education, 1772. Helvetius pressed 
the characteristic formula of Locke into 
a systematic paradox, which claimed for 
education that it is omnipotent, the sole 
cause of the difi'erence of one mind from 
another. The doctrine of Helvetius is 
the reductio ad absurchtvi of sensation- 
alism. The mind of the child is but an 
empty capacity, something indeterminate, 
without predisposition. The impressions 
of the senses are the only elements of 
intelligence; so that the acquisitions of 
the five senses are the only thing that is 
of moment. The senses are all there is of 
man. 

The name of Rousseau is one of the 
most prominent and suggestive in the en- 
tire hierarchy of Rationalism as applied 
to education ; and there is no book which 
has had more influence on the education 
of later times than his Emile, oil de V Edu- 
cation, which was published in 1762, and 
presently produced an astounding efi"ect 
throughout Europe. The burden of Rous- 
seau's message was nature — such a nature 
as never did and never will exist, but still 
a name for an ideal worthy of human en- 
deavour. ' It is, perhaps, strange,' as 
Mr. Oscar Browning pertinently remarks, 
' that a book in many respects so wild and 
fantastic should have produced so great a 
practical efiect. In pursuance of its pre- 
cepts children went about naked, were 
not allowed to read, and when they grew 
up wore the simplest clothes, and cared 
for little learning except the study of na- 
ture and Plutarch. The catastrophe of 
the Erench Revolution has made the influ- 
ence of Emile less apparent to us. Much 
of the heroism of that time is doubtless 
due to the exaltation produced by the 
sweeping away of abuses, and the approach 
of a brighter age. But we must not forget 
that the first generation of Emile was 

K K 



498 



UTILITARIANISM 



just thirty years old in 1792 ; that many 
of the Girondins, the Marseillais, the sol- 
diers and generals of Carnot and Napoleon, 
liad been bred in that hardy school. Thei'e 
is no more interesting chapter in the his- 
tory of education than the tracing back of 
epochs of special activity to tlie obscure 
source from Avhich they arose. Thus the 
Whigs of the Reform Bill sprang from 
the Avits of Edinburgh, the heroes of the 
Rebellion from the divines who translated 
the Bible, the martyrs of the Revolution 
fi'om the philosophers of the Encyclopaedia.' 
The J'Jm He of Rousseau was the point 
of departure for an awakened interest in 
educational theories which has continued 
to the present day. For thinkers of emi- 
nence during the last hundred years have 
failed to ofter their contributions, either 
of set purpose and directly, or at least 
incidentally, on this subject. Poets like 
Richter, Herder, and Goethe ; philosophers 
such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schleier- 
macher, and Schopenhauer ; psychologists 
such as Herbai-t, Beneke, and Alexander 
Bain ; sociologists like Herbert Spencer, 
not to mention the more obvious names 
of professors of pedagogy, like Payne, 
Meiklejohn, and Laui-ie, have left or pro- 
mulgated directions for our guidance which 
are more or less permeated or influenced 
by that spirit of Rationalism which it is 
hard, if not impossible, to think away 
from any single moment of the unbounded 
future of education. The teaching of 
Rousseau found its pi'actical expression in 
the Philanthropinon of Dessau, a school 
founded by Basedow, the friend of Goethe 
and Lavater, which received the praise of 
the philosopher Kant and of Oberlin the 
clergyman. Basedow, the principles of 
whose instrviction were very niuch those of 
Comenius, which centred in the combina- 
tion of words and things, may be regarded 
as the typical innovator in the direction 
of rationalistic education ; and, glaring as 
his faults may have been, he succeeded 
in effecting radical changes in the entire 
circle of youthful training. Professor 
Max Miiller, who made an interesting pub- 
lic reference to him at Manchester, in 1875, 
in which, with something more than con- 
tent and complacency, he claimed Basedow 
as his ' own afain(s, or, at all events, his 
great-gi\xndfather,' claimed him also as 
' the first reformer of our national educa- 
tion, as the forerunner of Pestalozzi, as 
the first who, during the last century, 



stirred up the conscience of the people of 
Germany and of their rulers, and taught 
them at least this one lesson, that, next to 
the duty of self-preservation, there is no 
higher, no more sacred, duty which a 
nation has to fulfil than national educa- 
tion. . . . Basedow's was a chequered life, 
as the life of all true i-eformers is sure to 
be. Perhaps ho attempted too much, and 
was too much in advance of his time. 
But, whatever his strong and whatever his 
weak points, this one great principle he 
established, and it has remained firmly 
established in the German mind ever since, 
that national education is a national duty, 
that national education is a sacred duty, 
and that to leave national education to 
chance, church, or charity, is a national 
sin. That conviction remained ingrained 
in the German mind even in the days of 
our lowest political degradation ; and it is 
to that conviction, and to the nation acting 
up to that conviction, that Germany owes 
what she is, her very existence among the 
nations of Europe. Another principle 
which followed, in fact, as a matter of 
course, as soon as the first principle was 
granted, Avas this, that in national schools, 
in schools supported by the nation at large, 
you can only teach that on which we all 
agree ; hence, when children belong to dif- 
ferent sects, you cannot teach theology.' 

The torches lighted at Basedow's ilame, 
some of which have burned with a steadier 
and purer light than that of their original 
source of illumination, have been passed 
on from hand to hand and from generation 
to generation. At the present moment 
the typical expression of the i-ationalistic 
spirit, as against precedent in education, 
is to be found in the demand for at least 
the co-ordination generally, and, more 
definitively, in the sphere of academi- 
cal dignity and reward, of the study of 
science and modern laiiguages with the 
cultivation of classical philology and lite- 
rature. Meanwhile the votaries and pro- 
phets of Rationalism, Avith an assurance of 
triumph, anticipate the victories of the 
future on every ai-ena of human thought 
and action, including that of education, 
in which an antagonist hardy enougli to 
oppose it can bo found. Thus one of the 
most powerful and popular exponents of 
Rationalism in this or of any other period 
afiinns that as ' a system which Avould 
unite in one sublime synthesis all the past 
forms of human belief, Avhich accepts with 



UTILITARIANISM 



499 



triumphant aLacrity each new development 
of science, having no stereotyped standard 
to defend, and which represents the liunian 
mind as pursuing on tlie highest subjects 
a path of continued progress towards the 
fullest and most transcendent knowledge 
of the Deity, can never fail to exercise a 
powerful intellectual attraction. A sys- 
tem which makes the moral faculty of 
man the measure and arbiter of faith must 
always act powerfully on tliose in whom 
that faculty is most developed. This idea 
of continued and uninterrupted develop- 
ment is one that seems absolutely to over- 
ride our age. It is scarcely possible to 
open any really able book on any subject 
witliout encountering it in some form. 
It is stirring all science to its veiy depths; 
it is revolutionising all historical literature. 
Its prominence in theology is so great 
that there is scarcely any school that is 
altogether exempt from its influence. We 
have seen in our own day the Church of 
Rome itself defended in An Easay on 
Development, and by a strange application 
of the laws of progress.' 

On the otlier hand, Lord Grimthorpe 
is found delivering a characteristic attack 
upon the Rationalism of the day, and es- 
pecially as it is exemplified in the person 
of a writer who poses as one of the most 
prominent members of its existing hier- 
archy ; and who, in a work entitled Edu- 
cation, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical, 
1861, affirms that education will not be 
definitely systematised till the day when 
science shall be in possession of a rational 
psychology. ' Probably,' says Lord Grim- 
thorpe, in an article on Rationalism, con- 
tributed to the late Dean Hook's Clmrcli 
Dictionary, fourteenth edition, 1887 — 
' Probably tlie most voluminous and, in 
a sense, successful rationalistic author of 
the present day is Mr. Herbert Spencer, 
whose works were said to have reached 
fifteen volumes in the Edinburgh Revieio 
of his First Frincijyles in January 1884. 
It is hardly necessary to mention the 
names of the more genuine physical philo- 
sophei*s, such as Darwin, Huxley, and 
Tyndall, whose rationalistic or material- 
istic theories may be severed from their 
physical discoveries and philosophy, which 
would Ije equally good whether the prime 
cause of all things is a creator or nothing 
at all ; while Spencer's philosophy lias 
discovered nothing and explained nothing, 
nor increased the stock of human know- 



ledge at all ; and with a greater pretence 
of founding a complete cosmogony than 
any since Lucretius's ingenious nonsense 
(as everybody now knows it to be), ends 
by pronouncing the origin of every sepa- 
rate force or law of nature, of wliich the 
number is infinite, "an unfathomable 
mystery," spontaneously generated out of 
what he is pleased to call Persistent 
Force, which made itself. Such ration- 
alism as that will soon have liad its day, 
like its predecessors, in spite of any num- 
ber of volumes and admirers who profess 
to understand them and call Spencer a 
much greater pliilosopher than Newton.' 

After sue]) a statement of extremes 
as is provided in these two several quota- 
tions, it is expedient to take leave of the 
subject in the judicial and moderating 
words of the late Dr. Beard, particularly 
as they have a direct reference, and not 
an inferential one merely, to the great 
subject of education and its instruments. 
They are words of wise candour and 
warning, and worthy of being laid to 
heart by all persons interested in the 
effort made by Rationalism to secure a 
due regard for utility in so momentous a 
matter as tliat of individual, academical, 
or national education. ' It must be re- 
collected tliat scientific culture is rapidly 
extending. Tlie number of educated men, 
whose cliief intellectual training and in- 
terest lie in the study of natural science, 
increases every day. Such men, having 
little to do with literature, except as a 
mental recreation, are apt to exhibit at 
once the strength and the weakness of the 
scientific intellect ; its love of accuracy, 
its demand for strict reasoning, its passion 
for definite results, and at the same time 
its disbelief in other methods of ascertain- 
ing truth than those which it has itself 
found efiectual.' 

(Rev. Hugh James Rose's State of 
Protestantism in G'er/nany, 2nd ed. 1829; 
Tracts for the Thaes, No. 73, by Dr. New- 
man ; Rev. iMark Pattison's Tendencies 
of Religious Thought in England, 1688- 
1750, in Essays and Revieivs, 18G0 ; Rev. 
Adam S. Farrar's Bampton Lectures for 
1862, A Critical History of Free Thought 
in Reference to the Christian Religion, 
1862 ; Professor K. R. Hagenbach's Ger- 
man Rationalism, 1865 ; W. E. H. Lecky's 
History of the Rise and Influence of tlte 
Spirit of Rationalism, in Europe, 2nd ed. 
1865 ; Bisliop Jolm F. Hurst's History of 

KK 2 



500 



YACATION SCHOOLS YANITY 



HatioiiaJi.^Di, 1865 ; Mr. Osonr Browning's j K)ioirh\I(/(', 1883 ; Professor Gabriel Com- 



jEducafion in the £nc)/cIopir(Ua Jiritan 
iiica, 9th ed., vol. vii., 1877 ; Ivov. Dr. 
CliaHes Beard's Jliblnrf Lectures, 1883, 
27ie litforDiation oj'flte iSivtcenth Centuri/ 
in its Helation to Modern Thought and 



payres Ifistoire de la Fedagoi/ie, 1883 ; 
Bobert Kiibels JiafionaliifDuis v)id Sitper- 
natHvcdiitntHS, in Herzog's Keal-Encych- 
jiddie, 1883 ; and others.) 

Uiitrutlifuliiess. ^Ve Truthfulness. 



V 



Vacation Schools. — Tlie new vacation 
schools involve attempts to solve some of 
the dirticulties in connection with the chil- 
dren of the worst ' home ' siuToundings. 
Attendance is not compulsory, neither is 
ordinary discipline possible. The primary 
object of such schools is to substitute health- 
ful and stinuilating occupations in place of 
the demoralising influences of idleness and 
A'icious siuTOundings to which the poor 
children, especially in large cities, are 
peculiarly exposed. It is bad economy for 
the State to allow the good done at school 
to be undone at home. The present sys- 
tem of 'too much book and too often 
parrot ' intensities the evil. To give an 
instance of recent attempts to lessen it, 
we learn from the Industrial Education 
Association (9 Uiiiversity Place, New 
York) that ' in three schools held in the 
city in July and August 1886 over four 
hundred were instructed in drawing, mo- 
delling, construction, wood-carving, sew- 
ing, and cooking.' A lady enthusiast su- 
perintended the whole, and both boys and 
girls cheerfully submitted to the necessary 
restraints. (vS't-c Manual Training.) 

Vacation Term. — A name given to a 
voluntary and conditional period of resi- 
deiice and courses of lectures at Cam- 
bridge for honours men in the Long Yaca- 
tion. There was none at Oxford in 1888. 
Selected parties of teachers have, however, 
recently resided by permission in colleges 
in Oxford and Cambridge, and received 
unofficial courses of lectux'es, etc., from 
heads of houses and tutors in sympathy 
with them. The movement is likely to 
expand, for the University Extension Lec- 
tures create a thirst for such visits to the 
uniTcrsity itself. 

Vanity, Pride, Self-esteem. — These 
terms refer to varieties of feeling which 
have a common root in self-love and self- 
regard. The child instinctively attaches 
a value to all that concerns itself, and 
when a distinct consciousness of self is de- 



veloped this instinctive disposition passes 
into a feeling of self-liking or self-attach- 
ment, which is analogous to its love for 
others. This feeling is at once the soui'oe 
of the pleasures of self-complacency and 
of the pains of wounded aiiionr propre, I'i.'c. 
At tirst, owing to the weakness of their 
judgment, children are disposed to esti- 
mate themselves and their actions by the 
opinion of others. Self-gvatulation is at 
this period largely the reflection of others' 
complacency. The most general name for 
this dependence on others' approval is the 
love of approbation. It is at once the 
source of one of the most valuable mo- 
tives of childhood and of one of its greatest 
weaknesses. Kept within proper bounds, 
and i-endered intelligent and discriminat- 
ing, this regard for others' opinion is one 
of the educator's principal aids. On the 
other hand, when unchecked and undis- 
criminating, it grows into a foolish and 
hurtful vanity, or love of admiration. 
Yanity means an excessive self-conscious- 
ness, an over-estimate of some personal 
quality, as good looks, and a too eager 
desire for others' admiration. This last 
fault is still more conspicuous in ambition 
and thirst for glory, though here another 
impulse, viz. emulation, co-operates. A 
child must be cured of A-anity by with- 
drawing all inordinate praise ; by associat- 
ing it with other children, so that it may 
learn its defects and points of inferiority ; 
by cultivating its affections and its in- 
telligence, and so developing a certain se- 
lectiN'eness in the enjoyment of praise, and 
a power of discriminating empty llattuny 
from just recognition of worth ; and, finally, 
by exercising and strengthening it in self- 
judgment and self-esteem. As the child 
grows to the age of independence it must 
learn to rely less on others' good opinion 
and more on its own. This self-esteem is 
necessary to the higher developments of 
moral character. A good will, that chooses 
right independently of the value set on it 



VENTILATION OF SCHOOLROOMS VERSE- WRITING 501 



by others, implies that the subject finds an 
adequate reward in the feeling of self- 
approval. A proper feeling of self-respect, 
or pride, which leads a boy to despise 
what is small, mean, and tricky as un- 
worthy of him, or beneath his dignity, is 
one of the most valuable of moral safe- 
guards. In encouraging this self-esteem 
and this sense of personal dignity the 
educator must be careful not to foster an 
excessiA'e and cynical disregard for others' 
appi'oval, which is a blemish in all cases, and 
in the case of the young is particularly 
baneful. (Cf. articles HoxouR, Praise 
AND Blame, Self-love. Hep. Bain, Mental 
Science, bk. iii. chap. vi. ; Sully, Teacher's 
Handbook, p. 384 following ; Miss Edge- 
worth, Practical Education, chap. xi. ; 
Pereez, V Education des le Berceau, chap, 
vi. ; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unter- 
richtslelire, §§ 61-63 ; Waitz, Ally. Pdda- 
gocjik, p. 1 70 following ; cf. art. ' Eitelkeit ' 
in Schmidt's Encyclopddie.) 

Ventilation of Schoolrooms. — The 
limit of impurity of air has been fixed at 
•06 per cent, of carbonic acid, i.e. 6 parts in 
10,000 of air. In order to maintain the 
carbonic acid at this level, 3,000 cubic feet 
of pure air are required per hour by every 
adult, and at least half as much should be 
supplied for cliildren. With the 1 5 square 
feet of floor space (and 10 feet height of 
schoolroom) which we have fixed as our 
minimum standard, it is evident, therefore, 
that the air must be changed ten times in 
every hour, which, owing to draughts, can 
only be done during the greater part of 
the year by combining some form of warm- 
ing apparatus with the ventilating arrange- 
ments. The temperature of the air varies 
at diflferent seasons. In winter the in- 
coming air requires to be warmed, other- 
wise the teacher will shut it out as far as 
he can. The proper temperature of the 
schoolroom is from 60° to 65° Eahr. An 
over-heated room (when heating appara- 
tus is not properly regulated) causes the 
children to perspire, and makes them very 
prone to catch cold on the slightest expo- 
sure to draughts. Two plans of ventila- 
tion are described, natural and artificial 
ventilation. In the former the natural 
movements of the air through openings 
are utilised ; in the, latter the natural 
movements are aided by warming appara- 
tus or mechanical appliances. The great 
problem of ventilation is to secure a sufii- 
cient interchanire of air without causing 



draughts. Owing to the great difference 
in temperature between the air within 
and without a house this is impossible 
during the winter months, unless the in- 
coming air is warmed. Open vnndoius 
are the best means of ventilation, and 
during the school recess all the windows 
should be thrown open, if possible opposite 
windows and doors, in order that the 
rooms may be thoroughly flushed with air. 
A down-draught from a window may be 
prevented by having its upper segment to 
work on a hinge, the current of air being 
directed upwards ; or by deepening the 
lower beading of the window or placing a 
block of wood under the lower sash, so 
that an upward current of air may Ije 
allowed between the two sashes. The icall 
may be utilised by inserting a grating near 
the floor, and connecting it on its inner 
aspect to a vertical tube {Tohin's tube), a 
vertical direction being thus given to the 
incoming air. Or the grating may be 
placed higher up in the wall, a movable 
valve, such as Sheringham's, on the inner 
side of the wall directing the current up- 
wards. The ventilation is much more 
likely to be successful if there are open- 
ings on opposite sides of the rooms, or 
if there is a chimney or other draught- 
compeller in the schoolroom. Indeed, a 
chimney should always be allowed for 
each room, even Avhen it is not contem- 
plated to have open fires. An up-current 
always exists in a chimney-flue, if there 
is free ingress of air by doors and windows. 
Boyle's or Amott's valves placed above 
the fireplace, and opening into the flue, 
are of some service in withdrawing the 
hot, impure air which tends to accumu- 
late near the ceiling, especially when coal- 
gas is burnt. The ceiling may be utilised 
for ventilating purposes by having it per- 
forated, and gratings in the external wall 
to correspond with the space between the 
ceiling and the floor of the room above. 
Where gas-burners are used they should 
be of a kind that carry off the products of 
combustion, and thus help in ventilating 
the room. {See Warming Apparatus 
and Impurities of Air.) 

Verse-Writing. — Few educational 
questions were in the early days of the 
attack on the classical system of education 
more warmly debated than the value of 
learning to Avrite Latin verses. There is 
no doubt much to be said on both sides, 
though it does not necessarily follow that 



502 



VERSE-WRITING 



tlie practical conclusion is doubtful or 
nicely balanced. Unfortunately the at- 
tack often ignored some of the really'bene- 
ficial results of verse-teaching, and took 
too low ground in the educational dispute, 
while the defence was too narrow in its 
scope, and not practical enough in its edu- 
cational views. In a word, the attack 
was often ignorant of the facts, and mer- 
cantile in aims ; the defence was super- 
fine in its theories, and prejudiced. I 
shall briefly re-examine the pros and cons 
from the point of view of a practical 
teacher, trained on the old Cambridge 
classical tripos system, who has taught 
Latin verses for twenty-five years. 

In the first place we may concede at 
once that the accomplishment is useless. 
The people who are able and willing to 
read Latin poetry prefer the genuine 
Roman poets to the modern imitation. 
The Latin poetry of the contemporary 
Englishman is like the wax flowers of our 
grandmothers, or the glowing landscapes 
drawn by beggars on the pavement in 
coloured chalk. They are curiosities, not 
works of art ; and the demand is very 
limited, if not extinct. An educated 
man may write them, as he may carve his 
pipe, build a snow-house, or compose 
acrostics ; but he does it for exercise, 
amusement, or the mere delight in inge- 
nuity. It is not, of course, the value of 
the completed product which is the serious 
plea for verses : it is the training. The 
difierential calculus is also of no use to nine 
men out of ten who learn it ; but it may 
be a very good training at a certain point 
of education. Let us look a little closely 
into the facts, and see what this training- 
amounts to in the case of verses. 

We may roughly divide the process 
into three stages. There is the elemen- 
tary stage, where a boy of eleven to fif- 
teen has to translate ' full-sense ' English 
into such words as he can put into a line 
which will scan and construe. There is 
the second stage, say, from fourteen to 
eighteen, where he has easy English 
poetry to do, and is gradually mastering 
the resources of his metre, learning how 
to recast expression, and being initiated 
nto the elements of taste, force, and 
melody of versification. There is the final 
stage, from seventeen to twenty-one, where 
he should be entering into the real spirit of 
poetry, and beginning to learn what style 
means, and how to convey feeling by words. 



. .- it is obvious that these stages run 
into one another. We have intentionally 
made the ages overlap, as the difference 
of boys' capacities at the same age is 
too striking a feature to be hidden, as it 
would be, under strict averages. Even in 
broad statements it should be kept before 
the mind. The last two stages are the 
hardest to discriminate satisfactorily in 
words ; but there are facts to which they 
correspond. There is a point at which a 
young verse-writer can usefully try and 
fairly accomplish an easy narrative piece 
in the style of Ovid's Heroides. There is 
also a point at which he can fairly render 
a stanza of In Memoriam, which it would 
be futile to set before him earlier. With- 
out attempting an impossible definiteness, 
these examples will show my meaning in 
speaking of the two later stages. 

In the first stage the boy is learning 
quantity ; not a 'useful thing in itself, but 
indispensable to any real appreciation of 
Latin poetry. It certainly is not neces- 
sary for the language, nor for learning to 
read Latin ; and it might no doubt be . 
learned later from Latin poetry itself, 
when a good many who now go through 
the course would have dropped out of the 
running. He is also practising the acci- 
dence; but that is far more eff'ectively done 
by Latin prose. So far this is merely ac- 
quisition of knowledge, not faculty ; the 
only exercise of faculty at this stage is 
what we may call the faculty of putting 
together a puzzle — namely, the fitting of 
words into the metre. Some boys like 
this, some are indifferent, a few detest it. 
Educationally, I think, it is bad for the 
latter, and neither much good nor much 
harm for the two former. It is not a bad 
exercise for them, and quickens their wits ; 
on the other hand a good deal of time is 
spent which might be given to more impor- 
tant things. And it must be owned that 
nearly anything else is more important. 

In the second stage the question is 
much more difficult, as there the good and 
the harm are both much greater, and 
much more judgment and care is required 
in the teacher to diagnose exactly what 
effect is being produced. Let us take the 
good first. Some boys will begin very 
quickly to show ease and faculty. The 
literary taste is inborn, and will infallibly 
show itself. Verse- writing will stimulate 
it, and train it, and feed it. The sort of 
general quickening and confidence which 



VERSE-WRITING 



503 



comes from feeling one's powers is such a 
powerful intellectual spur that it cannot 
but be good to use it. The only caution 
Jiere necessary is that the verses should 
not be done too often, and that good 
English poetry should be given to turn. 
Weariness, empty facility, linguistic power 
iipart from thinking, a fluency of slightly 
adorned commonplace, are the dangers ; 
and they have been too often realised at 
-classical schools. Some boys, again, of in- 
ferior power will work away, and achieve 
only moderate results. The advantage to 
these is, we think, real, and too often 
overlooked. In one word, they get a 
certain sense oiform in expression. They 
cannot get this from prose, either read or 
composed, except later, more obscurely, 
and with more effort. They cannot get 
it from reading merely Latin poetry with 
anything like the same effect. It is a real 
thing ; Ave have seen it grow ; it trans- 
forms the boy slowly but deeply ; it means 
the culture of the barbarian. It does not 
amount to much that can be shown ; it 
puts forth no flowers ; but it insensibly 
changes the boy's attitude of mind, opens 
a new vista to him, and its effects are 
lasting. The real difliculties here are two : 
ffrst, to know how long with this sort of 
boy to continue the experiment before 
pronouncing it a failure, for it undoubtedly 
may take time. The master should con- 
sider this carefully, for the pressure of 
other studies is sure to be clamorous ; and 
yet the loss to the boy if he miss what he 
might thus gain will be real, though it 
be materially imponderable, and though 
he may never know it. The other diffi- 
culty is that so much here turns on the 
teacher. AVe have known boys, quite 
hopeless under a series of form masters, 
finally caught hold of by the verse-teach- 
ing of one special man. We have known 
masters, even those otherwise faulty or 
inefficient, touch rank after rank of com- 
naon boys presented to them with this 
literary enlightenment, purely through 
their Latin verse-teaching. All first-rate 
teaching power is rare, but this is of the 
rarest. Besides these two kinds of boys 
there will be the residuum, who are getting 
almost no good at this stage, and to whom 
the verses are an affliction and a waste of 
time. If the verses are taught to all, 
these will be under the best teachers per- 
haps a quarter, under ordinary men fi-om 
half to two-thirds. Lookina: to facts as 



they are — to capacity of boys, power of 
teachers, pressure of studies, the vast 
range of learning, the material needs — we 
say confidently that these boys ought to 
cease writing verses. 

We have spoken above of the boys of in- 
ferior power, who yet get at this stage their 
first initiation into a sense of form. The 
important question remains, whether they 
could not get this as well from reading 
(and writing) verses in their own tongue. 
Some of the best authorities believe that 
they could ; and that this, for the mass 
of boys, is the real solution of the verse 
question. Of course, it is true that the 
teachers are trained in one system and 
not in the other ; that for finish of form 
a fully-inflected tongue like Latin has 
special advantages ; that the very effort 
of working in the resisting medium of a 
strange language imparts power ; and 
even that an equal standard of mediocrity 
would look worse, and so be more depress- 
ing, in English. But these are mainly 
practical difficulties of detail, not insuper- 
able to effort, and all much overbalanced 
by the single advantage of the extra lever- 
age gained by working with the mother 
tongue. Indeed it is probable that not 
merely would the second class of boys get 
their culture more easily, more certainly, 
and more fully, but that many of the re- 
siduum might Ibe reclaimed. The experi- 
ment has never, so far as we know, been 
systematically tried, so that experience 
is wanting. But it certainly deserves 
attention. We will only remark that for 
the purposes of replacing Latin verse it is 
essential that verses should be toritten in 
English, and not merely that boys should 
read, as they now do in most schools, a 
good deal of English poetry. 

On the third stage there is no need to 
dwell at any length. It is approximately 
the stage of sixth-form life up to the end 
of the first two years at the university. It 
is tolerably plain by the beginning of this 
stage whether much good is to be gained 
by the patient continuing the treatment. 
The student's own taste is much more a 
factor in the decision ; he Avill have begun 
to take his bent and show his faculties 
more clearly. Exemption from verse- 
writing is now in most schools easy at 
this age ; scholarships and first-classes 
even in classics can be won without verses. 
The present writer's experience both of 
schools and university is that the exemp- 



504 



YERSIFICATION VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS. 



tions should be more numerous still, from 
the educational point of view ; and that 
of all students in this last stage who do 
verses barely half really profit by it. Of 
course, a school or college adviser has to 
consider success in examination ; and he 
may often advise, and be right in advising, 
a fairly good verse-writer to continue the 
study, when from an educational point of 
view he had better drop it. The present 
state of things, however, is obviously tran- 
sitory. The natural issue as regards the 
universities will be something of this kind : 
that the prizes for verse- writing will be 
kept for the most gifted scholars, that 
verse papers will be offered in university 
scholarships, that for college scholarships 
and classical examinations they will be 
optional. In the schools they will be still 
taught (at the last stage) to the most pro- 
mising boys who like them and have a 
turn for them ; the rest, though they may 
have got something from the second-stage 
training, will at this stage turn to more 
congenial pursuits. Even if the experiment 
above mentioned of substituting English 
for Latin verse in the lower parts of a 
. school be tried, the Latin verses of the best 
sixth-form boys need not be abandoned. 
A good scholar, trained in poetic study — 
and such boys alone will try it — would 
easily in a few efforts reach the stage now 
achieved by prolonged apprenticeship of 
the more undeveloped mind. In a word, 
the early training of taste will be done by 
English verse, a fit instrument for the 
mass of boys. The few scholars will get 
the last finish by mature attenapts at 
writing poetry in the languages they have 
already fairly mastered. 

Versification. See Public Schools. 

Vested Schools. See Law (Educa- 
tional), section Ireland. 

Victoria University. See Univer- 
sities. 

Viva Voce. — This is the name given 
to an examination by word of mouth, as 
distinguished from a toritten examination. 
The latter is mainly used with the object 
of ascertaining what knowledge each in- 
dividual possesses, and how far, without 
prompting or suggestion of any kind, he 
can make use of particular parts of it. It 
requires the examinee to express himself 
at some length, and to show how far he 
understands the connectedness of his 
knowledge. The former — vivd voce — aims 
rather at testina; the sreneral brisfhtness 



and mental activity of an individual or 
a class ; at ascertaining what degree of 
promptness and resource is possessed ; 
what use can be made of knowledge 
freshly given or there and then recalled ; 
and, lastly, the general attitude of mind 
towards knowledge. To a certain extent 
it tests the class-teacher's manner of 
work as well as the boy's ability. As 
far as it seeks to find out what knoioledge 
is possessed, it should follow the lines laid 
down for the earlier stages of oral in- 
struction (given under that title and. 
under Question and Answer). It pos- 
sesses the advantage that the questions: 
can be rapidly and readily changed, modi- 
fied, and varied ; but there is also the dis- 
advantage that the answers must neces- 
sarily be short and fragmentary, while the- 
examinee unavoidably receives help and 
suggestion continually from the answers of 
others, and from expressions on their faces 
and on that of the examiner. Whatever 
of sequence and unity there is in the work 
is, moreover, due to the examiner for the 
most part ; and so it is difficult by this 
means to make sure that the subject has 
been grasped as a whole — difficult, but not 
impossible. The great thing is to set the 
examinees at their ease to start with, to 
give them confidence and to loosen their 
tongues, which may be done by a cheerful 
greeting, a little general conversation, and 
perhaps even a little fun. When once 
they are set talking, the examiner should 
proceed as if he were giving an oral lesson,, 
except that the subject is an old, not a 
new one ; and that exposition should be- 
almost entirely omitted. In mathematics 
the examiner may sometimes discover all 
he wants to know by proceeding to give 
a neio oral lesson on the stage immediately 
following the one arrived at by the class^ 
particularly if this new stage is closely con- 
nected with those that go before. This, 
however, can only be done with those who 
have been set entirely at their ease. Unless 
the examinees are taken quite apart, and 
one by one, it is impossible to report in- 
dividually on them when only viv&j voce 
is used. All that the examiner really gets 
otherwise is a general impression of the^ 
class as a whole. 

Voluntary Schools are elementary and 
denominational schools not under the 
management of a School Board, but re- 
ceiving Government grants. {See School 
Boards and Government Schools.) 



WARMING APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS 



505 



w 



Warming Apparatus for Schools. — 

The best forms of warming apparatus are 
always combined with ventilating arrange- 
ments. The impure air of the room should 
not be warmed, but fresh cold air coming 
from without. Similarly, the warmed air 
which has been breathed and thus rendered 
impure should not be i^etainedin the room, 
but carried off by exits as quickly as pos- 
sible. This implies expense ; the warm 
air is removed, and more warm air is re- 
quired to take its place. If, however, in 
order to save expense in the heating ap- 
paratus the escape of warm impure air is 
stopped or diminished, the schoolroom be- 
comes foul and unhealthy. It cannot be 
too clearly understood that an efficient and 
sanitary heating apparatus is necessarily 
expensive. The open fireplace not only 
furnishes a cheerful warmth to the room, 
but is also a valuable purifier of its at- 
mosphere, as from 14,000 to 20,000 cubic 
feet of air pass up an ordinary chimney 
each hour. Its disadvantages are that the 
heat is unequally distributed in the room, 
and currents of cold air are produced along 
the floor in order to supply the place of 
the air which is rushing up the chimney. 
The latter can be prevented by having a 
free supply of warm air from some other 
source ; and the great loss of heat from 
an ordinary fireplace can be prevented by 
admitting external air through chambers 
behind the fireplace, in which it is warmed 
as it enters the room. By this means (as 
in Galton's stove) an abundant supply of 
warm pure air is admitted above the 
chimney breast, and thence difiuses itself 
throughout the room. In small rooms gas 
is sometimes used for fires instead of coal. 
No gas-stove should be tolerated which 
does not provide for carrying off the pro- 
ducts of combustion. A flue-pipe is even 
more necessary than for a coal fire, as, 
owing to the absence of smoke, the per- 
nicious condition of the air might be over- 
looked. George's calorigen stove is a good 
example of a combination of a gas-stove 
with ventilating arrangements. A spiral 
tube communicates near the floor with the 
external air, and opens at its upper end 
into the room. A gas flame is kept burn- 
ing under this tube, the products of com- 
bustion being carried outside by a separate 



tube ; and the heat thus produced warms 
the air which is passing along the spiral 
tube, and causes it to enter rapidly into- 
the room. Closed stoves are chiefly useful 
in small schoolrooms. They do not burn 
so much fuel as an open fireplace, and the- 
combustion can be more easily regulatedv 
Their tendency is, however, to make the 
air of a room too dry and produce a clos& 
smell, probably from the charring of minute- 
particles of organic matter. If the stove- 
is red-hot, or there are cracks in it, car- 
bonic oxide gas, which is very poisonous,, 
may find its way into the room. To avoid 
these evils firebrick should separate the- 
fire from the ironwork, and the stove- 
should never be allowed to become red- 
hot. There should be as few joints as- 
possible, and these should be horizontal, 
not vertical. The products of combustion; 
should never be prevented from, or de- 
layed in, escaping by dampers, or by ad- 
mitting air between the stove and the- 
chimney. A bucket of water placed near 
the stove prevents the air becoming too- 
dry. The only stoves permissible are those 
jacketed stoves which combine warming 
and ventilation. An outer casing around 
the stove communicates with the external 
air, and thus a large supply of pure warm, 
air is introduced. For large schools a 
central system of heating is preferable- 
Hot air, steam, and hot water are the 
usual sources of heat employed. Hot-air 
furnaces are usually unsatisfactory. Car- 
bonic oxide and sulphurous acid not 
infrequently escape through leaky joints, 
in the furnace, and thus the hot air sup- 
plied is irritating and impure. It is also 
generally very dry, though this may be 
remedied by placing water at the points 
of entry of air into the room. The air 
also is generally too hot, often at 140° 
Fahr. To cool the room the register is 
shut ofl", and the children are then obliged 
to breathe the same atmosphere repeatedly ,^ 
or to have the windows open with conse- 
quent uncomfortable draughts. 

Stea?ii apparatus, if efficiently con- 
structed and under the managem-ent of a 
skilled attendant, is very satisfactory. In 
the United States it is very commonly 
used, but in this country only excep- 
tionally. Like other forms of heating 



506 



WELSH EDUCATION 



apparatus it is only satisfactory from a 
sanitary standpoint when combined with 
the admission of pure air over the heating 
tubes. Each set of radiators should be 
arranged in several different sections, so 
that the flow of steam in any one of them 
can be cut off" at will, and thus the amount 
of heating regulated according to the ex- 
ternal temperature ; or the air-flues may 
be so arranged that by movement of a 
valve the incoming air can be made to 
pass wholly in contact with the radiating 
surfaces, or separate from them in any 
pi'oportion. Hot - water a2J])aratus pos- 
sesses some advantages over steam ap- 
paratus in the facts that the air passing 
over hot- water pipes is usually not raised 
above 100° Fahr. when the pipes are at a 
temperature of from 160"-! 80^ Eahr., and 
that hot water continues to circulate some 
time after the fire is extinguished. In 
the high -pressure system the water in the 
pipes is heated to 300°-350° Eahr., in the 
low-pressure system not above 200° Eahr. 
Whichever of these systems is used, it 
should never consist simply of pipes placed 
in a room, from which heat radiates with- 
out any admission of fresh warmed air. 
Tliis forms 'one of the most killing systems 
in existence.' By placing alongside the 
hot- water pipes flues for the entry of fresh 
air an efficient and thoroughly sanitary 
warming is obtained. The hot- water. coils 
may also be arranged around the flues for 
carrying ofii" foul air, thus increasing the 
rapidity of the exit current. If the rooms 
become too hot the remedy is not to close 
the points of entry for warm air, but to 
have valves by means of which the hot 
water can be cut off" from any given por- 
tion of the hot-water pipes. 

Weight of Children. See Geowth. 

Welsh Education.— In Wales no eff"ec- 
tive attempt was made to cope with popular 
ignorance till the Government began to 
pay grants in aid of local eff"ort. The in- 
fluence of the British and Foreign and of 
the National School Societies was little 
felt, for it was always difficult to raise 
money enough to establish schools, and 
generally impossible to raise enough to 
secure their efficiency. A record of the 
condition of aff"aix's immediately after the 
issue cf the famous Minutes of 1846 is 
found in the reports of the Commis- 
sioners appointed by the Committee of 
Council in that year. A motion had been 
passed by the House of Commons for an 



address praying the Queen ' to direct an 
inquiry to be made into the state of edu- 
cation in the principality of Wales, espe- 
cially into the means afforded the labour- 
ing classes of acquiring a knowledge of 
the English language.' The Commissioners 
were entirely unacquainted with the speech 
of the people among whom their inves- 
tigations were to be made, and conse- 
quently many of their facts and (what was 
perhaps more important) many of their 
impressions were obtained at secondhand 
through interpreters. Had they under- 
stood the Welsh language they would have 
better understood the Welsh character, 
and their criticisms (doubtless quite honest 
and friendly in intention) would have been 
more sympathetic without being less true. 
The publication of their reports was fol- 
lowed by an outburst of popular resent- 
ment; nor need we be surprised at this 
when we find the First Commissioner speak- 
ing of the ' widespread disregard of tem- 
perance, ... of chastity, of veracity, and 
fair dealing ' in Wales ; the second speak- 
ing of the prevalence of ' drunkenness, 
blasphemy, indecency, sexual vices, and 
lawlessness ' ; and the third speaking of 
the ' social and moral depravity ' of a part 
of the population. Still the reports (not- 
withstanding the objections which the 
patriots of the principality made to their 
tone) furnish a valuable record of the 
condition of education at the time. Bad 
as matters were in England they were 
still worse in Wales. Many large districts 
were totally devoid of schools of any kind. 
There were, for example, seveuty-two 
parishes in that state in the counties of 
Brecknock, Cardigan, and Radnor. Whei"e 
schools did exist they were, in the majority 
of cases, of the sort known as ' private 
adventure.' Only about one- eighth of the 
schoolhouses were ' legally secured for 
educational purposes.' ' The teacher's 
dwelling-room, the kitchen of a farmhouse 
or part of an adjacent outbuilding, the 
loft over a chapel stables, churches and 
chapels themselves,' were frequently used 
for schools. A roof or floor without holes, 
a fireplace, a window that would admit 
sufficient light or any air were uncommon, 
and desks were a luxury to be desired 
rather than hoped for. The average in- 
come of' the teachers was 221. a year — 
Is. Zd. a day — and the most that could be 
said for them was that they were as good 
as could be expected for the money, A 



WELSH EDUCATION 



507 



few of the best had received some kind of 
training ; most of the others had' taken to 
teaching because they were unfit for any- 
thing else. A list of their previous occu- 
pations embraces nearly a hundred trades 
and professions, while a great many call- 
ings were followed along with teaching. 
Among other things some of the masters 
and mistresses were broom and clog makers, 
cowkeepers, drovers, matron to a lying-in 
hospital, ' porter, barber, and layer-out of 
the dead in a workhouse,' publicans, and 
sextons. A number were in receipt of 
parish relief. It need hardly be said that 
these teachers knew nothing of teaching, 
and that in many cases they were them- 
selves devoid of the rudiments of educa- 
tion, A great many of them could not 
spell, and not a few were so ignorant of 
the language in which they professed to 
carry on their schools, that the Commis- 
sioners had to communicate with them 
through interpreters. Registers were al- 
most unknown ; even in the ' model 
school ' at Newport, Pembrokeshire, none 
was kept. Accurate statistics of attend- 
ance were therefore impossible, but there 
was ample evidence to prove that it was 
very irregular, and that the school life of 
a child generally began late and finished 
early. In one county, for instance, 63*5 
per cent, of the children found in school 
had attended less than a year, and 21 "9 
more had attended less than two years. 
The poverty of the people accounted to a 
large extent for the extreme backwardness 
of education in Wales. Good schools cost 
money, which some one must pay. The 
parents of the children could not pay it 
all, and in most places there was no one 
willing to help them. Hence the offer of 
State aid was the beginning of a brighter 
era, although the offer was not very readily 
accepted at first. Many of the Dissenters 
looked with distrust upon it, considering 
it an indirect endowment of the Church, 
or fearing ulterior motives on the part of 
the Government; but the judicious ad- 
ministration of the Education Department 
gradually disarmed prejudice, and ajppli- 
cations for assistance then became fre- 
quent. At the date of the Revised Code 
there were in the principality over six 
hundred schools which had received build- 
ing grants, or were receiving annual grants, 
and H.M. inspector was able to report 
that the ' prospects of education ' were 
' sufficiently hopeful and encouraging.' 



Still, till the passing- of the Education 
Act of 1870 the number of schools 
fell far short of the needs of the people, 
but Mr. Eorster's great measure led almost 
immediately to extraordinary activity. 
The provision of accommodation in an 
efficient school for every child requiring it 
now became compulsory ; but were there 
no compulsion in the matter the effect 
would have been much the same, because 
denominational schools are displeasing to 
the majority of Welshmen, and Board 
schools must be undenominational. In 
1887 the number of School Boards in 
Wales exceeded three hundred, and the 
number of elementary schools (Board and 
Voluntary) was nearly fifteen hundred. 

The ample provision of schools for the 
children of the poor served to emphasize 
by contrast the deficiency of schools for 
the children of parents who could not be 
described as poor, and the still greater 
deficiency of the means of higher educa- 
tion. The leaders of opinion in the princi- 
pality, seeing no pi-ospect of supplying 
these deficiencies without some help from 
the State, tried to interest the Government 
in the matter, and so far succeeded as to 
obtain in 1880 the appointment of a De- 
partmental Committee of Enquiry. The 
committee consisted of Lorcl Aberdare 
(chairman). Viscount Emlyn, Prebendary 
Robinson, Mr. Henry Richard, Professor 
Rhys, and Mr. Lewis Morris, and it cer- 
tainly would have been difficult to find 
half a dozen men better qualified for their 
duties. Meetings were held in London 
and in the chief towns in Wales. A 
vast amount of interesting evidence was 
accumulated, the report and minutes occu- 
pying over a thousand foolscap pages. 
With respect to intermediate schools the 
committee recommended :, (1) That exist- 
ing endowed schools should be made effi- 
cient and suitable. (2) That in the reor- 
ganisation of endowments (a) all schools 
should be made unsectarian ; (b) the go- 
verning bodies should be, to a larger extent, 
properly chosen ; (c) schools should be 
adapted to local requirements. (3) Where 
there were no endowments available, 
schools should be provided from other 
funds. (There was some difference of 
opinion as to the source of these.) 

With regard to higher education the 
committee recommended : (1) That a uni- 
versity college for South Wales should be 
established in Glamorganshire. (2) That 



508 



WICHERN, JOHN HENRY WILL 



there should also be a university college 
for North Wales. For this purpose the 
college already existing at Aberystwith 
could be utilised where it was, or could 
be transferred to Carnarvon or Bangor. 
(3) A Government grant of 4,000?. a year 
should be made to each college. (4) The 
committee discussed the desirability of 
creating a university for Wales, but made 
no definite recommendation on the sub- 
ject. The chief results of the labours of 
the committee were the retention of the 
university college at Aberystwith, the 
establishment of similar colleges at Bangor 
and Cardiff, and the grant of 12,000/. a 
year between the three institutions. No 
provision for intermediate education has 
yet been made, though several Bills deal- 
ing with the subject have been presented 
to the House of Commons. The provision 
of a Welsh university to complete, co- 
ordinate, and crown the whole system of 
Welsh education is perhaps not at present 
within the range of practical politics. 

Though in many parts of Wales Welsh 
is the language of the home, the play- 
ground, the church, and the chapel, in- 
struction in the grammar or literature of 
it has, till lately, been almost unknown, 
and, what is equally strange, Welsh has 
not been used in teaching English. When 
an English boy comes across a word which 
he does not understand his master substi- 
tutes simpler words for it ; but to the 
Welsh boy no English words are simple 
at first, and an explanation in English 
would only increase the original difficulty. 
The obvious method is to explain in the 
child's own tongue, and tliis is the method 
advocated by the recently formed Society 
for Utilising the Welsh Language, With 
the sanction of the Education Department, 
and with the hearty co-operation of some 
of the inspectors, several schools have tried 
the plan of studying Welsh and English 
together, and the constant translation 
from one to the other has been found to 
develop intelligence and give a large grasp 
of linguistic principles. 

Wichern, John Henry, German phi- 
lanthropist, born at Hamburg in 1808, was 
educated at the Gymnasium of his native 
city, and afterwards at Gottingen and Ber- 
lin (1830). Wichern's name is associated 
with the foundation of houses of rescue 
for destitute children in Hamburg and 
elsewhere. His object was to establish 
institutions in which the influence of the 



'family organisation,' 'Christian training/ 
and ' industrial occupations ' might be 
brought to bear upon the young. With 
this view Wichern took a small thatched 
cottage, called Rough House, a few miles 
from Hamburg, and commenced the under- 
taking with only three boys, whom he re- 
ceived into his own family. The number 
gradually increased, and Rough House be- 
came the parent of many similar institu- 
tions. Wichern received his degree of 
doctor of philosophy from Halle in 1851. 
His chief works are : Flying Leaves from 
Bough House and The Inner Mission of 
the German Evangelical Church (1849). 

Wiesse, Dr. L., in his Letters on Eng- 
lish Education (1854), contrasts the Ger- 
man system of instruction with the Eng- 
lish one. 'The result of my observations,'' 
he writes, ' to state it briefly, is this : in 
knowledge our higher schools (i.e. the Ger- 
man higher schools) are far in advance of 
the English ; but their education is more 
eflfective because it imparts a better pre- 
paration for life.' ' In England the first 
object of education is the formation of 
character.' ' The tendency of German edu- 
cation is to become encyclopsedic' 

Will, Self- Will.— The term ' will ' is 
used in psychology to mark off the active 
tendencies and impulses of the mind, as 
distinguished from the intellectual capaci- 
ties and the emotional sensibilities. The- 
will exists in the child in a rudimentary 
form only. He has the instinctive dis- 
position to activity, but cannot yet choose 
his ends and so regulate his actions. He 
shows this crudeness of will in his inability 
to realise and work for distant results, and 
the infirmity of purpose which follows 
from this; in his inability to deliberate 
and choose ; in his want of self-control, 
and generally in the subjection of his de- 
sires to the external circumstances and 
solicitations of the moment. The growth 
of a rational and free will out of this in- 
choate childish will presupposes the de- 
velopment of the intelligence and of the 
feelings. Like the intellectual faculties, 
the will grows by successive exercises. 
The first and most important of these con- 
sists in self-submission to others, or obedi- 
ence. Such obedience has, however, only 
a temporary function in furthering the 
growth of the will. Its higher develop- 
ments presuppose liberty to reflect and 
choose for oneself. Hence the importance 
of restricting the area of authority in early 



WOMEN-TEACHERS 



509 



life, and of gradually encouraging the child 
to think and act for himself. The instinc- 
tive bent to this free determination of 
action is seen in Self-will, or Wilfulness, 
which is so well marked a character- 
istic of all children that have a strong 
natural character and energetic impulses. 
Such self-will is not harmful in itself, but 
rather the expression of a strong and 
healthy individuality. It becomes bad, 
however, when it hardens into rebellious- 
ness, refractoinness, or obstinacy — that is, 
a fixed disposition to defy authority as 
such, and to refuse to he led by others' 
superior wisdom. While in the case of 
the wilful and obstinate the educator has 
to impose restraint, in the case of those 
wanting in desires and energy of purpose 
lie needs leather to rouse the will to activity. 
Since will is the source of all effort, intel- 
lectual and moral alike, it is evident that 
education, which proceeds by exciting the 
mind to activity, is concerned to a very large 
extent with prompting and directing the 
young will. (Cf . articles Activity, Obedi- 
ence, Self-Command. For a fuller account 
of Will, orVolition, see Bain, Mental Science, 
bk. iv. ; and Sully, Teacher's Handbook, 
chaps, xix. and xx. On the training of 
the Will and the management of Wilful- 
ness, see Locke, Tliouglits, § 78 following; 
Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, p. 20 
following ; Beneke, op. cit. §§ 71, 72 ; 
Dittes, Grundriss, § 69 and following ; 
Pfisterer, Pad. Psychologie, § 33 ; and art. 
' Wille ' in Schmidt's EncycloiJddie.) 

Women-Teacliers. — In all ages women 
have been recognised as the natural in- 
structors of children in the nursery, though 
their function as educators in general has, 
until recent times, been less clearly de- 
fined. We hear, indeed, in the fifth cen- 
tury, of Hypatia, the reigning star of the 
Alexandrian school of the Neo-Platonists, 
lectviring to crowded audiences of men 
and women, and becoming in this way the 
spix'itual father of the famous Proclus. 
But indeed Hypatia is at best 'but a 
myth and a shade,' and in the middle ages 
the education of women as a class was so 
restricted that only a few women-teachers 
were able to take up any prominent posi- 
tion. Bologna was the only university 
which granted degrees and other privileges 
to women. The learned and beautiful 
Novella d' Andrea, daughter of the cele- 
brated Canonist, frequently occupied her 
father's chair in that university, and 



amongst other women professors at Bologna 
were Laura Bassi, who held the chair of 
mathematics and natural philosophy, the 
Madonna Manzolina, who practised and 
lectured on surgery with distinction, and 
Clotilda Tambroni, professor of Greek. 
On the great stairway of Padua stands 
the statue of Elena Cornaro, professor of 
six languages in that once renowned uni- 
versity. But Elena Cornaro was not edu- 
cated by women, nor did she lecture to 
women. In the seventeenth century we 
find an attempt in France to replace the 
conventual education of girls by a more 
practical preparation for secular life. 
Louis XIY. was not fond of the convents, 
and, therefore, he liberally supported 
Madame cle Maintenon in her endeavour 
to place on a permanent basis the school 
she had founded for the daughters of the 
impoverished noblesse. 

This was the oi'igin in 1686 of the fa- 
mous school of Saint- Cyr, which for many 
years numbered its 250 pupils, and whose 
scholars acted Racine's Andromaque so 
well, that he wrote for them Athalie 
and Esther. But Madame Maintenon 
was an ardent disciple of Fenelon, and she 
came to the conclusion that his Education 
des Filles was not altogether in harmony 
with the kind of education that would 
produce such results, and she therefore, in 
1689, soon entirely changed the character 
of the instruction and the discipline of 
Saint-Cyr, henceforth causing her pupils to 
devote more time to sewing and to what 
we now call domestic economy than to 
more intellectual pursuits. But in spite 
of her restricted curriculum the pedagogy 
of Madame de Maintenon, her biographer 
Greard assures' us, was based on a sound 
psychology — a psychology not perhaps 
formulated, but drawn from exact and 
careful observation of child-life. Her 
organisation and discipline were as far 
in advance of those of other schools of 
her time as Montaigne's and Rousseau's 
theories (largely adopted by her) w^ere in 
advance of theirs. ' The nature of the 
cliild may have been analysed more philo- 
sophically ; I do not believe that any one 
has understood it better ' (Greard). Her 
successors at Saint-Cyr, unfortunately, are 
undeserving of mention, and the school 
disappears in the chaos of the Revolu- 
tion. 

The acquirements of an English school- 
mistress of the same period can be gathered 



510 



"WOMEN-TEACHERS 



from the curious prospectus quoted by 
Dr. Doran in his Lady of the Last Cen- 
tury : 'A school founded in 1693 by- 
Mrs. Makin, near Tottenham, High Cross, 
where . . . gentlewomen may be instructed 
in the principles of religion, and ... in all 
things taught in other schools. As, work 
of all sorts, dancing, musick, singing, 
writing, keeping accompts ; half the time 
to be spent in these things, the other half 
to be employed in gaining the Latin and 
French tongues ; and those that please 
may learn Greek and Hebrew, the Italian 
and Spanish, in all which this gentlewoman 
hath a competent knowledge.' 

The curriculum was also to embrace, 
if time were allowed, the whole circle of 
the sciences, concluding with arithmetic 
and history. Whether Mrs. Makin was 
able to perform all or any part of what 
she here promises we have no means of 
deciding ; certainly we have no reason to 
suppose that a ' competent knowledge- ' of 
such subjects as Latin, Greek, &c., was 
common among the women-teachers of the 
last or of the beginning of the present 
century. 

The changes that have taken place in 
the status of the women-teach'ers of Eng- 
land during the last forty years are the 
outcome of corresponding changes in the 
education of girls. 

Until the establishment of public day- 
schools for girls of a higher grade than 
the elementary, the well-to-do classes sent 
their daughters to small private boarding- 
schools, or provided them with 'governesses 
at home,' who were expected to be ency- 
clopaedic in attainments. The boarding- 
schools were in many cases presided over 
by intelligent and devoted women, who 
had supplemented their own defective edu- 
cation by general reading ; but the very 
desultoriness of their own acquirements 
rendered any approach to method in their 
instruction exceptional. Their assistants 
for the elder pupils were usually 'masters,' 
partly owing to a lack of competent women- 
teachers, partly owing to a common pre- 
judice in favour of the former, a prejudice 
which in those times no doubt had its 
foundation in facts, but which is rapidly 
dying out under the influence of the 
sounder education of women, and of more 
enlightened views as to the functions of 
the teacher. The women-assistants in 
these schools were, as a rule, ill- educated 
and unfit to conduct the education of 



even the younger pupils, who were usually 
committed to their care. Besides these 
boarding-schools there existed in every 
town a large number of small day-schools, 
kept by a still inferior class of women, 
Avho seldom had any other idea of teaching 
than that of ' hearing lessons ' from a 
book. 

It has been well pointed out that the 
low attainments of a teacher and his or 
her standing in society are reciprocally 
cause and efiect. Society cannot honour 
the half -instructed governess, nor the in- 
competent schoolmistress ; nor, on the 
other hand, will energy, ability, and high 
character seek a career in which little 
profit, little honour, and no advancement 
are to be found. 

The intellectual result of this state of 
things is graphically described in the re- 
port of the Schools Enquiry Commission, 
1867-68 {see Education of Girls). The 
remedy was, among others, clearly indi- 
cated to the commissioners by Miss Wol- 
stenholme, herself the head of a small 
school, and, therefore, not to be suspected 
of interested motives. In a paper written 
about this time she says : ' In the case of 
small schools all the difiiculties of home 
instruction are aggravated. The experi- 
ment of large schools for girls has been 
successfully tried, and the results are 
conclusive as to the superiority of the 
system (so far as concerns day-schools) 
from whatever point of view we regard 
it. Their superior economy is obvious. 
But this economy cannot be estimated 
in money. The school reacts upon the 
teachers, the teaching becomes more ener- 
getic, spirited, successful.' 

The movement in favour of large day- 
schools for girls on a public footing owes 
its origin, in fact, partly to the Report of 
the Commissioners, partly to the efibrts of 
the public-spirited women who founded 
the 'National Union,' but chiefly to those 
who had already shown that the evils com- 
plained of were not irremediable. In 1 850 
Miss Buss started, as a private day-school, 
what has since developed into the North 
London Collegiate School for Girls. In 
1870 she raised it to an endowed school 
by investing in trust for its benefit the ' 
savings of her twenty years' work there. 
The school was moved into more suitable 
premises, and a 'Lower School,' now called 
the ' Camden School,' occupied the old 
house, with its own head-mistress, though 



WOMEH-TEACHERS 



511 



under the superintendence of Miss Buss. 
These schools, in the new and suitable 
buildings provided for them later on, have 
steadily increased in numbers and effici- 
ency, and, still under their much-honoured 
principal, take the lead among London 
schools for girls. Another name deserves 
mention among the pioneers of reform. 
In 1854 a school had been star-ted for girls 
at Cheltenham on the model of the college 
for boys in that town, and was, therefore, 
named the ' Cheltenham Ladies' College.' 
It opened with about one hundred pupils, 
but by 1858 its fortunes had sunk to a 
low ebb, when Miss Dorothea Beale was 
made principal. In a few years the num- 
bers doubled, pupils flocked to it from all 
parts not only of Great Britain, but of 
the colonies ; it became a model for similar 
schools, and the untiring efibrts of its 
principal, it is not too much to say, raised 
the standard of women's education all over 
the country. Since 1872, when the school 
was transferred into a building of its own, 
it has developed in every direction. (An 
intei-esting and full account of Miss Beale 's 
experiences as a teacher will be found in 
the Nineteenth Century for April 1888.) 

Erom the first, both Miss Buss and 
Miss Beale insisted on thorough and me- 
thodical teaching, gradually training their 
own teachers ; they have always invited 
inspection and external examination, and 
they sent their pupils to compete in uni- 
versity examinations as soon as these were 
open to women and girls. 

In these and similar schools that have 
rapidly spread over the country, an alto- 
gether different class of women-teachers 
has sprung up, the demand in this as in 
other cases creating the supply. 

In the face of the large numbers 
and short hours of these day-schools, the 
old-fashioned methods of individual teach- 
ing were felt to be out of place ; a new 
generation of teachers arose who could 
govern and instruct a class, and bring to 
bear upon their teaching accurate and well- 
arranged knowledge. The ' visiting mas- 
ters ' in such schools have been superseded 
by women who have proved themselves 
equal to the new demands upon them. In 
proportion as the standard of women's 
education has been raised their efficiency 
as teachers has increased, and they are 
now almost exclusively employed in in- 
stitutions which formerly, like the Chel- 
tenham Ladies' College, employed men- 



teachers for certain special subjects. Thus 
at the present time the thirty-three high 
schools (fifteen in London and its suburbs 
and eighteen in the provinces) of the 
Girls' Public Day School Company have, 
besides the head-mistresses, 276 women- 
teachers on the regular staff", exclusive of 
over two hundred juniors, teachers on 
probation and of special subjects. Men 
are only employed in very exceptional 
cases. These schools contain, it is to be 
remembered, over six thousand pupils 
drawn from the professional and micldle 
classes of the country. The 'Church 
Schools Company,' founded more recently, 
has established eighteen high schools for 
girls (besides others for boys), and employs 
a similar proportion of mistresses. Be- 
sides these there are many similar schools 
managed by local companies ; thus at 
Manchester there is a large and flourishing 
school, founded in the eax'ly days of the 
movement, its example being soon fol- 
lowed by Plymouth, Exeter, and other 
towns. In a few cases, as in Bedford, 
Leicester, Greenwich, and Newcastle- 
u.nder-Lyne, &c., endowments which had 
been appropriated to the education of 
boys have been restored to the girls ; this 
has enabled the founders of schools in such 
towns to secure as good teachers as the 
high schools, while charging lower fees. 
All these employ women as principals 
and as assistants, and these women teach 
not merely siich subjects as have always 
been included in the curriculum of girls' 
schools, but also Latin, mathematics, and 
sciences such as chemistry, physics, ifec, 
that require skill in the manipulation of 
experiments. 

Girls are prepared by their teachers 
for the university examinations open to 
them, and the standard of certificates ob- 
tained has been raised from year to year 
with that of the teaching in the schools. 
In the Cheltenham Ladies' College, which 
has passed through many stages of develop- 
ment during its thirty-five years of vigo- 
rous life, students who have passed through 
the school course are prepared for the 
Arts and Science degrees of the London 
University, and the subjects required are 
also taught chiefly by women. In the 
colleges founded exclusively for the higher 
education of women, the principals, as at 
Girton, Newnham, Somerville Hall, and 
Hollo way College, &c., are women, and, 
though university professors give the lee- 



512 



WOMEN-TEACHERS 



tures, the coaching is increasingly in the 
luxnds of women. At Girton College, for 
instance, there is a resident lady lecturer 
for cacli of the principal subjects studied 
for the Cambridge Triposes, and at Newn- 
hani classes are held by women in ad\-anced 
subjects to which outside students are 
adniitted. At Holloway, by the will of the 
founder, all the teachers are to be, as soon 
as practicable, resident mistresses. 

The character of the teaching supplied 
by women has undergone no less a change 
than their positioi\. In estimating the 
work done by the women-teachers of the 
present day, we cannot but recall the 
words of tlie Report of the Schools En- 
quiry Connnission of 1867, complaining of 
' the inattention to rudiments ' in girls' 
schools, of their ' slovenliness :\\\d showy 
superficiality,' and contrast them with tlie 
verdict of the Oxford and Cambridge 
Joint Board of Examiners, Avhen tliey 
report in 1887 to the Council of tlie Girls' 
Public Day School Company, that 'The 
■examiner finds it hard to write without 
^apparent exaggeration of the very high 
opinion he has formed of the general 
•excellence of the Literature work of these 
schools. At least four of the schools 
sent up woi'k superior to anything of its 
kind which the examiner has ever seen be- 
fore, except occasionally in the university 
examination of adults ; while quite a 
dozen other schools followed close upon 
the excellence of these four.' In arith- 
metic, the examiner writes, 'I may say 
that I was very much astonished at the 
enormous improvement in the arithmetic of 
girls which has taken place in the last ten 
years. Their arithmetic is now as far in 
advance of the boys in style and accuracy 
as it was then behind.' And in other 
subjects the Board considers tliat the 
schools mentioned liave now reached a high 
standard. The weight to be attached to 
the opinion of the ' Joint Board ' will be 
apparent when it is i-emembered that it 
conducts the annual examination of all 
the best public schools for boys throughout 
the country, and that its certificate ex- 
empts from certain university examina- 
tions. 

The salaries of the teachers in these 
schools A'ary with their position and quali- 
fications. Several head -mistresses are 
receiving from 600/. to 700/. per annum ; 
the maximum for an assistant is about 
250/. ; the average in schools such as those 



under tlie Girls' Public Day School Com- 
pany being 120/. 

It has been well said that the trained 
teacher brings something more to his or 
her task than the mere knowledge in which 
the untrained may often equal them. 
They bring a difterent appreciation of the 
work to be done, and definite methods of 
doing it. In consequence of the increas- 
ingly high standard in girls' education, 
and of the more enlightened views enter- 
tained concerning it, the need of profes- 
sional training for all classes of teachers 
is beginning to be recognised. The Edu- 
cation Department has long demanded 
that elementary teachers of both sexes 
should submit to training (see Code), 
and there are now twenty-six colleges for 
training female teachers in England and 
Wales. One of these, the ' Home and 
Colonial School Society's,' has a ' non- 
government ' depai'tment professedly for 
training teachers of a higher grade ; but 
the qualifications demanded of the candi- 
dates on entrance are insuflicient, and, 
therefore, the need was unsupplied until, 
in 1877, the ' Teacliers' Training and 
Registration Society ' founded a college 
in Bishopsgate, London (siiice removed 
to Fitzroy Street and now known as the 
' Maria Grey Training College '). To this 
the students are required to bring univer- 
sity certificates as evidence that their own 
education lias been sufticiently thorough. 
It is a significant fact that while the col- 
lege for men, founded by the same society, 
has been closed for want of students, the 
' Maria Grey ' has worked steadily since 
its foundation, and yeai'ly prepares its 
students for the examination of the Cam- 
bridge Teachers' Training Syndicate (see 
Training op Teachers), which grants its 
diplomas to botli men and women. 

In 1883 a similar college commenced 
work in Cambridge itself, where the stu- 
dents have the advantages of practising in 
five schools of diflerent kinds, two of which 
are very large, and of attending the lec- 
tures on education given in the university 
under the auspices of the syndicate. The 
students reside with the principal, and 
have thus all the indirect advantages of 
collegiate life. Teachers are also trained 
at the Clieltenham Ladies' College, and at 
Milton Mount (a Nonconformist school 
near Gravesend). 

Women have thus far shown themselves 
capable of conducting efficiently the edu- 



WOMEN-TEACHERS 



513 



cation of their own sex ; they are also 
showing that they are the most suitable 
teachers for boys, at any rate during their 
early life. The system, carefully elabo- 
rated by the German educationist and 
philosopher Froebel {q.v.), usually known 
as the Kindergarten system, has been 
slowly gaining ground in England, and 
is furnishing another field for their work 
as teachers. In the Kindergarten the 
two sexes are taught together up to the 
age of seven, and exclusively by women. 
On this point Froebel himself is most 
explicit. That the results are satisfactory 
is best proved in such places as Bedford, 
where a Kindergarten prepares about 150 
children for the excellent boys' and girls' 
schools under the Harpur trust. The 
heads of these schools bear testimony to 
the superiority, both moral and intellectual, 
of the children who come to them from the 
Kindergarten over those not so prepared. 
In this, as in most of the good Kinder- 
gartens in London and elsewhere, students 
are trained to teach on Froebel's principles, 
such students remaining two years, and 
passing an examination specially arranged 
by the ' Froebel Society.' 

Concerning mistresses in elementary 
schools, their position, training, &c., infor- 
mation will be found under other heads 
(cf. Code, Certificated Teachers, Train- 
ing), since they are placed by the Educa- 
tion Department on much the same footing 
as masters, except perhaps in the matter 
of salary. Thus the average salary of a 
head-master under the London School 
Board is 268?. per annum, of a head-mis- 
tress 188?. \1s., of an assistant-master 
115?. 15*., of a mistress 91?. 8s. (see Times, 
October 5, 1888). 

With regard to private governesses, a 
class of teachers likely always to exist, 
though there is less need for it than for- 
merly, the improvenient in schools has no 
doubt affected them in various ways, and 
a ' Home Education Society ' is endeavour- 
ing to make the ' governess ' better fitted 
for her work. 

The preceding remarks, it is to be 
understood, refer only to England and 
Wales. In Scotland the position of women- 
teachers in secondary schools is far from 
being so satisfactory. It is true that the 
education of girls has long been fairly well 
provided for, especially in Edinburgh, by 
large endowed schools ; but the teaching 
and direction are in the hands of men, 



women being only employed to teach the 
elementary classes, and to aid in maintain- 
ing discipline. In a few towns, however, 
high schools on the English model have 
been started and are doing good work ; 
the chief are Glasgow and St. Andrews ; 
one has recently been opened in Aber- 
deen, and no doubt others will in time 
follow their example. Edinburgh has 
now a training college for mistresses 
which prepares them for the Cambridge 
diploma. 

In Germany the organisation of second- 
ary instruction under the State has proved 
a barrier to progress so far as the higher 
education of women is concerned. The 
excellent Tocherschulen and Biirgerschulen 
for girls are directed and taught by men, 
except in the lowest classes, so that there 
is little inducement to women to become 
teachers, nor have they any opportunities 
for improving their own education corres- 
ponding to those offered in the universities 
of England. The Victoria Lyceum at 
Berlin, founded by the late Miss Archer,- 
under the patronage of the Empress Vic- 
toria, has done something to promote the 
higher education of women. In France 
the state of things is similar, but the larger 
number of boarding-schools gives more 
employment to women. In the ' Lycees 
pour les filles ' organised by the State since 
1881, the 'directrices' and many of the 
teachers are women ; the right principle 
seems to be recognised, so that when the 
' normal school ' at Sevres (for the training 
of mistresses) has been longer at work, no 
doubt the male ' professors ' will be super- 
seded in such schools by those of the other 
sex. The growth of public opinion in 
France in favour of women-teachers is 
indicated by the fact that a proposal to 
entrust women exclusively with the pri- 
mary education of both boys and girls has 
already been discussed in the Chamber of 
Deputies. 

Sweden rivals England in the advances 
made recently, and the fact that women 
are now placed by some of the universities 
on an equal footing with men will doubt- 
less have its bearing on their position as 
teachers in the future. The United States 
of America furnishes a complete contrast 
to Germany in this matter. Not only are 
girls provided with excellent schools and 
women with colleges, besides many which 
admit both sexes (there were forty- six as 
early as 1874), but the education of both 

L L 



514 



WOMEN TEACHERS WRITING 



boys and girls is largely in the hands of 
■women. In the mixed schools the head is 
Tisually a man, but the assistants are of 
both sexes, and the -women are found to 
be quite equal to the -work of advanced 
classes. 

In view of the ever-increasing necessity 
for educated ■women to earn their living, 
it becomes aii interesting question to con- 
sider their fitness for tlie work of teaching. 
T-wenty years ago, in the report published 
by the Commissioners, Mr. Fitch said, ' Of 
two persons, a man and a woman, who 
have an equally accurate acquaintance 
with a given subject, it may be fairly 
assumed that the woman is likely to be 
the better teacher. All the natural gifts 
which go so far to make a good teacher 
she possesses in a high degree. In sym- 
pathy with learnei's, in the imaginative 
faculty which enables her to see what is 
going on in their minds, in the tact which 
seizes ixpon the happiest Avay to remove a 
diliieulty or to present a truth, in insight 
into character, in patience and in kind- 
ness, she is likely to excel him. A larger 
proportion of women than of men may be 
said to hav§ been born teachers, and to be 
specially gifted with the art of communi- 
cating what they know.' So also Mr. 
James Biyce, ' Women seem to have more 
patience as teachers, more quickness in 
seeing whether the pupil understands, 
more skill in adapting the explanations to 
the peculiarities of the pupil's mind, and 
certainly a nicer discei'nment of his or her 
character. They are quite as clear in 
exposition as men are, and, when well 
trained, quite as capable of making their 
teaching philosophical.' 

These words were written at a time 
when women had seldom ' an . accurate 
acquaintance' with anythiiig, when high 
schools and women's colleges were un- 
known. A consideration worthy of some 
attention may be added to these weighty 
opinions. It has been urged as an inevi- 
table disadvantage of women's work as 
compared with men's, that the prospect of 
marriage remains a near probability for 
many years of a woman's life, and deprives 
her of some of the settled resolutions with 
which a mail enters \ipon the career which 
will remain his, whatever form his private 
life may take. Now of all bread-winning 
careers open to women, that of teaching is 
most closely allied to what most persons 
consider their natural vocation. Although 



a woman usually abandons her lucrative 
work when she marries, time spent in the 
sclioolroom is a direct preparation for 
nnich of her work as a mother. A woman 
wlio has learnt before marriage the ditfi- 
cult art of controlling and instructing the 
young is prepared to do her duty as a 
mother with greater pi'otit to her offspring 
and greater satisfaction to herself than 
one Avho has all to learn by bitter expe- 
rience, and whose children must suffer for 
her mistakes at a time of life when they 
are most impressionable. Froebel advo- 
cated the training in the Kindergarten of 
all young wonien who intended to marry. 

Workhouse Schools. iSee Classifica- 
tion. 

Working Men's College. See Mau- 
rice. 

Wrangler. See Tripos. 

Writing.— Writing is the art of form- 
ing letters or characters on paper, slate, 
or other material. The act of learning tO' 
write is usually associated with the act of 
learning to read. Jacotot would set a 
child to commence writing 'after two les- 
sons in reading'; Locke thinks that Svhen 
a child can read English well it will be 
seasonable to enter him in writing'; La 
Salle requires that a child shall not be 
exercised in wiiting till he can read per- 
fectly. We have already seen that prac- 
tice in Avriting words is a great help to the 
mastery of the, ditticulties of reading and 
spelling, so that writing had better be 
begun pretty early. The systematic ma- 
nual exercises of the Kindergarten training 
ought to prove directly useful, and ele- 
mentai'v lessons in drawing would also 
tell in the same direction. ' Children,' says 
Mr. Blaldston {27ie Teacher, pp. 17-18), 
' should be supplied with sticks wherewith 
to form all letters that are made up of 
sti'aight lines, then with lings and half- 
rings of cardboard to form letters like 
B, C, aiid P. After this they are to be 
eiicouraged to draw letters in printed 
chai'acters on slates and blackboards. By 
such means children learn first the forms, 
then the powers, and afterwards the names 
of the lettex'S with little trouble to their 
teacher, and with no little amusement to 
themselves.' There are many, however, 
who regard the first part of this exercise 
as over-elaboration. Among the ancient 
Hindoos 'exercises in -writing were per- 
foi'med first upon the sand with a stick, 
then upon palm leaves with an iron style, 



WRITING 



515 



and finally upon the dry leaves of the plane 
tree with ink ' (Compayre, transl. Payne, p. 
254). No harm will be done if the teacher 
at once places a pencil in the hands of the 
child, and shows him how to hold it. Mr. 
Blakiston would drill the infants from the 
very first 'to take up their pencils with 
the second G.nger and thumb; the forefinger 
should point upwards, and not be placed 
on the pencil until writing begins' (p. 18). 
The pupil 'must hold his pen or pencil 
about an inch from the point between the 
tips of the first and second fingers and the 
thumb, all extended nearly straight '(p. 38). 
No pencil should be shorter than four 
inches, when it gets shorter it should be 
lengthened by being fixed in a tin holder. 
'It will be useful and timely in the be- 
ginning,' says La Salle, ' to give the pupil 
a stick of the bigness of a pen, on which 
there are three notches, two on the right 
and one on the left, to mark the places 
where his fingers should be put.' This 
good idea may be carried into effect in 
our own day by practice with holders fur- 
nished with arrangements for receiving 
the fingers in the proper positions, thus 
saving no end of trouble. Pencils first; 
then, after considerable practice and faci- 
lity with the pencil, pens — good medium- 
points. 

Now as to proper position. 'Before 
beginning to write,' says Mr. Blakiston 
(p. 39), 'the children should be told to 
make a quarter-turn to the right, place 
their left forearms on the middle of the 
desk, parallel to its edge (so as to keep 
their slates or books steady by the pressure 
of their left hands laid open thereon), to 
rest tile fieshy part of their right forearms 
on the desk, with the third and fourth 
fingers bent inwards, to give some support 
to their right hands. If their wrists then 
lie as they ought to do, rather flat than edge- 
wise, on the desk, the handles of the pens 
will point towards the right shoulder. 
They will now begin to write. As they 
write, the teacher will scrutinise each care- 
fully, noting and at once correcting every 
deviation from any of the above instruc- 
tions, and insisting upon every child sitting 
tipright, vnth head erect, and chest out, and 
keeping his paper or slate straight, exactly 
as originally placed. Slates should not be 
tilted up during writing. As soon as a 
whole line of writing has been completed, 
they should be cautioned to push their 
slates or books upwards away from them, 



instead of (as is too commonly done) 
gradually lowering the right arm till the 
wrist, or even the hand, rests on the desk, 
when, of course, all power of writing freely 
is lost.' With ruled slate and pencil there 
is the advantage of greater mechanical 
ease; and if the copy is taken from the 
blackboard, under the direct supervision 
of the teacher, there is the further advan- 
tage of perhaps keener and more minute 
attention. But probably there is at least 
as much advantage in the outlined letters 
of the best copy-books, to be filled in with 
pencil. Alternations of exercise might 
secure all these advantages. Some teachers 
favour the plan of decomposing the letters 
into their elementary lines, and accordingly 
start their pupils with strokes and pothooks. 
It is well, however, to remember that 
strokes and pothooks get wearisome, and 
soon to give the infants complete letters, 
dropping the strokes and pothooks gra- 
dually. The practice in the letters should 
proceed from the simpler to the more 
difficult, similar formations being first 
practised together, and then contrasting 
formations together. The half-text hand 
is probably the best; the small-text is 
much too small for beginners, while the 
large text is too large for the easy reach 
of the small and unpractised fingers of the 
child . ' The proper inclination, dimensions, 
and distances of the letters,' says Professor 
Bain, 'are attained through a delicate 
sense of visible form which is very various 
in individuals, and it is best cultivated 
by drawing exercises. This need not be 
pushed to an extreme point of delicacy for 
the ends of primary education; any very 
extraordinary endowment in the art is 
likely to be attended with deficiencies in 
other important mental qualities. All 
pupils should be brought up to the point 
of plain passable writing, and should be 
made to put stress on the points that 
distinguish such letters as are apt to be 
confounded; it is not the schoolmaster'&' 
business to carry writing to the pitch of a 
work of art' {Education as a Science, page 
237). This is the practical view; it is 
mere pedantry to urge that the equality 
of the spaces between letters and words 
'should be occasionally tested by ac- 
tual measurement' (Blakiston, page 38). 
Locke's Method is worth quoting, although 
the useful portions of it have been incor- 
porated in the foregoing remarks. After 
directions how to hold the pen, and how 

LL 2 



516 



WRITING 



to place the pupil's arm and body to the 
paper, Locke goes on to say : — ' These 
practices being got over, the way to teach 
him to write without much trouble is to 
get a plate graved with the characters of 
such a hand as you like best; but you 
must remember to have them a pretty 
deal bigger than he should ordinarily write, 
for every one naturally comes by degrees 
to write a less hand than he at first was 
taught, but never a bigger. Such a plate 
being graved, let several sheets of good 
writing paper be printed off with red ink, 
which he has nothing to do but go over 
with a good pen filled with black ink, 
which will quickly bring his hand to the 
formation of those characters, being at 
first showed where to begin, and how to 
form every letter.^ And when he can do 
that well he must then exercise on fair 
paper, and so may easily be brought to 
write the hand you desire.' Mulhaiiser's 
Method, which once was in great vogue, 
carries the analysis of the lines of the 
letters to great extremes. It also demands 
a specially ruled copy-book, such as to 
aftbrd the pupil the means of forming the 
characters by very accurate measurement 
of their parts. The fundamental lines are 
the straight line and the curve; the first 
Avritten upwai'ds or downwards, the last 
drawn to the right or to the left. Com- 
binations of these give the loop and the 
crotchet. Eventually, from these four 
forms, are developed (with slight excep- 
tions) the whole twenty-six. Each step is 
practised to facility, and new steps are 
added, while the first-learned steps are 
kept up. ' When the analysis is exhausted, 
the pupil still writes to dictation — that is, 
according to a dictation of the elements of 
the letters. If he were to write the word 
dictate, he would do so, not from copy, but 
from dictation of its several letters in 
this way: double-curve, straight line, two 
heights, link (d); straight line, link {i); 
curve, link {c); straight line, height-and- 
a-lialf, link, bar {t); double curve, straight 
line, link {a); straight line, height-and-a- 
half, link, bar {t); loop, curve, link (e); 

1 ' Quintilian recommends, for the purpose of 
strengthening the child's hand, and of preventing it 
from making false movements, that he should practise 
jn -wooden tablets on which the letters had been traced 
by cutting.' (Compayrd's History of Pedagogy, 
translatedby Professor W. H. Payne (Swan Son- 
nenschein, Lowrey & Co.), page 49.) Saint Jerome 
also 'recommends that children should first practise 
on tablets of wood, on which letters have been en- 
graved' \lbid. p. 67, note.) 



the whole forming the word dictate' {Onvv'iQ, 
342). According to the explanations of 
those who first inti'oduced it into this 
country from Geneva, under the sanction 
of the Committee of Council on Education, 
this method 'consists in the decomposition of 
the written characters into their elements, 
and the classification of these elements, so 
that they may be presented to the child 
in the order of their simplicity, and that 
he may copy each of them separately. 
The synthesis, or recomposition of these 
elements into letters and words, is the 
pi'ocess by which the child learns to wi'ite. 
He combines the forms which he has 
learned to imitate. He recognises each 
separate form in the most diflicult combi- 
nations, and, if he errs, is immediately 
able to correct the fault. . . . The method 
enables the child to determine Avith §ase 
the height, breadth, and inclination of 
every part of every letter. It would 
obviously be diflicult to do this by rules 
alone, and such rules would not be under- 
stood by children, and would not be re- 
membered without much effort. The me- 
thod leads children to the result by prac- 
tical expedients; and such rules as are 
desirable to rationalise these expedients 
are easily remembered as appendages to 
that which is recorded in the child's ex- 
perience, though the rules would probably 
be forgotten if such practical demonstra- 
tions did not precede them.' So far as 
the method discourages the practice of 
complex before simple operations, and en- 
courages an intelligent instead of a mecha- 
nical imitation of the characters, it is 
praiseworthy. But, as Dr. Currie points 
out, 'it fails from its being too rigidly a 
synthetic method; the analysis that is 
made for the first stages of elementary 
teaching should not descend to the smallest 
parts possible, but should stop at the 
smallest parts which the pupil can appre- 
ciate.' A further count against the method 
is, that 'the practice which it gives is 
extremely mechanical; so that, if the 
teacher can count on his pupils attaining 
through it a modei'ate average of attain- 
ment, he will be disappointed in expecting 
as its result a good style of the art ' (Currie, 
343.) 

At the opposite pole stands Jacotot's 
Method. Jacotot would not set out with 
elementary lines, curves, and lettei's, in 
text or half-text, but places before the 
pupil a complete sentence, either written 



YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 



517 



by the master or engraved in small-hand, 
and requires him to copy this. Such a 
sentence is generally selected from the 
pupil's reading lesson, the two exercises 
being made to assist each other. The first 
word written, the pupil is led to compare 
in detail his own performance with his 
model for imitation, so that he becomes 
aware of his various shortcomings ; the 
teacher making no positive criticism, but 
simply putting questions that lead the 
mind of the pupil to the desired conclusions. 
'The principle must never be lost sight 
of, that the pu'pil ahoays corrects himself. 
Each letter passes under a similar review, 
and the whole word is then written over 
again, the second and each successive 
attempt being subjected to the same rigid 
investigation, until the pupil learns to 
correct, in a greater or less degree, every 
fault as previously particularised by him- 
self. He then goes on to the second word, 
in examining which the process just de- 
scribed is invariably employed; and so on 
with regard to the rest of the sentence, 
recollecting that every time a fresh word 
is taken the writing must commence with 
the first word written, that all the results 
of the attention previously bestowed may 
be embraced and preserved each time of 
transcription, and that the pupil may not 
fall again into any of the errors of which 
he has already been made conscious. When 
the child begins to transcribe a sentence 
or two tolerably well, he is required to 
write from memory, and afterwards note 
his faults by comparison with the original 
copy. After some considerable practice in 
the writing of small hand, he is carried 
forward to exercises in the bolder styles 



of writing, while, at the same time, the 
incessant maintenance of the principles 
originally urged upon him is on no account 
to be looked upon as a matter of slight 
importance. He can never perform any- 
thing so well but that with more pains he 
may perform it better ' (J. Payne, Lectures 
on Education, page 353). This method 
' certainly involves the exercise of intelli- 
gence sufficient, as it would seem, to make 
success possible, in spite of the obvious 
complexity of the first models the pupils 
imitate. But the objection to the method 
is this, that it does not cultivate specially 
the particular hind of intelligence Avhich a 
good writing method should cultivate, viz. 
the intelligence of form'' (Currie, 344). 

It will be interesting to quote from 
Mr. C. C. Perry's Reports on German 
Eleinentary Schools and Training Colleges 
the process employed in the German train- 
ing colleges. ' Task. — Pupils are to acquire 
a plain, clear, and running hand, and also • 
to learn to write neatly on the blackboard 
with chalk. Method. — The teacher first 
writes the single letters, as well as their 
parts, separately on the blackboard. They 
are next thoroughly discussed and described 
as a whole ; practice then commences in 
copy-books and on the blackboard, and is 
partly carried out by counting. Correc- 
tions are principally made in class, and 
are to help pupils clearly to recognise the 
mistakes they have made. As at the 
commencement chief stress is to be laid 
on clearness, accuracy, and precision, so 
in the further practice importance is to be 
attached chiefly to the firmness and fluency 
of the writing' (page 111). 

Wykeham. See Public Schools. 



Y 



Young Children (Education of). — This 
article will deal with the education of 
infants, and as the term infant is vari- 
ously applied, it may be well to state that 
here it means a child from about three to 
about seven years old. Tliis is the sense 
in which the word is used by the Educa- 
tion Department. 

A new-born infant is like the man 
who has lapsed into ' second childishness 
and mere oblivion — sans teeth, sans taste, 
sans eyes, sans everything.' Organs of 
sense it has, and they receive impressions, 



but as yet these impressions are not re- 
cognised, and consequently there can be 
no knowledge. Similarly there is no will, 
all actions being automatic and involun- 
tary. The first dawn of intelligence comes 
when difierences of feeling begin to be 
noted. The sensation of heat or of cold 
is first perceived, for example, when there 
is a change from one to the other. To the 
consciousness of unlikeness succeeds the 
consciousness of likeness, when sensations 
which have been experienced before are 
recognised on recurring. The repetition 



518 



YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OP) 



ot sensations at length leads to the forma- 
tion of ideas. 'Whatever the object of 
thought,' says Miss Youmans, 'to know 
in what respect it differs from all other 
things, and in what respects it resembles 
them; is to know all about it, is to exhaust 
the action of the intellect upon it. . The 
way the child gets its early knowledge is 
the way all real knowledge is obtained. 
When it discovers the likeness between 
sugar, cake, and certain fruits — that is, 
when it disintegrates them in thought as 
siveet — it is making just such an induction 
as Newton made in discovering the law of 
gravitation, which was but to discover the 
likeness among celestial and terrestrial 
motions. . And as with physical objects so 
also with human actions. The child may 
run round the house, and play with its 
toys; it must not break things, or play 
with the fire. Here again are relations 
of likeness and unlikeness, forming a basis 
of moral classification. The judge on the 
bench is constantly doing the same thing ; 
that is, tracing out the likeness of given 
actions and classing them as right and 
wrong. 

The essential character of infancy (as 
indeed of childhood and of youth generally) 
is growth, physical, mental, and moral 
growth. This growth is the business of 
the present^ and the hope of the future, 
and all that parents and teachers can do 
is to foster and protect it. Now growth 
presupposes two conditions, weakness and 
mobility, though indeed it may be objected 
that these two are only different aspects 
of the same condition, for an organism 
grows because it is weak, because some- 
thing is lacking to it, while at the same 
time it grows because it has within 'it, 
constantly modifying it, a power of change, 
of formation and assimilation. All who 
have charge of the young should therefore 
remember that they are dealing with beings 
exhibiting sometimes the weakness of im- 
maturity, and sometimes the force and 
spontaneity of growth. The teacher in 
particular should remember this double 
character of child-nature, and adapt his 
physical, mental, and moral training, on 
the one hand to the ever varying capacity 
of his pupils, and on the other to their 
ceaseless need of action and of change. 
He must take into account the limits 
which nature imposes upon their faculties, 
and likewise the imperative demand of 
those faculties for novelty, for recreation, 



and for movement. What he must avoid 
most of all is fatigue, which may arise 
either from work being too difficult, or 
from work not too difficult in itself being 
too long continued. 

Importance of Infant ScJiooIs. — Where 
the physical and moral conditions of the 
home are good, where the parents have 
the ability, the time, and the disposition 
to exercise an intelligent supervision over 
their children, and where the period of 
formal education is not limited by the 
necessity of earning wages at the earliest 
possible moment, — where all these circum- 
stances combine there is no need for infant 
schools, though even then a child may do 
worse than spend two or three hours a 
day in a kindergarten (q.v.) or other in- 
stitution where amusement is intelligently 
directed towards instruction. In the case 
of a vast majority of our children, however, 
this happy combination of circumstances 
does not exist, and then the infant school 
becomes a want as well as a blessing. If 
it did nothing else, it keeps little ones out 
of mischief, and in large towns it gives 
them, instead of the discomforts of the 
home and the dangers of the street, 
pleasant rooms where the atmosphere is 
physically and morally healthy. Further- 
more, an infant school is of enormous 
value as an agent in the formation of good 
habits. When children are admitted into 
a senior school straight from the street 
they come "vvith bad habits already con- 
tracted, and it is almost hopeless to look for 
an abundant harvest of the good seed from 
a soil which is choked with weeds. Then, 
too, all the education which the children of 
the poor can get must be crowded into the 
period wherein they are too young to earn 
anything, and from so short a time the 
earlier years can ill be spared, especially 
as those are the years when the attention 
is most alert and the memory most reten- 
tive. It is strange that infant schools 
should be so entirely modern, but this is 
probably due to the fact that till recently 
the imparting of knowledge was considered 
to be the sole work of a teacher, and 
young children were believed to have small 
capacity for receiving knowledge. 

History of English Infant Schools. — It 
is said that the first institution bearing 
even a rudimentary resemblance to the 
modern infant school was opened, about 
1780, at Waldbach, in the Ban de la 
Roche, a mountainous canton in the north- 



YOUNG ClilLDEEN (EDUCATION OF) 



519 



east of France, by the pastor, J. F. Oberlin. 
He assembled all children between two 
and six living in the parish. Then he and 
Louise Scheppler showed them pictures 
and maps, talked to them, and taught 
them i-eading • and sewing. Some years 
later Pestalozzi {q.v.) and de Fellenberg, 
though they did not establish infant 
schools, gave form and body to ideas 
which have helped to make infant schools 
what they are. 

The first infant school in the United 
Kingdom, that at New Lanark, by the 
falls of Clyde, was not a copy of conti- 
nental models, but an original, gradually 
evolved by the circumstances of the place. 
In 1783 David Dale (in company with 
Richard Arkwright) there set up one of 
the earliest cotton mills that Scotland 
had seen. Work at a factory was con- 
sidered by the labouring classes an in- 
ferior and degrading occupation ; ' hands' 
were consequently hard to get, and only 
those whose want of character made it 
difficult for them to obtain employment 
elsewhere resorted to the mills. The sup- 
■ ply from this unsatisfactory source was 
supplemented by a supply from another 
source equally unsatisfactory, the superin- 
tendents of the parish poor, who furnished 
a large number of young children from 
the lowest quarters of populous towns. 
Mr. Dale belonged to the class of employers 
who do not think that they have discharged 
all obligations when they have paid their 
workmen's wages. Believing that it was 
his duty to promote the moral and mate- 
rial welfare of those whose labour brought 
him wealth, he set up schools for the 
younger hands and tried in various ways 
to benefit the older ones. His efibrts, 
however, were only partially successful, 
for, strong in the simple faith of his 
evangelical fathers, he thought that the 
restraints of religion ought to sufiice for 
all, and was baSled by men who would 
not submit to them. 

When Dale retired from active life he 
disposed of his business to a small com- 
pany of merchants and manufacturers, 
mostly English. The chief proprietor and 
leading spirit was Dale's son-in-law, Ro- 
bert Owen, a philanthropist, who had 
brought all the powers of a strong and 
ingenious mind to the study of social 
questions, and had formed independent 
conclusions respecting the solution of them. 
Entirely agreeing with his father-in-law 



as to the duty of employers, he proceeded 
at once to put his theories into practice. 
He believed that men are largely the crea 
tures of the circumstances in which they 
are placed. Consequently he used every 
possible means at once to prevent wrong 
and to encourage right, while he appeared 
to have an unconquerable faith in the 
possible goodness of human nature. 

Of his methods with adults this is not 
the place to speak. The young were taken 
in hand betimes. The system of receiving- 
parish apprentices was abolished, and men 
with large families were encouraged to 
settle in the neighbourhood, good houses 
being provided for them. The practice of 
employing children of six, seven, and eight 
in the factory was discontinued, and an ex- 
cellent school was established. There was 
at first no intention of providing specially 
for infants, but as no child that could walk 
was refused admission the school was 
soon overrun with little ones too young 
to profit by any mode of instruction then 
in use. They might possibly have been 
sent home to be out of the way but for 
the happy accident of a teacher being- 
found just fitted by nature to deal with 
them. This teacher was Mr. James Bu- 
chanan, who possessed the patience, tact, 
sympathy, and invention needful for over- 
coming the novel difiiculties of the situa- 
tion. He made the children thoroughly 
happy ; he did not weary their little brains 
with books, yet he succeeded in instruct- 
ing while he amused them with pictures 
and objects. 

In June 1816, Mr. Owen, describing 
the schools as they then were to a Com- 
mittee of the House of Commons, said : — 
' The children are received into a prepara 
tory training school at the age of three, 
in wliich they are perpetually superin- 
tended to prevent them acquiring bad 
habits, to give them good ones, and to 
form their dispositions to mutual kind- 
ness and a sincere desire to contribute 
all in their power to benefit each other. 
These effects are chiefly accomplished by 
example and practice, precept being found 
of little use and not comprehended by 
them at this early age. The children are 
taught also whatever may be supposed 
useful that they can understand ; and 
this instruction is combined with as much 
amusement as is found to be requisits fo:' 
their health, and to render them active 
cheerful and happy, fond of the school 



o20 



YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 



and of their instructors. The school in 
bad weather is hehi in apartments properly 
arranged for the purpose, but in fine 
weather the children are much out of 
doors, that they may have the bei\efit of 
sutticient exercise in the open air. In 
this training school the children remain 
two or tlu-ee years, according to their 
bodily strength and mentxal capacity. 
When they have attained as much strength 
and instruction as to enable them to unite, 
without creating confusion, with the 
youngest classes in the superior school, 
they aiH? admitted into it, and iii this 
school they are taught, to read, write, 
account, and the girls, in addition, to 
sew.' 

As the fame of the reforms accom- 
plished in New Lanark spread, thousands 
of tourists visited the place, and the more 
enlightened went away desirous of copv- 
ing elsewhere some at least of Mr. Owen's 
plans. Thus Brougham, Lord Lansdo^^^le, 
J ohn Smith, James Mill, Joseph Wilson, 
and others, in ISIS, opened an 'asylum 
for infancy ' in Brewer's Green, afterwards 
removed to Vincent Square, Westminster, 
and borrowed James Buchanan to conduct 
it. In London Buchanan made the ac- 
quaintance of Samuel Wilderspin, then 
clerk of the New Jerusalem Church, 
Waterloo Eoad, to whom he taught his 
methods of dealing with young children. 
Seeing the success of the Westminster 
school, Mr. Wilson, in 1S:20, opened one 
in Spitaltields, and on the recommendation 
of Buchaj^an gave the charge of it to 
"\\ ilderspin. When the new master, ac- 
companied by his wife, appeai"ed on the 
scene of his laboui-s, he found the room 
filled by a crowd of little boys and girls, 
running, laughing, and shouting. " He 
tried to get silence, but his commands 
Avere not heeded, and indeed not lieard. 
Each group that he quieted broke ii\to 
disorder as soon as he left it. At last, 
almost in despair, he snatched ofl" the 
bright cap which his wife was wearing 
and dangled it at the end of a pole. This 
aroused the curiosity and arrested the at- 
tention of the young mob, and the battle 
was won. 

By altering Buchanan's methods a 
little (sometimes for the better and some- 
times for tlie worse), and by drawing a 
distinction between infant asylums and 
infant schools, Wilderspin persuaded him- 
self that he was the founder of the latter, 



and, what is more to the purpose, he per- 
suaded the Prime Minister, and got placed 
upon the civil list. Wilderspin was never 
skilful in the org-anisation of a school, but 
he was a good gallery teacher and a good 
missionary. The zeal and activity which 
he displayed in promoting the establish- 
ment of infant schools brought him into 
notice, and he was made superintendent 
of the Dublin model schools of the Irish 
Commissioners. His attainments, how- 
ever, were too humble for him to retain 
the post. He deserved his peiision, not 
because he was the original founder of 
infant schools, but because he was an 
earnest and successful advocate of them. 

While one set of circumstances was 
working out one solution of the problem 
of early education at New Lanark, another 
set of circumstances was working out an- 
other solution a few miles down the Clyde- 
David Stow, the son of a merchant, was 
born at Paisley on May 17, 1793. He 
was educated in the grammar school of 
his native town, and at the age of eighteen 
entered the service of a Glasgow firm. 
'For five years previous to ISli) ' he was 
chai"ged with the distribution of certain 
funds to poor old men. His charitable 
mission led him through the Saltmarket 
(the ' St. Giles ' of Glasgow), and his eyes, 
and eai-s were often shocked by the pro- 
fanity, indecency, and vice which were 
exhibited by children and even infants. 
The only remedy which suggested itself 
to him was a Sunday school, ' for I then,' 
he says, ' participated in the almost uni- 
versal delusion that religious instructioii 
would accomplish all, and I had not 
learned that religious and moral itisfruc- 
tion and religious and moral frainimj ai-e 
two distinct things.' He set up his school 
in a kitchen in a low lane, and only ad- 
mitted children living in that lane or the 
next, thus removing the aversion they 
might have to appearing in rags among 
sti'angei'S. The idea was considei-ed so 
good that from 1S17 to 1S:24 schools for 
about nine thousand children were esta- 
blished on the ' local system ' in various 
parts of the city. Stow and his fellow- 
workers, however, gradually discovered 
that one day's teaching in school was not 
equal to six days' traiiiing in the streets. 
The opening of a weekday school followed 
naturally. * " Prevention is better than 
cure " was our motto,' says Mr. Stow, 
' and to besrin well we caimot begin too 



YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 



521 



early. My first object, therefore, was to 
begin with children under six years of 
age, before their intellectual and moral 
habits were fully formed, consequently 
when fewer obstacles were presented to 
the formation of good ones.' The pro- 
moters Avere fortunate in securing for 
their first school a born teacher of infants, 
Mr. David Caughie. Other schools for 
infants and for older children followed, 
and in 1827 the Glasgow Normal Semi- 
nary was formed. Here Stow's ' training 
system ' was fully developed and exhibited, 
and here persons came to learn it. The 
essence of this system lay in the distinc- 
tion draAvn between teaching and training. 
' Teaching is simply telling, and when not 
united with training is weak, because it 
stands alone ; when conjoined, however, 
the effect is powerful and strikingly 
manifest.' In other words, Stow main- 
tained that the end of education is the 
"cultivation of good habits, and it was 
because the cultivation of good habits 
cannot begin too early that he first opened 
infant schools. ' Infant teaching schools 
withovit a playground ' he considered ' de- 
cidedly injurious to the health of body 
and mind, and even with a playground, if 
the stuffing system ' was pursued, they 
'ought to be condemned.' No one will 
deny that the formation of character and 
the acquisition of knowledge are different ; 
the weakness of Stow's system lay in the 
assumption that they are to some extent 
antagonistic. Its strength lay in the 
■prominence which, in morals, it gave to 
action as distinct from rule — in enforcing 
that ' the only way to do a thing is just 
to do it.' 

While the Glasgow merchant was 
working out one system of education in 
the dirt and squalor of a great industrial 
capital, an English clergyman was exem- 
plifying another system in the rural quiet 
of a Surrey village. The Rev. Charles 
Mayo, D.D., was one of the many visitors 
to Yverdun whose enthusiasm was kin- 
dled by the enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. 
' Profoundly convinced,' he says, ' of the 
truth of Pestalozzi's views, and warned 
against his errors by long actual observa- 
tion of their consequences,' he ' determined 
to attempt the introduction of his method 
into England, religiously preserving the 
idea, but adapting the form to those cir- 
cumstances in which he might be placed. 
He considered that the most effectual 



mode of accomplishing this end was to de- 
vote himself to the formation and conduct 
of a school in which the arrangement and 
practical application of those principles 
might be made. To exhibit the system 
in operation, to elaborate, by means of 
expei'iments continually repeated, a course 
of instruction, and above all to prepare 
matei'ials for an appeal to actual results,, 
seemed to him a far more useful and 
effectual, though less rapid or brilliant, 
process than that of dragging it before re- 
luctant audiences at public meetings, or 
of advocating its merits in the periodical 
publications of the day. He was content 
that it should be buried in oblivion for a 
while, assured that if it possessed the life 
of truth it would in due time spring up 
with renoN-ated vigour.' Aided by Miss 
Mayo, his sister, he set up a school at 
Cheam for the children of the upper 
classes, and thence from time to time 
issued little books of ' Lessons ' on the 
method of the master. The interest which 
Mr. John Stuckey Reynolds felt in the 
establishment of infant schools brought 
him into contact with the INIayos, and in 
conjunction with them he conceived the 
idea of applying the principles of Pesta- 
lozzi to the schools of the poor. The re- 
sult was the establishment in 1836 of the 
Home and Colonial School Society {q.v.), 
for,the purpose of supplying infant school 
teachers. 

There were already existing some in- 
fant schools in coiniection with the British 
and Foreign School Society ((^-.t'.), and the 
attention which, from so many points, was. 
being directed to their importance led to 
a rapid increase in their number. In 1845 
Mr. Joseph Fletcher, one of the first 
inspectors appointed by the Committee 
of Council, was instructed to report upon 
them. Speaking of the earlier infant 
schools he says some of the promoters ap- 
peared to have considered them merely as. 
asylums for healthful amusement under 
some degree of discipline and controL 
Others, thinking that they presented op- 
portunities likewise for mental develop- 
ment, introduced some of the plans of 
Lancaster and Bell, never calculated for 
infants. Others again made oral instruc- 
tion from the Scriptures a part of their 
plan, but as hardly any faculty, except 
the memory, was exercised, and as that 
was exercised almost exclusively upon 
words, they grievously failed. ' The most 



'oTJ 



YOVSG CHILDREN (^EPrCATIO^' OF) 



fatal error -n-as. howovor,' s;iy$ Mr. Fletoher, i 
' tlio leaven of intellectual dis;play whioh, 
whatever the subjects for its exercise, np- | 
pears to have crept into a good many of 
these establishments of earlier foundation. 
It seems to have produced in some of them 
-what I do not know how to designate 
otherwise than as the '' prodigy system," 
uiuler which the quicker childivn were to 
be woudei-s of en\-y and admiration to the 
i-est, imd the whole school in which they 
weiv e>diibited one of admiration, if not 
of envy, to its friends and ueighboui's. . . . 
Conceit, envy, ;uid fivtfulness, ill i>e- 
stiuined by fear, were tlio leading moral 
elements of such a system, and stiiltifying 
verbal repetition its" chief intellectual e.x- 
orcise.' 

By the tin\e of :Mr, Fletchers report, 
however, a givat impivvement had been 
wrought, and schools of the kind which 
he described but to coudeuui were fast 
disappearing. The theory of all the modern 
schools which ho had \isited appeai-ed to 
conten\plate an education at once physical, 
intellectual, industrial, moral, and i-eli- 
gious ; and the largest part of tl\e work 
undertaken by the best of them wvs the 
implanting of good habits of body, heart, 
and mind, which should gi\iw with the 
groAN-th and sti-engthen with the stivngth 
of the little ones. The children were 
generally divided into two classes, accord- 
ing to their agv. Those in the younger 
class were taught by a series of' contri- 
vances to talk and to look at pictures with 
intelligence, and also to gx» throuiih a. va- 
riety of simple movements in niarching 
and changing stations at brief interviils. 
They were also tonight their lettei-s, aiid 
exeivised in forum\g elementary svUables. 
As they gi-ew out of the earlier stage they 
passed into the higher division, where they 
i-eccived, according to their capacity, some- 
what more \-aried instruction. The teacher 
told then\ stories about the anima-ls and 
other objects represented in tlie pictuivs, 
iuid about persons and events mentioned 
in the Bible. They weiv also exeivised in 
plaiting, tying knots, sewing, and other 
nuuuial occupatioi\s, and they wei-e in- 
structed in the elenunitary rules of arith- 
metic, principjilly by means of phvsical 
illustrations of them. The elder pupils 
could read the Xew Testament, write in a 
copy-book, and work questions in the lirst 
four rules of arithmetic. Such pupils 
ought strictly to have been in a senior 



school, but the infant school was often the 
only one which poor childivu attended. On 
leaving that they went to work. Though, 
compared with the best infant schools of 
the present day, the best scliools visited 
by Mr. Fletcher would appear to be for- 
mal, and their exercises to be ntarkeil by 
an insuliicient knowledgx^ of child natuiv, 
it caitnot be denied that enormous pro- 
gress had been made. 

This progress was ntaintained. The 
Boyal Couuuission of lSo8-18(>l (gene- 
rally named after its chairman, the Duke 
of Xewcastle) explicitly declares that iii 
the best inftuit schools much was done 
and mtich evcit taught. The Commissionei"S 
further declared tliat infant schools 'form 
a most important part of the machinery 
required for a national system of educa- 
tion, inasmuch as they lay the foundation 
in some degree of kuowledgv, and in a 
still greater degree of habits which are 
essential to edttcatioit, while without them 
a child may contract habits and sustain 
injuries which the best school will after- 
wartis be unable to connect and remedy.' 
Infant schools possessed the .advantage of 
being ' contparatively cheap, as they ai"e 
\tsually tatight by luistivsses." Further, 
the 'religious ditViculty cotild liardly arise 
in them, it being scanvly conceivable that 
the instruction of children under seven 
yeai*s of age should ever be dogutatic' 
The Commissioners. howe\"er, beyond sug- 
gesting that every schooluustress should 
undergo a coui"se of traiuiitg to adapt her 
to deal with infants, made no importattt 
ivconnuendation on the subject, louder 
the various Codes (.^f >' Ckaxts). infant 
schools steadily incre.-vsed in nttmber, but 
there was no material change in the work 
which they did till the nu^thods of Frebel 
((/.r.) beg-an to be practised in them. lu, 
187-1: the Scliool Board for London ap- 
pointed its first lectutvr oi\ the kiitder- 
gt\rtet\. and other importattt School Boatxls 
sooit followed the example thus set. Their 
action, aided by the actioit of the Frobel 
Society and of kindred associations, and 
of the Home and Colottial School Society, 
of the college at Stockwell. aitd, later on, 
of the collegv at SatVroit Walden. spread 
a kitowledge of the new system among iti- 
fant-schoolteachcrs geiterally. At tu-st, 
as was natural, there was too slavish an 
adherence to the meiv ntethoils of the 
master : but gradually it was discoveivd 
th.it in the domain of education, iis else- 



YOUNG CHILDREN (EDUCATION OF) 



523 



Avhere, the letter killeth, and now in many 
a school where Frobel's cubes and balls 
are never seen, tlie whole work is bright- 
ened and vivified by his spirit. The re- 
formation has been greatly helped by a 
change in the Code giving absolute liberty 
of classification in infant schools, and (prac- 
tically) abolishing tlierein the system of 
' payment by results.' In the Blue Book 
of the Education Department for 1888, 
the inspectors unanimously testify to 
tlie improvement which has taken place. 
One says that the . ' appropriate and 
varied occupations ' which have been in- 
troduced are ' popular with the parents 
and attractive to the children, and that 
elementary subjects have not suflered in 
consequence.' Another says that object 
lessons ' have become more definite, varied, 
and graphic' Another says : 'The manual 
exercises in which the children are trained 
furnish an interesting and delightful di- 
version from the ordinary school work, 
and at the same time educate hand, eye, 
and mind. Drawiiag, embroidery, mat- 
weaving, moulding in clay, if properly 
taught, are invaluable instruments for 
developing at once the mental and physi- 
cal faculties. And in view of our new 
departure in the direction of technical 
education they shovild be cultivated as 
part of its best foundation. . . . The 
songs and games, too, have a very bright- 
ening, civilising effect. ... I only wish 
we could continue in the first and second 
standaxTls the same training. But, alas, 
the children who leave the infant schools 
for the older departments part, I fear it 
must be said for ever, with all those 
special advantages. . . . Could not a 
change in the principle of the payment of 
gx'ants to such schools be made which 
would have the effect of assimilating them 
to the infant schools ? ' Similar extracts 
might be multiplied indefinitely. 

Infant Schools and the Code. — By the 
Code now (1888) in force a fixed grant is 
paid of 9s. on every child in average 
attendance in an infant school. A merit 
grant of 2s., 4s., or Cs. is further paid if 
the inspector reports the school to be fair, 
good, or excellent, 'allowing for the special 
circumstances of the case, and having re- 
gard to the provision made for (1) suitable 
instruction in the elementary subjects, 
(2) simple lessons on objects and on the 
phenomena of nature and of common life, 
and (3) appropriate and varied occupa- 



tions.' Further grants of a shilling each 
are paid for needlework and singing. No 
merit grant is paid if the instruction in 
the ' elementary subjects ' is not satisfac- 
tory. In the official ' Instructions ' the 
inspectors are informed that ' the object 
of examining very young children in these 
subjects is to ascertain whether they arc 
making such progress that there is a 
reasonable pi'ospect of their passing the 
examination when they reach the [first] 
standard.' They are further informed 
that in order to satisfy the requirement 
respecting ' simple lessons in objects,' &c., 
the mistress early in the school year 
should draw up and enter in the Log 
Book {q.v.) a course of thirty or forty col- 
lective lessons — e.g. on animals ; on such 
subjects as coal, glass, and salt ; on 
common employments, as paper-making, 
cotton-mill, liouse-building, one of the 
trades of the disti-ict being chosen in pre- 
ference ; on form and colour, food, plants, 
and clothing; on simple facts in nature, 
as rain, frost, the seasons ; on familiar 
scenes in common life, as the Post Office, 
a shop, a railway, washing, or harvest. 
Each of these should in the coui'se of the 
year be given two or three times.' 

' The manual or other employments 
which best satisfy ' the requirements as to 
' appropriate and varied occupations,' are 
' modelling, simple geometrical drawing, 
weaving, plaiting, building with cubes, 
drill, singing, recitation; and other exer- 
cises, such as will relieve the younger 
children, especially during the afternoon, 
from the strain of ordinary lessons, and 
train them to observe and imitate. It 
should be borne in mind that it is of little 
service to adopt the gifts and mechanical 
occupations of the Kindergarten unless 
they are so used as to furnish real train- 
ing in accuracy of hand and eye, in in- 
telligence, and in obedience.' 

Statistics. — According to the Blue 
Book the Education Department issued 
in 1888, there were G,G 98 infant schools 
in England and Wales in 1887, and, in 
addition, 5,173 classes for infants in senior 
schools. The number of children in aver- 
age attendance at schools and classes was 
1,034,314. 

Some Foreign Infant School Systems. — 
The French pride themselves upon the 
fact that the care and education of young 
children are more thoroughly organised 
in their country than in any other. The 



524 ZERRENNER, C. C. ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 



lowest part of their system is the creche, 
■which provides for babies up to two or 
three years of age. Then comes what 
used to be called the salle d'asile, but 
what is now known as the ecole maternelle, 
which provides for infants from about two 
to six. Then comes the ecole or classe en- 
fantine, for children of four or five up to 
seven or eight. Child ren who have passed 
through the infant school or class are 
transferred to the ' elementary class ' of 
the primary school. 

In Belgium the ecole gardienne receives 
children from three to six. Thence they 
are passed to the transition class, which 



may be either the highest class of the ecole 
gardienne, or the lowest of the primary 
school. The transition class must be under 
the care of a mistress familiar with the 
methods followed in both the infant and 
the primary schools. 

In Switzerland there is no uniformity, 
each canton being a law unto itself. In 
Geneva, for example, it is compulsory on 
each commune to have at least one infant 
school ; while in Neuchatel public infant 
schools are permissive, and only the more 
enlightened municipalities have estab- 
lished them. 



z 



Zerrenner, Charles Christopher (6. 
1779, d. 1850). — A German theologian 
and educationist, was born at Magdeburg. 
He became a professor in his native city, 
and afterwards preacher in the church of 
Saint Esprit. Zerenner was the author of 
the following among other works on edu- 
cation : An Auxiliary Work on the Wisdom 
of Teachers (1803), A Book of Methods for 
the Use of Pojndar Educators (1814), The 
Principles of Scholarly Education (1827). 

Zoology as a School Subject. — Zoology 
is here to be discussed as a branch of 
natural history, which may be understood 
to embrace the study of all the particular 
aspects of nature that are most striking 
to the child's mind. These are chiefly 
phenomena of the universe, i.e. the facts 
treated of in physical geography; the struc- 
ture and position of rocks (geology and 
mineralogy) ; the morphology, classification, 
and life-histories of plants (botany) ; and 
similar facts about animals (zoology). It 
is true that the term ' natural history ' is 
sometimes used as synonymous with the 
last, and zoology as a specific science has 
now become merged in the more general 
science of biology. But we have not here 
to do with the study of animals as the 
most highly organised of living things, 
this is a subject for the most advanced 
students at the university, since plainly 
the most complex of Nature's productions 
require for their full explanation a pre- 
liminary study of the less complex ; there- 
fore zoology as a branch of biology' should 
come after chemistry and j)hysics ; and 
since the last requires the mastery of some 



of the most difficult parts of mathematics^ 
we are driven to the conclusion that zoology 
in this sense is not a school subject at alL 
The questions to ask then are : can natu- 
ral history be taught profitably in the 
school ; does it serve useful purposes ; if 
so, how should we teach it, and when, in 
the school course ? The answer to. the 
first question will be clearly in the afiir- 
mative, if we remember that the objects, 
and facts that we have enumerated may 
be looked upon in various aspects, and 
that their connections are of various de- 
grees of complexity. The human race is 
only just emerging from its childhood, so 
far as its scientific knowledge is concerned 
at any rate, hence the facts and the modes 
of looking at them that have interested 
men at various periods will be interesting 
to the child at the various stages of his 
development. Although the question of 
the suitability of such subjects to the 
purposes of the schoolmaster, namely, the 
development of faculty, would seem next 
in importance, we may postpone the answer 
since it will be seen to grow out of the 
discussion of method. Eirstly it is of the 
utmost importance that the teacher should 
make his instruction as concrete as pos- 
sible, he should not begin with abstractions 
or generalisations, however well based on 
recent discovery and careful observation. 
The child's attention must be drawn tO' 
simple, everyday facts, which he must be 
made to study in detail ; the skill of the 
teacher will be shown in the way in which 
he turns to account the most ordinary 
fact, in order to exhibit the relation of 



ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 



525 



cause and effect, and to show the links 
■which unite the fact under observation 
■with others more or less analogous that 
have loeen already noticed. He must then 
help the pupil to form for himself gene- 
ralisations that "will embrace all that he 
has observed. A small number of facts 
"well kno"wn under all their relations, whose 
nature, cause, and effects have been well 
"understood, are of more value for the 
development of the intelligence than mil- 
lions of facts over which the mind, as 
it were, glides, without being arrested by 
any of them ; for, by the law of associa- 
tion of ideas, our minds retain well only 
the things of which we recognise the con- 
necting links. 

This method has been advocated and 
exemplified by our distinguished naturalist 
Huxley, in his two works Physiography 
and The Crayfish. In the latter book he 
shows, as he says in his preface, ' how the 
careful study of the structure and habits 
of one of the commonest and most insigni- 
ficant of animals conducts us step by step 
from the most vulgar notions to the largest 
generalisations, to the most difficult prob- 
lems of zoology, and even to the science of 
biology in general.' Not that such a 
course as that proposed in the Cra-jjfish 
would be exactly suited to any but the 
highest class in a secondary school. The 
confinement of the attention to a single 
animal would present too little variety to 
minds untrained to observation. Yet his 
principle may be appKed at all stages of 
the school teaching, the unity may lie in 
the class of facts brought under notice, 
rather than in the object in which they 
are observed. As he says more explicitly 
in the introduction to his Physiography, 
' It appears to me to be plainly dictated 
by common sense that the teacher . . . 
should commence with the familiar facts 
of the scholar's daily experience ; and 
that from the firm ground of such expe- 
rience he should lead the beginner step 
by step to remoter objects and to the less 
readily comprehensible relations of things. 
In short, that the knowledge of the child 
should of set purpose be made to grow in 
the same manner as that of the human 
race has spontaneously grown.' It is in- 
-dispensable to proceed from the known to 
the unknown; the first lessons will consist 
in guiding the pupUs to recognise the 
facts of which the relations will be estab- 
lished later ; it is for the teacher to make 



a judicious choice of facts among those 
that may present the largest number of 
relations, or that will awaken and retain 
the curiosity of the child. As Buffon says, 
' Children are easily wearied of things that 
they have already seen, they will look at 
them a second time with indifference un- 
less presented under some new aspect.' 
Again he says, ' Mystery at this age 
excites curiosity, whilst a"t a ripe age it 
inspires only disgust.' Let us apply these 
general considerations to the natural his- 
tory of our junior classes. Whei"e shall 
we begin, with animals, vegetables, or 
minerals ? Assuredly with that which of 
itself solicits the child's interest. The 
animal, by its movements, by its spon- 
taneity, by its diverse modes of walking, 
flying, eating, attacking, defending itself, 
presents such an attraction to the child 
that the playthings most appreciated are 
those which are most like animals. Even 
a very little child looks with curiosity 
on a crawling caterpillar, a flying butter- 
fly. In the child's fifth or sixth year it is 
already possible to direct its attention to 
the parts of the body, to the manner in 
which they are employed for walking, 
eating, and other functions of life — and 
this in connection with the most common 
of our indigenous and domestic animals ; 
thus the bat, the mouse, the spider, the 
frog, the cat, &c., furnish matter for' the 
most interesting object lessons. The child 
will thus learn to observe attentively, to 
see exactly and quickly without strain or 
fatigue. From the first drawing should 
be encouraged, not necessarily of the whole 
animal, but of striking points. Thus even 
small children can attempt the owl's beak 
and the cat's claw. The teacher must of 
course himself be a keen observer, and 
must have at his command a store of anec- 
dotes furnished by his own observation. 
He "will thus be methodically cultivating 
another faculty of his pupils, of no less 
importance educationally, namely, their 
imagination. These lessons on animals 
may well be followed by similar ones on 
plants and minerals, but always of the 
same kind ; the question to ask about a 
plant at this stage is not, ' to what class 
and order does it belong 1 ' but ' what is it 
like ? what are its parts ? where does it 
grow best ? when does it bloom ; how long 
does it live 1 ' &c. Later, we may return 
to our animals in order to apply more 
rigidly the methods of science, and from 



526 



ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 



this point botany and zoology may be 
taught side by side, or alternated by short 
courses of geology and physical geography. 
There comes a time to most children, 
usually at the age of twelve or later, when 
they have a mania for collecting. Seals, 
stamps, coins, &c., furnish material for 
gratifying this desire ; but there is no 
reason why it should not be directed to 
natural objects, which not only keep up 
the interest of the previous instruction, 
but also prepare the way for a new stage, 
the classificatory. But the formation of 
these collections has other advantages 
than their direct bearing on the class 
lessons. The child is by this means 
brought into intimate relation with Ma- 
ture, his physical development gains by 
the out-of-door walking, climbing, and 
even by the looking and watching involved, 
the teacher will no doubt occasionally ac- 
company some of his class in their ramble, 
and, whilst sharing their search, will teach 
them valuable lessons on ' Eyes and no 
eyes,' none the less valuable for being 
deprived of the formality of the class- 
room. On returning home the young' col- 
lector arranges his objects, observes, tries 
to identify them ; he thus learns the value 
of order and method both in his thoughts 
and actions. The great naturalist, Cuvier, 
has borne testimony to the value of the 
training in method furnished by scientific 
studies. He himself was a man of varied 
avocations, professor at the university, 
director of the museum, member and pre- 
sident of the council of state, &c. He 
says he would have found it difficult to 
perform the various duties involved, with- 
out the application of the method of which 
he speaks. 'The habit that is necessarily 
acquired in studying natural history, of 
classifying in one's mind a very great 
number of ideas, is one of the advantages 
of which little has been said, and which 
will become one of the most important, 
when the subject shall be generally intro- 
duced into common education. We by 
this means obtain practice in the part of 
logic called method, almost as much as 
one gets practice in the syllogism by the 
study of geometry. . . . Now this art of 
method when once mastered can be applied 
Avith infinite advantage to studies most 
foreign to natural history. Every dis- 
cussion which supposes a classification 
of facts, every research which demands a 
distribution of material, is carried on ac- 



cording to the same laws ; and the young 
man who thought he had been pursuing 
this science only as a source of amusement, 
is himself surprised at the faculty which 
it has developed in him for business of all 
kinds.' In order that such a result may 
be obtained, it is not necessary that large 
collections should be made. A hundred 
insects or plants carefully studied would 
suffice to develop this most valuable spirit 
of method. 

The private collection will naturally 
give rise to a school collection or museum; 
fortunate possessors of rare objects will 
be glad to contribute or to lend them to 
it ; sometimes whole collections of small 
objects, as eggs, insects, &c., will be lent 
for a period and compared with others ; 
thus the esprit de corps of the school is 
fostered. As the teachers will of course 
inculcate respect for life, especially of the 
higher animals, they will encourage the 
children to bring specimens of birds and 
small mammals found dead, and will have 
them stuffed to place in the museum. 
These will be of use for the class-lessons ; 
even skeletons can often be found, or 
portions of them, especially in woods, and 
will be of use when the time comes for 
detailed study of anatomy. 

At this stage much interest will be added 
to the study of geography by the descrip- 
tion of the fauna and flora of distant lands, 
which the children will be in a position to 
compare with their own. It is impossible 
in fact to picture to oneself India without 
the elephant, Australia without its kan- 
garoos, Madagascar Avithout its lemurs. 
Good pictures Avill of course be needed for 
the leading types, and the teacher must 
read books of travel, with special attention 
to the desci'iptions of plants and animals. 
Now will come the time for lessons on 
classification, based on the resemblances 
observed in specimens actually handled 
and the pictures of foreign types. Nor 
can we avoid touching upon the relations 
of animals to man and his works. In 
primary schools it will be of no sinall 
advantage to the future agriculturist to 
overcome the many foolish prejudices that 
abound in rural districts, and the fear of 
harmless animals ; to understand the true 
function of these friends of man, and the 
right way of checking the ravages of those 
that destroy his crops or decimate his 
herds. Not that these points need form 
the subject of formal lessons, Ijut should 



ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 



527 



arise naturally out of the teaching of 
zoology, and when once put upon the right 
track, the peasant will discover much for 
himself, in the course of his daily experi- 
ences after school-days are over. To re- 
turn to secondary schools, the zoology and 
other branches of natural history may be 
dropped for a time when the physical 
sciences are begun, to be resumed later 
when these have been pursued sufficiently 
to throw light upon the physiology and 
histology of plants and animals, and the 
causes of the phenomena described under 
physical geography. 

At this stage good diagrams are essen- 
tial ; but if the teacher can draw there 
will be not much difficulty in providing 
these. A good microscope should be part 
of the school furniture, and opportunities 
may be found for exhibiting sections of 
tissues, cells, &c.; thus the diagrams of 
such things will be better understood and 
appreciated. The physiology of animals 
should lead up to the much-neglected 
study of human physiology, so important 
as guiding to the laws of health. 

It will be important to encourage the 
foundation of clubs among the scholars ; 
when these have been once started by the 
co-operation and encouragement of the 
teachers, they can be left to the manage- 
ment of the more enthusiastic pupils. To 
the periodical meetings specimens will be 
brought and short papers read ; minutes 
should be kept ; and the teacher may show 
his interest by occasionally taking the 
chair and reading them. It is well to get 
up several clubs, as matters that interest 
the younger children will not be so inter- 
esting to the elder, and vice versd. Possibly 
two classes might combine with advantage, 
especially if studying different branches of 
natural history in the class-room. To sum 
up then, by briefly answering the questions 
with which we set out : 1. Zoology as a 
branch of history ca7i be taught in schools 
of every grade. 2. The purposes it serves 
are manifold. It develops the child's 
powers of observation and of comparison, 
leads to methodical arrangement of ideas, 
promotes accuracy both of thought and 
word, arouses interest in nature, furnishes 
a motive for the out-of-door exercise so 
good for mind and body, encourages esprit 
de cor2os among the scholars by giving 
them intellectual pursuits in common out 
of the class-room, and opportunities for 
assisting one another to gain knowledge. 



3. It must be taught in such a manner 
that these purposes may be fulfilled to the 
utmost, in the first years of school by' 
object-lessons, by directing attention to 
habits, characters, utility of animals, by en- 
couragement to form collections, drawings 
to note down observations in writing to 
be read at the ' club ' ; later by more sys- 
tematic lessons on the relations of forms 
and functions, to which analogies Avill be 
furnished by the study of plants and 
fossils brought up to the same stage. 

4. The time when it should be taught has 
also been indicated, namely, in the form of 
object lessons in the lowest class, and 
alternately with other branches of natural 
history, and the physical sciences through- 
out the school course. 

In English secondary schools the sub- 
ject does not usually receive the attention 
it deserves. In elementary schools it is 
scarcely recognised, even among the ' op- 
tional ' subjects. In France, however, 
natural history is among the subjects that 
were made obligatory by the law of 1882, 
and the programme issued is so suggestive 
that we reproduce it in full. The place 
occupied by zoology and its relation to the 
other branches will be readily seen. 

Infant Class. Little ' lessons on things ' 
(object-lessons), always with the object 
under the eyes, and in the hands of the 
children. Exercises and familiar conver- 
sations, having for their object to enable 
the children to acquire the first elements 
of knowledge concerning animals, .vege- 
tables, minerals, and above all to lead 
them to look, to observe, to compare, to 
question, and to remember. 

Ehmentary Course. — Object lessons : 
graduated according to a plan chosen by 
the master ; but, once chosen, it must be 
followed regularly. Man, animals, vege- 
tables, minerals. General notions about 
the conversion of raw materials into arti- 
ficial substances in common iise (foods, 
tissues, paper, stones, metals). Little col- 
lections made by the pupils, especially in 
the course of school expeditions. 

Middle Course. — Very elementary no- 
tions of the natural sciences. Man, gene- 
ral description of the human body, the 
idea of the principal functions of life. 
Animals : Notions of the four sub-king- 
doms, and of the division of the vertebrates 
into classes, by the aid of an animal taken 
as the type of each group. Vegetables : 
Study, on certain selected types, of the 



528 



ZOOLOGY AS A SCHOOL SUBJECT 



principal organs of the plant. Notions 
about the large divisions of the vege- 
table kingdom, indications of useful and 
poisonous plants, especially in the school 
■expeditions. 

Higher Course. — IsTotions about the 
Tiatural sciences. Revision with extension 
of the middle course. 

Man : Ideas about digestion, circula- 
tion, respiration, the nervous system, the 
sense-organs. Practical advice in matters 
of hygiene. 

Animals : Broad features of classifica- 
tion. Animals useful and noxious to 
agriculture. 

Vegetables : Essential parts of the 
plant. Dried collections. 



Minerals : General notions about the 
earth's crust. Rocks, fossils, soils. Ex- 
amples drawn from the district. Excur- 
sions and small collections. 

In the normal schools a more strictly 
scientific course is prescribed for each of 
the three years of traming. Germany, 
Switzerland, Norway, and Belgium also 
render the subject obligatory, but in the 
primai'y schools tlie knowledge isgenei'ally 
left to be obtained from the reading-book, 
a method that by no means serves all the 
purposes we have indicated. In the 
United States the teaching is methodical, 
and on the lines we have seen laid down 
in France. 



• A 
SELECT AND SYSTEMATIC 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OP PEDAGOGY. 

BY 

WILLIAM SWAN SONNENSCHEIN. 



This List is limited to books which either are in print or being out of print are 
commonly met with, or ' standard.' School class-books are uniformly excluded. 

The books asterisked [*] are believed to be specially good in their several depart- 
ments. [Am.] indicates that the writer is an American ; [ed.] that he is the editor, 
and not the author, of the book ; o.p. implies that the book is out of print. The other 
abbreviations will, it is thought, be self-evident. Dates of the nineteenth century 
are abbreviated [e.g., 41, 80=1841, 1880); but previous dates are given in full ; those 
within square brackets representing the dates of the first editions, and those without 
them the dates of the latest editions. 



I. §ompre^ettsi»e ^orifes on "^e^agogp. 

(a) CYCLOPiEDIAS, 'ENCYCLOPEDIA,' BIBLIOGKAPHY. 

^BxjissoN, F. [ed.] Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d'Instruction Primaire, 

Ser. i. [theoretic part] [about 3000 pp.], 2 vols. ab. 45f . r8° Paris 82-87 

The best Prencli work ; very full and good in French subjects, but somewhat weak otherwise. 
Cyclopasdia of Education — the present work Is. M. mS" Sonnenschein 8& 

Kiddle (H.) + Schem (A. J.) {^1 Cyclopjedia of Education ; pp. 858 /4 m8° JSfew York [76] 83 

Deals almost exclusively with American and British subjects ; somewhat restricted in scope. The statistical part 

[by Schem] is of chief value. 

Dictionary of Education [abdgmt. of above] ^1.50 12° JVerv York 81 

LiNDNEE, G. A. Encyclopadisches Handbuchder Erziehungskunde; pp. 1040 8° Vienna 84 

With special reference to the Volksschule ; the best of the smaller alphabetical cyclopasdias ; contains good bibliographies, 
Sandee, F. Lexikon der Padagogik ; pp. 540 [a pocket handbook] Leipzig 83 

*SCHMID, K. A. [ed.] Encycl. des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens, v. i-ix. 76-87 

The first ed. (1859-76) was in 11 vols, large 8vo ; second now in progress. The standard G-erman work. 
* Padagogisches Handbuch ; 2 vols, [abridgment of above] 29«. rS" Gotlia 75-79 

Stoy, K. V. Encyclopadie, Methodologie und Literatur der Padagogik ; 

pp. 478 6s. 8° Leipzig [61] 78 

Herbartian ; very suggestive, but weak in bibliography. Systematic arrangement. 
*V0GEL, Dr. Aug-ust. Systematische Encyclopadie der Padagogik ; pp. 238 8° Bernlwg 81 
Best general view ; with copious but not wholly trustworthy (and limited to German) literary references ; systematic 

and philosophic. 

"Wagner, J. J. System des Unterrichts [an ' encycloptedia ' of pedagogy] 8° Ulm 81 

M M 



530 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PEDAGOGY: PERIODICALS 

Bibliography — ?'. also Lindner, Stoy, and Vogel, sit^ra. 

Fiihrer durch die padagogische Literatur 8° Vienna 79 

Hall (Prof. G. S.) + Mansfield (J. M.) [Ams.] Hints towards a Bibliography 

of Education ^1 cS" Boston 87 

SCHOTT, G. E. Handbuch der piidagogischen Literatur der Gegenwart ; 3 pts. 8° Lei^pzig 69-71 

Philosophy of Pedagogics. — v. also II. («■.) s.v. Bennett. 
KosBNKEANZ, K. The Philosophy of Education [tr.] $l.bO 12° St. Lmis [72] 86 

(l) PERIODICALS (GENERAL). 
Great Britain. 

Editjoational Times, [ed. Dr. R. Wormell] Secondary. Organ of Coll. of Precept. 

^d. 4" Hodgson ; inonthly 
Jouomal of Education, [ed. Francis Storr.] Secondary. Founded 1869 &d. 4° Rice ; monthly 

Private Selboolmaster. [ed. Edw. Markwick.] Secondary. Founded 1887 fcp. 4" Carr ; monflily 
School Board Chronicle, [ed. R. Gowing.] School Bd. topics. Fd. 1871 fcp. f° Grant & Co. ; weeTtly 
School Guardian. Organ of National Society. Founded 1876 d4"' National Soc. ; monthly 

Schoolmaster. School Board and Elementary. fcp. f" Educ. Newsp. Co. ; weekly 

Schoolmistress. Elementary. fp weelily 

France. 

Bvlletin de la Societe pour V Instruction Elementaire. Founded 1815 Pai'is 

lUnstruction Puhlique. [ed. A. Blot] Pa/i-is 

l/anuel general de V Instruction Primaire. Founded 1874 Paris 

Bevue Internationale de rEaseignement. Chiefly secondary. Founded 1881 Paris; monthly 

Bevue Pedagogique. Paris ; monthly 

Germany and Austria. 

Allgemeine dexitsche Lehrerzeitung. [ed. W. Stoy.] Organ of Allgem. Lehrerver- 

sammlung. Founded 1848 Bar7iistadt 

Centralblatt f. d. gesammte JJnterrichts-Verwaltung in Prexissen Berlin; monthly 

Deutsche Blatter fUr erziehenden Unteroncht Langensaha ; iveehly 

Bt'utsehe Schulzeitung . Founded 1870 Berlin ; monthly 

Erziehung der Gegenrvart. [ed. W. Schroter.] Froebelian. Founded by Baroness 

Marenholtz-Biilow 4° Dresden ; monthly 

Evangelisches Schulblatt. [ed. W. Dorpfeld.] Founded 1846 4° Giltersloh monthly 

Jahrhucli des Yereinsf. wiss. Pddagogik. [ed. T. ZiUer.] 14 vols. Langensalza 69-82 

Jahresherichte ilber d. Mhere Schulwesen. [ed. C. Ketzwisch.] Founded 1886. 8° Berlin ; annually 
Lehrjjrohen und Leho'gdnge. [ed. 0. Frick + G. Richter.] Founded 1884 Halle ; irregularly 

Neue deutsche Schailzeitung . Founded 1871 Berlin ; weekly 

Padagogische Blatter filr LelirerMldung. Founded 1871 Gotha 

Padagogische Studien. [ed. W. Rein.] Founded 1880 8" Leipzig ; quarterly 

Padagogische Zeitung. [ed. H. Schroder.] Organ of Berliner Lehrerverein. Fd. 1871 Berlin ; weeUy 
Pddagogischer Jahreslericht. [ed. A. Liiben ; cont. by Fr. Dittes] Leipzig 

Pddagogisches Archiv : Gymnasien, Bealschulen, Biirgerschulen. Founded 1858 Stettin 

Pddagogisches Correspondenzhlatt im Auftrage d. Zillerschen Seminar. Founded 1882 li-monthly 
Pddagogium. [ed. F. Dittes.] Secondary monthly 

Bheinische Blatter, [ed. W. Lange.] Founded by A. Diesterweg, 1827. sS° Frankfort ; U-mo7ithly 
Zdtschrift far deiitschen Unterricht. [ed. 0. Lyon.] Founded 1887 Leipzig ; U-vionthly 

Zeitschrift filr die oesterreichischen Gymnasien 

Zeitschrift fiir preussisches Gymnasialmesen Berlin 

Zeitung fiir das hohere Unterrichtswesen. Founded 1871 Leipzig; meekly 

United States. 

Academy, The. Secondary. Founded 1886 Syracuse; monthly 

Amencan Jonryial of Education. Secondary. Founded by Barnard in 1855 Hartford 

Education. General. Founded 1880 Boston; bi-monthly 



HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GENERALLY 531 

n. ^isfors axib ^iograp^^S of ^cbaqoQV:- 

For the Biographies of writers on Systematic Pedagogy, v. IV (J)^ jjassim. 

(a) GENEEAL WORKS. 
Comprehensive. 

Browning, Oscar. An Introduction to the History of Educational Theories ; 3s. &d. c8» Paul [81] 82 

Prom the Greeks to Kant, Ficlite, Herbart, and the English Public School. 
*C0MPAYEE, Prof. Gabriel. The History of Pedagogy, tr., with introduction and 

notes by Prof. W. H. Payne ; pp. .594 6s. c8° Sonnenschein 88 

The best universal history in English ; concise and comprehensive. 

DiTTES, Prof. F. Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichtes ; pp. 248 3s. 8° Leijizig [71] 76 
Kellnek, L. Erziehungsgeschichte [best Roman Catholic history] ; 3 vols. ea. 3s. 8° Essen [62] 80 
MuLLiNGEE, J. Bass. Is said to })e ijreparing a general history 
Paintee, Prof. F. V. N. A History of Education ^1.50 cS" M^v York 86 

Paeoz, Jules. Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogic ; pp. 536 4f . p8° Paris [69] 83 

The best book after Cojipatre, sup7'a ; by a Swiss normal schoolmaster. 

V. Raumee, Prof. C. Geschichte der Padagogik, 4 vols. [standard] 19s. Gd. 8" Gutersloh [42] 80 

1. Dante to Bacon ; ii. to d. of Pestalozzi ; iii. special topics (Lat. and Germ, laugs., hist., uat. science, educ. of 
girls) ; iv. history of Germ. Universities ; vols, i.-ii. tr. in part s.v. 'German Educational Reformers,' 12^. mS" 
Hartford ; vol. iv. tr. s.v. 'National Education in Germany,' Vis. m8° Hcu-tford. 

SCHMID, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. i. [pre-Christian] 8° Stuttgart 84 

*SCHMIDT, Dr. K. Gesch. der Padag. hrsg. Dr. Wichard Lange ; 4 vols. 37s. r8° Koilien [.59-62] 76 

vol. i. pre-Christian, pp. 526, %s. ; vol. ii. to Reformation, pp.494, 6.5. ; vol. iii. to Pestalozzi, pp. 830, 9.s. ; vol. iv. to 

present time, pp. 1141, 12s. The standard German history ; diffuse, partly antiquated, but still of very great 

value for purposes of reference. 

Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, hrsg. Dr. 

Wichard Lange ; pp. 551 5s. m8° Kothen [63] 76 

SCHOEN (A.) + Reinecke (H.) Geschichte der Padagogik [w. extracts fr. educ. writers] 3s. Qd. 

8° Leijjzig [ ] 84 
VOGEL, Dr. August. Geschichte der Padagogik als Wissenschaft ; pp. 410, 7s. &d. 8° Giltersloh 77 

Philosophic ; an attempt to trace the history of scientific pedagogy, based on the original sources. 
Hiddle Ages. 

*Deniple, H. Die Universitaten des Mittelalters bis ] 400 ; vol. i. [origin of 

the universities], pp. 815 m8"' Berlin 85 

By a brilliant young priest, a papal archivist at Rome. 
Heppe, H. Das Schulwesen des Mittelalters und dessen Reform im XVI. 

Jahrhundert ; pp. 64 Is. &d. 8° 3Iariurg 60 

Laceoix, Paul, in Ms Science and Literature in the Middle Ages [tr,] ; ill. 15s. r8° Virtue [77] 87 
Laueie, Prof. S. S. Lectures on the Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, Qs. c8° Paul 86 

MiCHAUD, Abbe E. GuiLl. de Champeaux et les ecoles de Paris au 12'= si^cle 8" Pao-is 67 

MuLLiNGEE, J. Bass. Schools of Charles the Great in the Ninth Century ; pp. 

193 7s. Qd. 8° Longmans 77 

■Contemporary. 

Arnold, Matthew. Special Report on Elem. Educ. in Germ., Switz., France [Bliie-Bk.] 

Eyre & Spottiswoode 86 
Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] Elementary and Secondary Instruction 12s. m8° Hartford 72 

i. German States, pp. 856 ; ii. Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, 
Greece, Turkey, Italy, Portugal, Spain ; iii. Great Britain and America. 

[ed.] National Systems of Education ; 2 vols, [chiefly England, 

France, Germany] each 12s. m8'' Hartford 80 

Beer + Hochegger, A. + F. Fortschritte d. Unterrichtswesens in d. Cultur- 

stadten Europas, 2 vols. [Russia and Belgium.] ea. 12s. 8° Vienna 67-68 
International Conference on Education in London, 4 vols. 84 

Miscellaneous, including Collective Biographical Works, 

Drane [Mrs.] A. T. Christian Schools and Scholars ; pp. 738 12s. M. 8" Bums & Gates [81] 81 

By a Roman Catholic ; educational- sketches, from original Latin sources, extending from the Christian era to 

the Council of Trent. 

Kay, D. Education and Educators 7s. M. c8° Paul 84 

M M 2 



532 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GENERALLY 

Miscellaneous, including Collective Biographical Works — oont. 

*Leitch, J. Muir. Practical Educationists and their Systems of Teaching 

[lectures] ; pp. 302 6s. c8" MacLehose, Glasgow 75< 

Locke, Pestalozzi, Bell, Lancaster, Wilderspin, Stow, Herbert Spencer. 
♦Quick, Eev. E. H. Essays on Educational Reformers ; pp. 351 5s. cS" Author, Redhill [68] ST 

The Jesuits ; Ascliam, Montaigne, Ratich, Milton ; Comenius ; Locke ; Rousseavi's ' Emile ' ; Basedow ; Pesta- 
lozzi ; Jacotot ; Herbert Spencer ; about Teaching Children ; Moral and Religious Education. 

Philosophy of Pedagogics. 

4^ Bennett, Dr. C. W. [Am.] History of the Philosophy of Pedagogics New York IT 

(5) ACCORDING TO COUNTRIES. 
Arahs. 
Haneberg, D. Abhandlung iiber das Schul- und Lehrwesen der Muhame- 

daner im Mittelalter ; pp. 40 Is. pS" MunioJi 50- 

PiSCHON, C. N. Der Binfluss des Islam auf d. hausl., soc. und polit. Leben; 

pp. 162 [contains one chap, on Educ] 3s. p8° Leipzig! 81 

Vambery, H. Der Islam im XIX. Jahrhundert ; pp. 321 [chaps, on Culture 

and School, &c.] 6s. 8° Leipzig 75 

Austria — vide Germany, infra 

Belgium. 

Branle. ^tablissements d'Instruction et d'Education en Belgique ; pp. 121 8° Brussels 72 

Conference at Brussels : L'Ecole modele 3s. M. cS" Brussels SO- 

Lauer, M. Entwickelung und Gestaltung des belgischen Volksschul- 

wesens [since 1842] ; pp. 194 pS" Berlin 84 

Vanderkindere, L. L'Universite de Bruxelles [1834-1884] ; pp. 216 8" Brussels 

China. 

BlOT, E. Essai sur I'Histoire de Tlnstruction publ. en Chine, 2 v. 12f. 8" Paris 45- 

DOOLITTLE, J. Social Life of the Chinese— wi^Ze chaps, xv., xvi., and xvii. 6s. 6d. c8» Bickers [65] 71 
Martin, W. A. P. [Am.] The Chinese : their education, philosophy, and letters ; 

pp. 319 ;^1.75 12° JVew York 81 

Denmark. 

Matzen Kjobenhavns Universitets Retshistorie [a very good work] KeMshestom 79 

Egypt. 

Dor, V. E. L'Instruction Publique en Egypte ; pp. 394 7f. 50c. 8° Paris 72 

France. 

Allain, Abbe E. L'Instruction Primaire avant la Revolution 25c. 32° Paris [76] 81 

*Arnold, Matthew. A French Eton ; or, Middle-class Education and the 

State 2s. Qd. 12° MacmiUan 64 

The Popular Education of France o.^?- {jnih. 10s. 6^.] 8° Longmans 61 

Babeau, a. L'Ecole de Village pendant la Revolution ; pp. 272 3f. p8° Paris 81 

Bernard, Paul. Histoire de I'Autorite' Paternelle en France ; pp. 512 7f . 8° Pm'is 63 

Breal, M. Quelques Mots sur I'lnstr. publ. en France ; pp. 407 [I'ecole, 

lycee, les facultes] 3f . 50c. p8° Pans [72] 86 

*CoMPAYRE, Prof. G. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de I'Education en France 

[since XVI. cent.] 2 vols. ; pp. 458, 438 12s. p8° Paris 80-87 

Condorcet Rapport et Projet de Decret sur I'Organ. g^n. de I'lnstr. Publ. [ed. Compayre] 

Paris 83 
Conferences p§dagogiques faites k I'Bxposition Universelle (Paris 1878) 3f. 50c. cr8° Paris [78] 79 
Cournot. Des Institutions d'Instruction publique en France ; iDp. 575 8° Paris 64 

D'OCAGNE, Mortimer, Les Grandes Bcoles de France ; ill., pp. 399 3f . 50c. p8° Pa/ris 73 

DuRUY, A. L'Instruction Publique et la Revolution ; pp. 502 8° Pa/ris 82 

*Greard, Oct. Education et Instruction ; 4 vols. [i. prim., ii.-iii. second., iv. 

super.] ea. 3f. 50c. p8« Paris 87 

HiPPEAU, C. L'Instr. Publ. en France ; i. Discours et Rapports ; ii. Debats s8° Pans 

Muteatj. Les Ecoles et Colleges en Province jusqu'en 1789 ; pp. 600 8° Bijon 82 

DE Resbecq, Fr. Histoire de I'Bnseignement Primaire avant 1789 dans les 

communes qui ont forme le Departement du Nord ; pp. 424 8° Paris 78 

SiCARD, A. L'Education morale et civique avant et pendant la Revolution ; pjp. 584 8° Paris 84 



HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: FRANCE AND GERMANY 533 

Simon, Jules. L'Ecole ; pp. 453 [primary, girls, compulsory, and free] 8° Paris 81 

*Thery, a. F. Histoire de rEducation en France [6th cent, to pres. time ; 

best after Compayre, stqjra] ; 2 vols. ; pp. 360, 503 12f . p8« Paris 58 

Tallet de Viriville. Histoire de I'lnstruction Publique en Europe et . . . en 

France 5f, 30c. 4° Pans 49 

Paris University. \ 

BuDiNSZKY, A. Die Universitiit Paris u. d. Fremden an derselben im Mittel- 

alter ; pp. 234 7s. 8° Berlin 76 

DuBARLE, E. Histoire de I'Universite de Paris, 2 vols. ; pp. 368, 380 8" Paris 44 

Du BouLAY. Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, 6 vols, [valuable material] 8" Paris 66 

Crermany and Austria. 

* Arnold, Matthew. Higher Schools and Universities in Germany ; pp. 270, 6s. 

08° Macmillan [68] 74 
Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] German Educational Eeformers [collected articles by 

various writers] 12s. m8° Hartford ii.d. 

National Education in German States 12s. m8» Hartford n.d. 

German Pedagogy [collected articles by various 

writers] 12s. m8° HaHford n.d. 

L- Bashford, J. L. Elementary Education in Saxony; pp. 89 London 81 

Bird, Charles. Higher Education in Germany and England ; pp. 137, 2s. %d. c8° Paul 84 

Breal, M. Excursions Pedagogiques ; pp. 364 [comparison of Germ, and 

French institutions] pS" Paris 82 

OONEAD, J. The German Universities for the Last Fifty Years [tr.] ; pp. 

333 10s. ^d. C80 Glasgow 85 

Endean, J. Eussell. The Public Education of Austria 6<Z. 8« Simpkin 88 

Grafe, H. Deutsche Volksschule, oder die Burger- und Landschule, 

3 vols.; pp. 420, 498, 564 [comprehensive] Jena [47] 77-79 

Hart, Prof. J. M. [Am.] German Universities [from personal observation : com- 
pared w. Engl, and Amer.] ^1.75 12° New Yorh 74 
Heppe, H. Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens, 5 vols. ea. 5s. 8° GotTia 58-60 
Traces the history in departments and by territories from the Reformation downwards. 
(/- Hurst, Eev. J. F. Life and Literature in the Fatherland [schools, education, 

&c.] 1^2.25 8° JSero Yorh [74] 76 

Kammel, H. J. Geschichte des deutschen Schulwesens im Uebergange vom 

Mittelalter zur Neuzeit ; pp. 444 8s. M. 8° Leijnig 82 

I *Kehr, C. Geschichte der Methodik des deutschen Volksschulunter- 

richtes, 2 vols. ; pp. 511, 519 24s. m8°' Gotha 77-82 

A very important history of methods of teaching religion, geogr., history, nat. and phys. science, arith. and geometry, 

writing, drawing, music, reading, object-lessons. The author has been assisted by numerous eminent contributors. 
Keller, F. E. Geschichte des preussischen Volksschulwesens 8s. 8" Berlin 73 

Koch, J. F. W. Die preussischen Universitaten [ordinances on their constit. 

and government] 2 vols. 27s. 8° Berlin 39-40 

Paulsen, F. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen 

Schulen und Universitaten [fr. Mid. Ages to pres. time] ; 

pp. 811 r8« Lei2}zig 85 

Payne, Prof. Joseph. A Visit to German Schools ; pp. 138 4s. &d. 0,8" Paul 76 

Perry, C. C. Eeports on German Elementary Schools and Training Col- 

leges 5s. c8° Eivington 87 

V. Eaumer, Prof. K. Die deutschen Universitaten [good outline of the system] Giitersloh [ ] 74 
V. EONNE, L. Das Unterrichtswesen des preussischen Staates in seiner 

geschichtlichen Entwickelung, 2 vols. ; pp. 966, 660 17s. r8° Berlin 54-55 
SCHAFP, Dr. Pp. [Am.] Germany: its Universities, Theology, and Eeligion; pp. 

418 o.p. 8" PhiladeVpMa 57 

Specht, F. a. Geschichte des Unterrichtswesens in Deutschland [to about 

A.D. 1250 ; graphic] ; pp. 412 • 8° Stuttgart 85 

Strack, K. Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens; pp. 438 5s. &d. 8° Giltersloli 72 

Weber, Dr. Adalbert. Geschichte der Volksschulpadagogik und der Klein- 

kindererziehung ; pp. 340 [Froebelian] 5s. 8» Eisenach 77 

WiESE, Prof. L. Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen ; pp. 740 5s. 8° Berlin 64 

Berlin University and Gymnasium. 

KOPE, E. Die Griindung der k. Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat zu 

Berlin ; pp. 300 Berlin 60 



.534 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 

Germany and Austria— Berlin University and Gymnasium — coovt. 

MuLLBE, A. C. Geschichte des Friedrich-Werderschen Gymnasiums zu Ber- 
lin [1681-1875] ; pp. 156 jBerlin 81. 
Bonn University. 

Deeyfus-.Brisac, E. L'Universlte de Bonn, et I'Enseignement superieur 

en Allemag-ne ; pp. 291 5f . 8°P«m 79 

Contains a good bibliography. 
' Member of Middle Temple.' The University of Bonn : its rise, progress, and 

present state ; pp. 247 o.j). [2)ul). 10s. 6^.] p8<> Parker 45- 

Erfurt University. 

Die Universitilt Erfurt in ihrem Verlialtniss zu dem Humanismus und der 

Reformation KampscUlte 58 

Freiburg University. 

Die Universitat Freiburg [1852-1881] ; pp. 128 Freilmg 81 

Greifswald University. 

KOSEGAETEN. Geschichte der Universitat Greifswald, 2 parts 5T 

Heidelberg University. 

Hautz, J. F. Geschichte der Universitat Heidelberg, 2 vols. 14s. 8° Mmmlwim 62-64 

Innsbruck University. 

Peobst, J. Geschichte der Universitat in Innsbriick; pp. 411 10s. 8" Innsbrmli 69' 

Leipzig University. 

Statutenbuch der Universitat Leipzigs p8° Leipzig 61 

Zaencke, Fr. Urkundliche Quellen zur Geschichte der Universitat Leipzigs, 
in the Abhandlungen d. sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wis- 
senschaften ; 2 vols. ; pp. 509, 922 9s. 4° Leipzig 57 

Munich University. 

V. Peantl, K. Geschichte der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat [4th cen- 
tenary] 2 vols. ; pp. 758, 579 20s. mS" Munieh 72 

Prague University. 

Monumenta Historica Universitatis Pragensis, 7 vols. Prague 30-48 

ToMEK, W. W. Geschichte der Prager Universitat; pp. 377 8" Prague 49 

Rinteln iJniversity. 

PiDBEiT,F. K.T. Geschichte der Hessisch-Schaumburg. Univ.Rinteln ; pp. 139 ls.p8° Marburgi2 

Bostoek University. 

Keabbb, 0. Die Universitat Rostock im XV. und XVI. Jahrhundert, 2 vols. 10s. 8" RostocTi 56 

Tubingen University. 

Hoffmann. Oekonomischer Zustand d. Universitat Tubingen gegen d. 

Mitte d. XVI. Jahrhunderts . 45 

Klupfel, K. Geschichte u. Beschreibung der Univ. Tiibingen ; pp. 581 6s. Qd. 8° TiiMngen 49 
Urkunden zur Geschichte der Universitat Tiibingen [1476-1550] TiiMngen 77 

Vienna University. 

V. AsCHBACH, J. R. Geschichte der Wiener Univ. in ihrem ersten Jahrhun- 
dert ; pp. 638 8s. 8° Vienna 65 

V. AsCHBACH, J. R. Die Wiener Universitat u. ihre Humanisten im Zeitalter 

Maximilians I. ; pp. 467 10s. 8° Vienna 77 

Kink, R. Geschichte der kaiserlichen Universitat zu Wien, 3 pts. in 

2 vols. ; pp. 636, 327, 624 27s, 8° Vienna 54 

Wiirzburg University. 

Wegele, F.X. Geschichte der Univers. Wiirzburg, 2 vols. ; pp. 308, 638 16s. 8° Wurzburg. 82' 

Great Britain. 

^ Adams, F. History of the Elementary School Contest in England ; pp. 350 cS" London 82 

Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] English Pedagogy, r. [collected articles by various con- 
tributors] ; pp. 464 2 series, ea. 12s. mS" PhiladelpMa [66] 76- 

^ BissoN, F. S. De C. [ed.] Our Schools and Colleges, vol. i. Boys, 12s. 6d. ; vol. ii. 

Girls, 7s. Qd. c8° Simpkin [72] 84 



HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: GREAT BRITAIN 535 

Beisted, C. a. [Am.] Five Years in an English University ; pp. 572 10s. 6d. cS" Low [72] 73 
DB CoUBEETiN, P. L'Education en Angleterre 3f. 50c. s8° Paris 88 

Dbmogbot + MoNTUCCi, J. + H. De TEnseignement super, en Angl. et Ecosse. [report] 8° Paris 70 
Feedericq, Prof. P. De TEnseignement snperieur de THistoire en Ecosse et en 

Angleterre ; pp. 47 8° Paris 85 

FURNIVALL, F. J. Education in Early England — Ms Preface to ' Manners and 

Meals in Olden Time ' 8° E. E. Text Soc. 67 

Gill, J. Systems of Education ; pp. 312 [English; Aschamto Horace Grant] 2s. ^d. 12° Longmans 76 
Grant, James. History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland 10s. 6^. r8° Collins 76 

Hazlitt, W. Carew. Schools, School Books, and Schoolmasters ; pp. 300 7s. ^d. c8° Jarvis 87 

HlPPEAXJ, C. L'Instruction Publique en Angleterre ; pp. 138 3f. 50c. p8" Paris 73 

HuBER, Prof. V. A. The English Universities ; tr. Prof. F. W. Newman ; plates ; 

2 vols, in 3 o.iJ. {jniib. 50s.] 8° Pickering 43 

i. IStli cent, to d. of Eliz. ; ii. to 1843 ; iii. constit. of the universities and student life. A well-known compilation of' 
considerable research, but contains much that is irrelevant, follows no historical order, and is prejudiced. 

Our Public Schools [Eton, Harrow,Winchester, Eugby, Westminster, Marlborough,. 

Charterhouse] 6s. cS" Paul 81 

Pascoe, C. E. [ed.] Practical Handbook to the Principal Schools of England; 

pp. 175 3s. GcZ. fS" Low [77] 78 

Public Schools, Our ; pp. 373 81 

. . The, with notes on their history and traditions ; pp. 414 8s. &d. f8° Blackwood 67 

Winchester, Westminster, Shrewsbury, Harrow, Eugby. By author of ' Etoniana.' 

Keport. General Digest of Endowed Charities, 38 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 67-76 

of H.M. Commissioners app. to inquire into Eevenues and Management 

of Colleges and Schools, 4 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 84 

of H.M. Commissioners app. to inquire into Property and Incomes of 

Oxford and Cambridge, 2 vols. [Blue-book] f° Eyre & Spottiswoode 74 
of the School Inquiry Commission, 21 vols. [Blue-book] f" Eyre & Spottiswoode 68-69 

of Education Conference held in Manchester 8° Heywood, Manas. 

Eeports of Education Conference held at the Health Exhibition [London 1884] ; 

4 vols. each 7s. Qd. 8° Clowes 85 

EiGG, Dr. J. H. [Wesl.] National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects ; 

pp. 517 0.2J. Ipuh. 12s.] c8° Strahan 73 

Staunton, Howard [Am.] The Great Schools of England; pp. 517; ill. 

o.jJ. Ipuh. 7s. Qd.'\ cS" Strahan [65] 69 
WiESE, Dr. L. German Letters on English Education [tr.] 5s. c8° Collins 77 

Wordsworth, Bp. C. Schote Academics: some account of Studies at the English 

Universities in Eighteenth Century; pp. 435 15s. 8° Camb. Press 77 

Cambridge University. 

Baker, Thos. History of College of St. John, w. [elaborate] notes Prof. 

J. E. B. Mayor, 2 vols. ; pp. 1235 24s. 8° Camb. Press 69 

Cooper, C. H. Annals of Cambridge, 4 vols. o.j}. 8° priv. ])rinted 42-52 

. Memorials of Cambridge, 3 vols, : pp. 403, 393, 383 ; plates ; 

each 25s. 8° Macmillan [58-61] 80 
LuARD, H. E. [ed.] Graduati Cantabrigienses 1800-1872 10s. M. 8° Bell 73 

*MuLLiNGER, J. Bass. History of the University of Cambridge [fr. 1535 to 

Charles I.] ; 2 vols. 30s. 8° Camb. Press 73-84 

Cambridge Characteristics in the Seventeenth Century 

[Prize Essay] 4s. &d. c8° Macmillan 67 

History of Univ. of Camb. [Epochs Church Hist.] ;2s, Qd. f8° Longman 88 

*WiLLis (E.) -f- Clark ( J.W.) Architectural History of the University of 

Cambridge and Colls, of Camb. and Eton. 4 vols. 12s. &d. rl" Camb. Press 86 
By no means so restricted in its scope as its title indicates. Vol. iv. contains the maps, plans, and plates. 

CharterliOTise School. 

Whitfield, W. H. Charterhouse, Past and Present : a brief History 7s. c8° Simpkin 79 

Dublin University. 

Taylor, W.B.S. History of the University of Dublin, ill. ; pp. 540, o.p. ipvl). 21s.] 8° Bonn 45 

Dulwicb College. 

Blanch, W. H. Dulwich College and Edward AUeyn : a short history ; portraits 

and ill. 3s. M. 8° E. W. Allen 77 



536 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: GREAT BRITAIN— GREECE 

Great Britain — cont. 
Edinburgh High School. 

Steven, Dr. W. History of the High School of Edinburgh from the Sixteenth 

Century 7s. %d. 8° McLachlan, EAin. 

Edinburgh University and School. 

Dalzel, a. History of the Edinburgh University ; 2 vols. 21s. 8° JEdinlmrgTi 62 

*Grant, Sir Alex. Story of the Univ. of Edinburgh during its first 300 

years ; ill., 2 vols. ; pp. 384, 510 36s. 8° Longmans 84 

Eton College. 

*Lytb, H. C. Maxwell. A History of Eton College [1440-1875], ill. ; pp. 

519 21s. 8° Macmillan [75] 88 

Wilkinson, Kev. C. A. Keminiscences of Eton [in Keate's time] 6s. c8° Hurst , 87 

Harrow School. 

Thornton, P. M. Harrow School and its Surroundings ; ill. 15s. 8° W. H. Allen 85 

Marlborough College. 

HULME, F. E. The Town, College, and Neighbourhood of Marlborough; ill., 6s. cS" Stanford 81 
Owens College, Manchester. 

Thompson, Jos. Owens College : its foundation and growth 18s. 8° Cornish, Manes. [86] 86 
Oxford University. 

BoASB, Rev. C. W. [ed.] The Register of the University of Oxford ; vol. i. 

[1449-63, 1505-71] 16s. 8° Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 

Bkodrick, Hon. G. C. History of the University of Oxford [Epochs of Church 

History ; the only book brought down to date] 2s. &d. f 8° Longmans 87 
DOBLE, C. E. [ed.] Remarks and Collections of T. Hearne, vol. i. [1705-1707] 

16s. 8° Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 
Ingram, J. Memorials of Oxford, 2 vols. 0.2}. U^iib. 30s.] 8» Parker [37] 47 

Contains an historical sketch of each college, with numerous illustrations by Le Keus. 
Lang, Andrew. Oxford : histor. and descrip. notes ; w. etchings 21s. fo. Seeley 80 

*Lyte, H. C. Maxwell. Hist, of the University of Oxford [only to 1530] 16s. 8° Macmillan 86 
Madan, F. Rough List of MS. Materials rel. to the History of Oxford 7s. 6d. 8° Clar. Press 87 
MozLEY, Rev. T. Reminiscences of Oriel and the Oxford Movement, 2vols. 18s. 08° Longmans 82 
Parker, James. The Early History of Oxford 20s. 80 Oxf. Hist. Soc. 84 

Statutes made for the Univ. of Oxford and the Colleges therein.' 5s. 8° Clar. Press ann. 

A Wood, Anthony. AthenEe Oxonienses : history of writers and bishops educ. 

at Oxford fr. 1500 to 1695 [1721], ed. Bliss; 4 v. 04}. 4:" Zo7idon 11691-2} 18-20 
Paisley Grammar School. 

Brown, R. History of the Paisley Grammar School [to 1576] ; pp. 609 ; ill. Paisley 75 

Rugby School. 

*Stanley, Dean A. P. The Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, D.D. ; 

2 vols. 12s. 08° Murray [47] 87 

St. Paul's School. 

LuPTON, J. H. A Life of John Colet [the founder of St. Paul's School] 12s. 8° Bell 87 

Seebohm, Fred. The Oxford Reformers of 1498 [Colet, Erasmus, More] 14s. 8° Longmans [67] 87 
Westminster School. 

FoRSHALL Westminster School • past and present 

Winchester College. 
Adams, Rev. H. C. Wykehamica : a hist, of Winchester College, &c. 10s. 6d. c8° Parker 78 
KiRBY, T. F. Winchester Scholars : list of wardens, fellows, and scholars 

10s. 6d. 8" Clar. Press 88 
MOBERLY, G. H. Life of William of Wykeham 7s. dd. c8° Warren, Wmcs. 87 

Walcott, M. E. C. William of Wykeham and his Colleges [XIV. Cent.] 

o.p. \jpui. 14s,] 8° Whittaker 52 
British Colonies — vide also India, infra 
t^ Russell, J. Schools of Greater Britain : educational systems of Colonies 
•^ and India [from official sources] 3s. 6d. 8» Collins 87 

Greece and Some. 
Capes, W. W. University Life of Ancient Athens [Oxford Lectures] ; pp. 

171 5s. cS" Longmans 77 

Grasberger, L. Erziehung und Unterricht im klass. Alterthum, 3v. 30s. 8° Wiirzhv/rg 64-81 

Vol. i. Leibliche Erziehung, pp. 414, 7s. ['67] ; ii. Musikalischer Unterricht, pp. 422, 10«. 6(i. ['75] ; iii. Die Epheben- 
Bildung, pp. 642, 12s. &d. ['81]. Scholarly, detailed, and from original sources. 



HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : GREECE— SWITZERLAND 



537 



Jagee, 0. H. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen; pp. 336 ; 6 plates 8s. p8° Stuttgm't [ ] 81 

By a German professor of gymnastics ; valuable, but written in a bad style. 
Keause, C. J. H. Geschichte der Erziehung bei den Griechen, Etruskern und 

Romern ; pp. 436 [standard] 7s. 8° Halle 51 

Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen 24s. 8° Halle 41 

*Mahapfy, Prof. J. P. Old Greek Education ; pp. 161 3s. 6^. c8° Paul [81] 83 

Follows the order of the pupil's age ; based on G-rasberger, supra. 
UssiNG-, Prof. J. L. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesen bei den Griechen und den 

Eomern ; pp. 166 [concise and scholarly] 2s. 8° Altona 70 

Erziehung und Jugendunterricht bei d. Gr. u. Eom. 8° Berlin 85 

WiLKiNS, Prof. A. S. National Education in Greece in the 4th cent. B.C. ; pp. 

167 5s. cS" Isbister 73 

Comprises a succinct view of the educational theories of Plato and Aristotle. 

Holland — vide Netherlands, infra 

India. 

Caepentbe, Mary. Education in India, 2 vols. 18s. 8° Longmans 68 

Lethbeidgb, Sir R. Higher Education in India ; pp. 216 [English schools] 7s. Qd. c8° W. H. Allen 82 

PiNCOTT, Fred. Primary Educ. in India— m Nat. Review, Feb. 1884 ; 2s. M. m8°W.H. Allen 84 

Russell, J. in Ms Schools of Greater Britain : Educational Systems of 

Colonies and India 3s. 6d. 8° Collins 87 

Italy. 



1/^ Bennett, Dr. C. W, [Am.] National Education in Italy, France, Germany, 

England, and Wales 20c. 8° Syracuse 

Ceeeuti Franc. Storia della Pedagogia in Italia dalle Origini 



78 
83 



HIPPEA.U, e. 

SiciLiANi, Pietro. 



L'Instruction Publique en Italie ; pp. 415 
Scienza dell' Educazione nelle scuole Italiane 



3f. 50c. pS" Paris 75 
79 



Japan, 

Outline History of Japanese Education ; pp. 202 [prepared for Phila. Exhib.] New Torh 76 
Jews, Ancient. 

Schulgesetzgebung bei den alten Israeliten 4s. 8° Vienna 72 

Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ 5s. 16° Rel. Tract Soc. 76 
Touches on education. By a learned converted Jew. 

in Ms Early Hebrew Life 3s. Qd. pS" Sonnenschein 80 

Gesch. d. Erzieh. d. Juden in Deutschl. [14-15 cent.] 7s. Qd. 8° Vienna 88 

Die Padagogik des israelitischen Volkes ; pp. 55 2s. &d. p8° Vienna 77 

L']&duc. des enfants chez les anc. Juifs [ace. to Talmud] Is. &d. 8" Leipzig [ ] 81 



DiJSCHAK, M. 

Bdeesheim, Dr. 

Fenton, John. 
gudemann, m. 
Maecus, S. 
Simon, J. 
Spiees, B. 
Steassbuegee, B. 

Netherlands. 

Ceamee, F. 



The School System of the Talmud ; pp. 48 2s. <od. 8° Triibner 

Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts bei den 

Israeliten [to present day] 8° Stuttga/rt 



82 



85 



Lauer, M. 
Paeve, D. J. 



S. 



M. 



Geschichte der Erziehung in den Niederlanden wahrend des 
Mittelalters ; pp. 338 5s. 8° Stralsund 43 

Entwickelung und Gestaltung d. niederlandischen Volks- 
schulwesens [since 1857] ; pp. 320 

Organisation de I'lnstruction prim., second, et sup§r. des 
Pays-Bas; pp. 195 

Geschiedenis der Leidsche Hoogschool [1575-1823] 2 vols. 



8° Berlin 



85 



8° Leyden 78 
8° Leyden 29-32 



8° Lei'ijzig 86 
Sonnenschein 88 
Sonnenschein 88 

86 



SlEGEENBEEK 

Hussia. 

Reform der russischen Universitaten [legislation, &c.] 

Stepniak, S. in Ms The Russian Peasantry, 2 vols. 25s. 8 

TiKHOMiEov, L. in Ms Russia : political and social, 2 vols. 21s. 8 

Tolstoi, Count D.A.c/. Die akademische Universitat im XVIII. Jahrhundert, /or 

leginnings of University Hist, in Mussia. St. Petersburg 

Spain. 
DE LA FuENTE, D.V. Historia de las Universidades, Colegios y establ. de ensenanza 

in Espaiia, vols. 1, 2. 8° Madrid 84-85 

La Ensenanza Universitaria en Espana [a curious table of statistics] Madrid 79 

Switzerland. — v. also Germany, s^ipra 

Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] Swiss Teachers and Educators [collected articles by 
various writers] 



m8'' Hartford 



538 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : SWITZERLAND^tJNITED STATES 

Switzerland — eo7it. 

Grob. Statistik iiber das Unterrichtswesen in cTer Schweiz, 7 vols. 85' 

Basle University. 

ViscHEE, W. Geschichte der Universitiit Basel [from 1460 to 1529] 6s. 8" Basle 60' 

United States. 

Adams, Francis. The Free School System of the United States 9s. S" Chapman 75 

\/- Baikd, W. R. [Am.] American College Fraternities : descriptive analj'sis of the 

Society System in U.S. Colleges ; pp. 212 ^1.50 12° PhnadclpMa, 79 

Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] American Pedagogy [collected arts, by various v^rriters] 12s. 8" Hartford 

Memoirs of Teachers and Educators ; vol. i., U.S. 12s. S" Hartford 

Blake, Sophia J. A Visit to American Schools and Colleges 6s. c8° Macmillan 67 

1^ BOESE, T. Public Education in the City of New York [history, condition, 

statistics] JVe7v York 69 

Brock, A. T. [Am.] American State Universities 18s. 8'^' Cincinnati 75 

*BUISS0N, T. Eapport sur I'lnstruction prim. i\ I'Exposition Univ. de 

Philadelphie ; ill. 8° Paris 78 

Hammond, C. W. [Am.] New England Academies and Classical Schools Washington 68 

Philbrick, J. D. [Am.] City School Sj'stems in the United States [Govt. jDub.] Washington SS' 
Porter, Prof. Noah [Am.] The American Colleges and the American Public ; 

pp. 403 " ^1.50 12" New York [70] 78 

ty Prince, J. T. [Am.] Courses of Studies and Methods of Teaching 85c. 12" Boston 87 

Eandall, S. S. [Am.] History of the Common School System of the State of 

New York [1795-1871J ; ill. ; pp. 477 ,^3 8« New York 70 

Richardson (C. F.) + Clark (H. A.) {Ams.] The College Book [24 of the oider 

Colleges] ; pp. 394 ^15 4° Boston 78. 

V Russell, A. T. [Am.] History of the Common Schools of Florida, &c. Tallahassee 84 

SCHURICHT, Hermann. Geschichte der deutschen Schulbestrebungen inAmerika; 

pp. 150 p8° Leijjzig 84 

Stockwell, T. B. [Am.] A History of Ribhc Education in Rhode Island ; pp. 458 Providence 76- 
SWETT, J. [Am.] Centennial History of the Pablic School System of California ; 

pp. 246 ^2 8° San Francisco 76 

Ten Brook, Andrew [Am.] ximerican State Universities : their origin and 

progi-ess ; pp. 410 ^3.50 8° Cincinnati 75 

Thwing, C. F. [Am.] American Colleges : their Students and Work [popular 

essays]; pp.159 ^1.25 16° Nerv Yorkl^ 

Wayland, Francis [Am.] Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the 

United States ; pp. 160, o.p. 16° Boston 42 

"Whitford, W. C. [Am.] Historical Sketch of Education in Wisconsin; pp. 128 Wisconsin 76 

Amherst College. 

Hitchcock, E. [Am.] Autobiography, or Reminiscences of Amherst College ; 

ports, and plates $^-''^ 12° Northampton, Mass. 6S 

Tyler, W. S. [Am.] History of Amherst College during its First Half-Century ; 

ill. [1821-71] ;^5 8° Springfield 73 

Brown University. 

BuRSAGE, H. S. [Am.] Brown University in the Civil War Providence 68 

Sketch of the History and Present Organisation of Brown University Providence 61 

Columbia College [New York City] 

VAN Ameingel, J. H. [Am.] Historical Sketch of Columbia College [1754- 

1876]; pp.2243 priv. prin. Columlia Coll. 76 

Cornell University. 

White, A. D. [Am.] — in Ms Scenery of Ithaca 66 

Dartmouth College. 

Crosby, N, [Am.] First Half-Century at Dartmouth College 25c. Hanover, V.S. 76 

Smith, B. P. [Am.] The History of Dartmouth College ; pp. 474 $^ 8° Boston 7& 

Harvard University. 

Bush, G. G. [Am.] Harvard : the first American university ; ill. 6s. 6d. 16° Boston 87 

Eliot, S. A. [Am.] A Sketch of the History of Harvard College 78 



HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY: UNITED STATES— STUDENT LIFE 539 

HiGGiNSON, T. W. [ed. ; Am.] Harvard Memorial Biographies, 2 vols. Camhridge, U.S. 67 

Peabody, Dr. A. P. [Am.] Harvard Keminiscences [of Harvard worthies] 6s. 6^. 12° Boston 88 
Sibley, J. L. [Am.] Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard Univ. 

[1647-1858] ^5 8° Camhridge, U.S. 73 

Vaille (F. 0.) + Clark (H. A.) [Ams.] The Harvard Book [history, &c., by- 
various writers], 2 vols. ^$"30 4° Boston [75] 79 

Madison University. 

The First Half-Century of Madison University [1819-1869] New TorJi 72 

Marietta College [Ohio]. 

Andrews, J. W. [Am.] Historical Sketch of Marietta College [by its president] Cincinnati 76 

Michigan University. 

Fareand, E. M. [Am.] History of the University of Michigan ; pp. 300 Ann Arbor 85 

Ten Brook, Andrew [Am.] — nt supra, cants, a imrticula/t' accoimt of the 
history of Michigan Univ. 

Pennsylvania, University of. 

Montgomery, T. H. [Am.] History of the University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia 87 

Smith, Horace W. [Am.] Life and Correspondence of Eev. Wm. Smith, D.D. 

[by his great-grandson], 2 vols. ^10 8° Philadelphia 77-79 

Princeton College. 

Alexander, A. D. [Am.] Princeton College during the Eighteenth Century; 

pp. 326 [sketches of individuals] New Yorh 72 

Hageman, J. F. [Am.] History of Princeton and its Institutions, 2 vols. $& 8° Philadeljihia 79 
Maclean, J. [Am.] History of the College of New Jersey, 2 vols. $7 8° Philadelphia 11 

Princeton Book, The : history, organisation, and present condition of the 

College ^18 4° Boston 80 

South Carolina College. 

Laboedb, M. [Am.] History of the South Carolina College ; pp. 596 8° Charleston 74 

Vassar College [for Women]. 

LossiNG, B. J. [Am.] Vassar College and its Founder ^^4.75 i8<> New Yorh 75 

Eaymond, J. H. [Am.] Vassar College : a sketch of its foundation and aims New Yorh 73 

Virginia, University of. 

Jefferson (T.)4-Cubell (J. C.) [Ams.] Early History of the University of 

Virginia ; pp. 522 8° Richmond 56 

Sketch of the History of the University of Virginia Richmond 85 

Wisconsin University, &c. 

Chapin, a. L. [Am.] Historical Sketches of the Colleges of Wisconsin ; pp. 120 Madison 76 

Historical Sketch of the University of Wisconsin [1849-1876] Madison 76 

Yale College. 

Dexter. F. B. [Am.] Sketches of Graduates of Tale, with Annals of College 

Historj^ [1701-45] ; pp. 788 New Yorh 85 

Sketch of the History of Yale University . 6s. <Qd. 12° New Yorh 87 

DuCROW, W. E. [Am.] Yale and the City of Elms 82: 

Yale Book, The 

(c) STUDENT LIFE : SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY. 
Yide also § II. (h) : Universities. 
General. 

Baird, W. R. [Am.] in his American College Fraternities — vide sujyra 
Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] True Student Life [selections from eminent writers] ; pp. 

416 ■ 12s. 8° Hartford 72 

Osgood, Sam. [Am.] Student Life : letters and recollections ; pp. 164 $\ 12° New Yorh 61 

Great Britain : Generally. 

Pascoe, C. E. [ed.] Everyday Life in our Public Schools ; pp. 324 3s. 6d. c8° Griffith [81] 8a 

A series of sketches by head scholars of the seven public schools, with Merchant Taylors' and Christ's Hospital 

added ; also glossary of school terms. 
Wordsworth, Bp. C. Social Life at the English Universities in 18th Cent. 15s. 8° Bell 74 

Cambridge University. 

Student's Guide to the University of Cambridge 6s. 6d. f 8° Bell [2nd ed. 66] 82 



540 HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY : STUDENT LIFE— EDUCATIONAL LAW 

■Great Britain — Generally — cont. 
Christ's Hospital. 
Blaxch, W. H. Blue-coat Boys : school life in Christ's Hospital Is. cS" E. W. Allen 77 

Eight Years a Blue-coat Boy ; Dundalker's narrative of fact Is. f 8" Dean 77 

S., A. 0. Ups and Downs of a Blue-coat Boy 3.?. 6d. c8° Houlston 76 

Edinburgh University. 

FoKBES, E. Life of— contains good jiicture of life at Ediiib. JJniv. 
Eton College. 
l^ Etoniana, Ancient and Modern : notes on the history and traditions of the 

college ; pp. 238 bs. c8° Blackwood 65 

Oxford University. 

*Anstey, Eev. H. [ed.] Monumenta Academica, 2 vols. 30s. rS" Rolls Series 68 

Documents illustrating academic life and studies at OsJord. 
'Bede, Cuthbert ' [ = Eev. E. Bradley]. Adventures of Mr. Yerdant Green 

[at Oxford ; humorous novel] ; ill., 3s. pS° Griffith [56] 85 
Hughes, Thomas. Tom Brown at Oxford [in the form of fiction] ; ill., 6s. c8° Macmillan [61] 71 
SXEDMAN, A. M. M. Oxford : its social and intellectual life ; pp. 309, 7s. 6^. 08° Triibner 78 

[ed.] Oxford : its life and schools 7s. &d. c8° BeU 87 

A kind of guide-book, compiled by college and private tutors, to liistory of the university, expenses, rewards, 
account of the schools, whether pass or class, women's education at Oson., &c. 

Student's Handbook to the Univ. of Oxford [by Dr. Edvsdn Hatch] 2s. U. f8° Clar. Press [73] 88 
Hughy School. 

L- GouLBUKJJ, Dean E. M. The Book of Eugby School [history and life] ; pp. 252, o.p. cS" 56 

Hughes, Thomas. Tom Brown's School Days [in form of fiction] ; ^d., 2s., 

4s. Qd. ; ill., 6s. Macmillan [57] v.y. 

Eugby School Eegister [1675-1867] 7s. 8° Whittaker 68 

Winchester College. 

School Life at Winchester College ; ill. 7s. &d. c8° Chatto [66] 70 

United States. 
Amherst College. 

Student Life at Amherst Amherst 71 

Harvard University. 

Attwood, p. G. [Am.] Manners and Customs of ye Harvard Students ; ^'1.50 c8° Boston 78 

Tripp, G. H. [Am.] Student Life at Harvard ; pp. 518 ^1.75 cS° Boston, [76] 77 

■Virginia, University of. 

Nash [Am.] The Students of the University of Yirginia 78 

Yale College. 

Bagg, L. H. [Am.] Four Years at Yale [by a graduate of Yale] ; pp. 713 8" New Haven 71 
PoKTEE, J. A. [Am.] Sketches of Yale Life Washington 86 

■Crennany. 

*V.Baknstein,A.P. Beitrjige zur Geschichte des deutschen Studententhums ; 

pp. 156 pS° Wiirziurg 82 

Contains a systematic bibliography of the subject. 

DOLCH, 0. Geschichte des deutschen Studententhums ; pp. 300 4s. 8° Leipzig 58 

■Steppens, H. German University Life : Story of my Cai-eer as a Student 

and Professor [tr.] ; pp. 284 ^1.25 12" Philadelphia 7 i 

Jena. 

KiiL, E. -f- E. Geschichte des jenaischen Studentenlebens [1548-1858]; 

pp. 662 Ss. 8° Leijjzig 58 

III. §6xtcafio)taI JEatt) : §o6es, ^ualificaftotts of %cac^cxs, Sec. 

Generally. 

*S0NNENSCHEl]sr, A. [ed.] Standards of Teaching of Foreign Codes; 3s. &d. 08" Sonnenschein [82] 89 

Codes of Austria, Belgiimi, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, S. Australia, &c.; trs., with notes. 

<Jreat Britain. 

*Ceaik, H. The State in relation to Education [English Citizen Series] 

OS. M. cS" Macmillan 84 



EDUCATIONAL LAW— SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY 541 

Element. Educ. Acts. Reiaorts of Eoyal Commission ; v. i.-iv., and suppl. 

f" Eyre & Spottiswoode 87-88 
Glen* W. C. [ed.] The Elementary Education Acts, with notes [1870, 73, 74, 

75, 80] 10s. M. 12° Shaw [71] 81 

Owen, H. [ed.] The Elementary Education Acts ; pp. 600 15.9. 8° Knight [71] 84 

Sellab, a. C. Manual of the Education Acts for Scotland 10s. 6^. 8° Blackwood [72] 88 

Trowee, C. F. The Law of Building Churches, Parsonages, and Schools ; 9s. 8° Butterworth^.Tl 

France. 

Beet, Paul. Rapport sur la Loi de I'enseignement primaire ; pp. 365 3f. s8° Pa/i-is [80] 80 

Chakles. Legislation des etablissements publ. d'instruction secondaire ; 

PP- 468 6f. pS" Paris 72 

Greard, M. Legislation de I'instruction primaire en France depuis 1 780 ; 3v. 08° Paris 74 

HIPPEAU, C. L'Instruction publique pendant la Revolution [debates, &c.] ; 

PP- 380 3f . 50c. sS" Pa/ris 83^ 

Germany. 

Backhaus, J.C.N. Die Schulgesetzgebung der Gegenwart; pp. 324 3s. 8° Osnalrucli 69 

GiEBE. Die Verordnungen betreffend d. gesammten Volksschulwesen 

in Preussen ; pp. 720 rS" Bimeldorf [ ] 82 

Geattenauee, W. Das Schulrecht des preussischen Staates ; pp. 105 Is. Qd. r8° Berlin 75 

Handbuch der Reichsgesetze und Ministerial verordnungen lib. Volksschulwesen; 

2 vols. 8° Vienna 78-82 

V. Oeenteatjt,A.R. Die osterreichischen Volksschulgesetze, 2 vols. 8° Vienna 78 

Prussian Code, The, in its Present Form [tr.] 2s. &d. c8° Paul 79 

WlESE, Prof. L. Verordnungen und Gesetze f . d. hoheren Schulen in Preussen ; 

2 vols. 12s. 8° Berlin [67, 78] 75 

i. Die Scliule ; ii. Das Lehiamt unrl die Lehre. 

Italy. 

Documenti suUa Instruzione elementare nel regno d' Italia; pp. 117 8° 

Nuovo Codice della Instruzione pubblica; pp. 819 Saluzzo 70 

United States. 

Baedeen, C.W. [ed. ; Am.] Common School Law for Common School Teachers 

[qualifications, &c.] ; pp. 95 75c. 16° Syracuse [75] 88 

Baenaed, H. [ed. ; Am.] School Codes : State, municipal, institutional 12s. m8° Hartford 73 

Bueke, F. [Am.] A Treatise on the Law of Public Schools ; pp. 154 ■ $\ 12° New YorTi 80 

Keyes, E. W. [ed. ; Am.] Laws of New York relating to Common Schools, with 

notes ^4 Syracuse [79] 88 

KiEK, J. E. [ed. ; Am.] Code of Public Instruction of State of New York ^4 8° New Yorh 88 

IV. ^gsfetttttfic ^edagogp. 

{a) ANCIENT (GREEK AND ROMAN). 

Aristotle. Nicomachfean Ethics ; Politics ; Rhetoric ; Economics^2^«ssm 

Cicero. De Oratore 

CORNIFICIUS [?]. Rhetorica [ad Herennium] 

ISOOEATES. Oratio xiii. — against the Sophists and their methods 

Oratio xv. — on the Antidosis, or theory of practical cxiltxi/re 

LuciAN. Anacharsis vel de Gymnasiis 

Philosteatus THE ELDER. Libellus de arte gymnastica 
Plato. Dialogues — the Republic ; the Laws — passim 

Grote, Geo. Plato and other Companions of Socrates, 4 vols., each 6s. c8° Murray [67] 85 

Kapp. Platen's Erziehungslehre 

Nettleship, E. S. Theory of Educ. in Repub, of Plato — in Abbott's ' Hel- 

lenica' 16s. 8° Rivington 80 

Packaed [Am.] Studies in Greek Thought, pt. ii. [Plato's system of education] 

WiESB. Die pjidagogischen Grundsatze in Plato's Republik 

Wilkins, Prof. A. S. National Educ. in Greece in IV Cent. [Plato and Aristotle] 

5s. c8° Isbister 73 

V. Zeller, E. Socrates and the Socratic School [tr.] 10s. M. 8° Longmans [68] 77 

Plutarch. Morals— /;assm 



542 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: ANCIENT— MODERN 

QxJiNTiLiAX. Institutes of Oratory 

Tacitus. Dialogus de Oratoribus 

Xexophon. CyropEedia — education and life of Cyrus 

(Economiciis — educatiotf, of a nnfefar tlie MuseTiold 



(V) MODEEN, WITH RECENT CRITICISM THEREON. 

The dates of birth of living writers are not given. 

For Special Treatises i-ide VI. (h), especially Gymnasia. 

Arn^old, Dr. Thomas [1795-1842] 

*Staxley, Dean A. P. Life and Correspondence of Thomas Arnold, 2 vols. 

12s. cS" Murray [47] 87 
AsCHAir, Roger [1515-1568]. The Schoolmaster [1570], ed. Prof. J. E. B. Mayor; Is. 12° Bell 84 

The same : test only [Cassell's National Lib.] Zd., bnd. 6d. IS" Cassell 88 

Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut s^tpra, II. («) 
*Bain, Prof. Ales. Education as a Science [Intern. Sclent. Ser.] bs. cS" Kegan Paul [79] 85 

Practical Essays 4»\ 6</. cS° Longmans 84 

Civil Service Examinations, the Classical controversy, Metaphvs. and Debating Societies, FniversitT Ideal past 

and present, &c. 

Basedo"^, J. [1723-1790]. Ausgewahlte Schriften, ed. H. Groring Langensalza 80 

Quick, Rev. R. H. — In his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut suj}ra, II. (a) 
Bell, Dr. Andrew [1753-1832] 

Meiklejohx, Prof. J. M. D. An Old Educational Reformer : [Dr. Bell] : Ss. ed.cS" Blackwood 82 
Besteke, F. E. [1798-1854]. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, 2 vols. ; pp. 403, 

482 12s. 8° Berlin [42] 76 

MOLTKE. Beneke's Psychologisch-piidagogische Abhandlungen und Aufsiitze. 8° Leipzig 77 
Bock, E. Der Volksschul-Unterricht : pp. 688 [Prussian law ; a valuable book]. 8" Breslmi 79 

Brau>', Prof. Th. Cours Complet de Pedagogic et de Methodologie ; pp. 954 m8° Brussels 85 
Beyakt, Dr. Sophie. Educational Ends : the ideal of personal development ; Gs.S" Longmans 87 
Campe, J. H. [1746-1818]. Theophron, ed. K. Eichter; pp. 296 [Padog. Bibl.] 2s. 6d. 8° Beip-zig 75 
Combe, Geo. [178S-185S]. Education: its principles and practice, ed. "SV. Jolly; 

pp. 772 los. 8° MacmiUan 79 

COMENius, J. A. [1591-1671]. Grosse Unterrichtslehi-e, ed. G. A. Lindner 8" 3s. Jlenna 76 

Tr. of the Didactica J/iigrjKi, orig. pub. in Bohemian in 1628-32. 

Orbis Pictus, w. facs. reprod. of the original pictures ;^3 8° St/racvse [1658] 87 

The first picture-book for children ever pub. The Latin text is from the ed. of 1658, the Engl. tr. fr. that of 1727. 

Piidagogische Schriften, iibersetzt Th. Lion 3s. 8° Langensalzn 76 

Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. J. Berger + F, Zoubek, 2v. 6s. Qd. 8" Leipzig 76 



Laueie, Prof. S. S. Comenius : his life and educational works ; pp. 240, 

3s. Qd. cS" Camb. Press [81] 85 
Leutbechee. Amos Comenius" Lehrkunst Is. &d. 8" Leipzig 55 

Quick, Rev. E. H.— i« Itis Essays on Educational Reformers, ?;/ supra, 11. («) 
COJIPATEE, Prof. Gabriel. Lectures on Pedagogy [tr. ; theoretical and practical] 

cS" Sonnenschein, in prep. 
*DrESTEEWEG, F. A. W. [1790-1866]. Wegweiser zur Bildimg fivr deutsche 

Lehrer, 3 vols. " S" Essen [34] 79 

i. psychology, didactics, methods ; ii. religion, object-lessons, reading, arithmetic, writing, drawing, singing ; 
iii. geography, history, science, geometry, French, English, deaf-mutes, bUnd, idiots, kindergarten, gymnastics. 

Ausgewahlte Schriften, hrsg. Langenberg, 4 vols. Franifort 82 



Langexbeeg, E. Adolf Diesterweg : sein Leben und seine Schriften ; 6s. 8" FranM'ort 68 

DiXTEE, G. F. [1760-1S31]. Leben [autobiography], hrsg. R. Niedergesiiss ; 2s. S" Henna [29] 79 

*DlTTES, Dr. Friedrich. Schule der Padagogik ; pp. 1056 10s. 8° Leipzig [76] SO 

Comprehensive ; psychology, logic, theory of education, methodics of public instruction, history of education. 

Each part is also sold separately. 

EVE(H. "W.) + SiDGWiCK (A.) -f- Abbott (E.A.) Three Lectures on the Practice 

of Education [Pitt Press Ser.] 2s. pS" Camb. Pi-ess S3 

On Marking— stimulus— The Teaching of LiUin verse composition. 

Faeeae, F. W. [ed.] Essays on a Liberal Education ; pp. 3S4 10s. dd. S" MacmiUan [67] 68 

. Contributions by C. S. Parker, H. Sidg^vick. J. R. Seeley, E. E. Bowen, F. W. Farnw, J. M. Wilson, J. W. Hales, 

W. Johnson, L. Honshton. 



SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 543 

^. FiCHTE, J. G. [1762-1814]. Reden an die deutsche Nation [Universal Bibl. 2 pts.J Qd. 16° Leijjzig 

— ^ Aphorismen iiber Erziehung — no separate ed. imprint 

.._ System der Sittenlehre — no separate ed. in jyrint 

On the Nature of the Scholar, in Ms Popular Writings, tr. 

W. Smith, 2 vols. 21s. p8° Triibner [46-47] 88 

*FiTCH, J. G. Lectures on Teaching [15, at Cambridge ; practical ; topical 

treatment] 5«. cB" Camb. Press [80] 85 

Sums up the best current thought ou teaching. 
Flattich, I. F. [1717-1797]. Padagogische Lebensweisheit, hrsg. E. Ehmann 2s. 8» Heidelig.lO 
SCHAFER, C. D. Flattich und sein padagogisches System ; pp. 121 Is. Qd. 8° Frankfort 71 

Francke, a. H. [1663-1727]. Schriften iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, hrsg. K. 

Eichter, 2 vols. 6s. 8° Leipzig 74 

Kramer. Francke: einLebensbild, 2 vols.; pp. 304, 510 %" Halle 80-82 

Fricke, F. W. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre ; pp. 810 8° Mannlieim 81-82 

Objectivity of judgment and mediation of antitheses are sought by the author; original and comprehensive. 
Froebel, Friedr. [1782-1852]— rMd VI. {a) 
^ Hegel, G. W. F. [1770-1831] 

Thaulow, G. Hegel's Ansichten iiber Erziehung und Unterricht, 3 vols. 18s. 8° Kiel 58-54 
Selections fi-om Hegel's writings, systematically arranged. 
Heebart, J. F. [1776-1841]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. "Wilmann, 2 vols.; 

pp. 673, 692 {espee. Umriss pad. Vorlesungen] 8° Leipzig [i'.y.] 80 

Hennig, G. a. J. F. Herbart nach seinem Leben und seiner padagogischen 

Bedeutung; pp. 130 Leipzig 77 

Weiszner, E, Herbart's Padagogik in ihrer Entwickelung u. Anwendung 8° Bernburg 85 
V. Herder, J. G. [1744-1803] 

Eein, W. Herder als Piidagog ; pp. 60 Is. 8° Vienna 76 

Huxley, Prof. T. H. Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews 7s. 6^. c8<> Macmillan [70] 71 

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Science and Culture, and other essays 10s. %d. 8" Macmillan 82 

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Jacotot, J. J. [1770-1840] Enseignement Universel : langue maternelle 6f. S^Paris [23] 54 

The same : droit et philosophie panecastiques 4f . 8° Paris [39] 40 

The same : melanges posthumes 3f . 8° Paris 40 

Payne, Prof. Jos. in his Lectures, wt infra 

Perez, Bernhard. Jacotot et sa methode d'emancipation intellectuelle ; pp. 210 2s.6<^. s8''Paris 83 
Quick, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut swiJra, II. (a) 
JOHONNOT, J. [1823-88]. The Principles and Practice of Teaching [tr.] ; j^l.50 8" New York 78 
C/ Kant, Immanuel [1774-1804]. Ueber Padagogik, hrsg. Theod. Vogt Langensalza 78 

Ir The same, tr. W. J. Cox c8° Boston, in prep. 

Kehr, C. Die Praxis der Volksschule [for normal pupils] ; pp. 490 4s. &d. 8° Gotha [68] 80 

Kellner, L. Volksschiilkunde : ein prakt. Wegweiser [Roman Cath.] 4s. 8° Essen [55] 74 

Kern, H. Grundriss der Padagogik; pp. 314 8" Berlin 81 

Klopper, K. Grundriss der Padagogik [for women teachers and girls' 

schools] ; pp. 184 8° Rostock 78 

Laurie, Prof. S. S. The Training of Teachers, and other papers; pp. 369 7s. &d. 8" Paul 82 

Primary Instruction ; Montaigne ; Bducat. Wants of Scotland ; Secondary and High Schools. 

Occasional Addresses on Educational Subjects 5s. cS" Camb. Press 88 

*Locke, John [1632-1704]. Some Thoughts concerning Education [1693], ed. 

Rev. R. H. Quick ■ 3s. U. c8° Camb. Press [80] 84 

The same, ed. Canon Evan Daniel 4s. c8° National Soc. 80 

— Conductof the Understanding [1690], ed.T. Fowler ; pp. 136 2s. 12° Clar. Press 81 

Cf. Leitch and Quick in II. (a) 
Lubbock, Sir John. Addresses : political and educational 8s. &d. 8° Macmillan 79 

Mann, Horace [Am.] Lectures and Annual Reports [1839-42] on Education 

[collected] ; pp. 571 ^3 c8° Boston 72 

Lectures on Education ; pp. 348 $1 p8° Boston 55 

Mann, Mrs. Horace [Am.] The Life of Horace Mann 12s. M. 8° Boston [81] 88 

Mann was Secretary to the Massachusetts Board of Education. 
3IILT0N, John [1608-1674]. A Treatise on Education [1673], ed. Oscar Brown- 
ing 2s. c8° Camb. Press 83 
Quick, Rev. R. H. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, iit supra, II. («) 



544 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 

DE Montaigne, Mich. [1533-92] Essays [1580], tr. Florio, ed. Prof. H. Morley ; 5^. c8° Eoutledge 85 

On Education, tr. MacAlister [Am.] cS" Boston, in iirep. 

MttlCASTEE, B. [1530(?)-1611]. Positions [reprint of a bk. by a City School- 
master, tirst pub. 1581] 10s. M. 8° Barnard & Quick 8S 
V. Nag-elsbach, C. F. Gymnasial-Padagogik, hrsg. G. Autenrieth [standard] ; 

pp. 175 Erlangen 79 

NiEDBEGESASS, K. [ed.] Handbuch der speciellen Methodik der elementaren 

Schnlen [by several contributors] Vienna 85, in prog. 

NiEMETER, A. H. Grundsatze der Erziehung und des Unterrichts, 3 vols, [stan- 
dard] ; pp. 572, 73i, 666 18s. 8° Halle [1796] 34-39 
PAGE, David P. [Am.] The Theory and Practice of Teaching ;^1.50 s8° New Torh [47] 
Palmeb, C. Evangelische Piidagogik; pp. 736 [pietistic]7s. &d. 8" Stuttgart [53] 69 
*Payne, Prof. Jos. [1808-1876] Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, 

&c., ed. Eev. K. H. Quick; pp. 386 lis. 8° Longmans [83] 83 

Payue \yas the first professor of the Science and Art of Education at the College of Preceptors. The chief contents of 
this volume are : Curriculum of Mod. Educ. [1st pub. 1868] ; Training of the Teacher [73] ; Theories of Teaching 
[68] ; the College of Preceptors [68] ; True Poundation of Science Teaching [73] ; .Tacotot, his life and system 
[67] '; Visit to German Schools [76]. 

PAYNE, Prof. W. H. [Am.] Contributions to the Science of Education ^1 cS° Blackie 87 

Pestalozzi, J. H. [1746-1827.] Siimmtliche Werke, hrsg. L. "W. SeyfEarth, 16 

vols. ea. 9^". 8" Brandenhiirg \v.y.'\ 69-73 

Leonard and Gertrude [1781], tr. and abgd. Eva Charming ; 

pp. 181 85c. c8'' Boston 85 

Barnard, H. [ed.] Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism [life, principles, methods] 

12s. m8<' New York 62 
Miscellaneous collection of reprinted papers, with some trss. from his works. 
Cochin A. Pestalozzi : sa vie, ses ceuvres et ses methodes ; pp. 146 If. 25c. 08" Paris 80 
*DE GuiMPS, R. Pestalozzi : his life and works, tr. Russell ; portrait 6s. cS" Sonnenschein 88 
Krusi, H. [Am.] Pestalozzi : his life, work, and influence ; pp. 248 ^2.25 12" Cincinnati 75 
Leitch, J. Muir, Mi his Practical Educationists, vt siqjo-a, II. (a) 
Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut supra, II. (a) 
V. Raumee, K. The Life and System of Pestalozzi, tr. J. Tilleard op. 8° London 55 

Russell, J. The Student's Pestalozzi : a brief account of his" life and 

work Is. &d. 08" Sonnenschein 88 

Schneider, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi ; pp. 86 Is. 8° Bromberg 67 

VOGEL, A. [ed.] Die Padagogik Pestalozzi's [verbatim extracts from his 

writings] ; pp. 138 Bernlwg 82 

Rabelais, Frangois [1483-1553] 

Arnstadt, F. a. Rabelais und sein Traite d'Edttcation ; pp. 295 6s. 8" Leipzig 72 

With special reference to Montaigne, Locke, and Rousseau. 
Rappold, J. Gymnasialpadagogischer "Wegweiser [with bibliog.] ; pp. 30 Is. %°M.enna 83 

Ratich, W. [1571-1635] 

Keause, G. Ratichius, oder Ratke im Lichte seiner Briefe 8s. 8° Leipzig 72 

Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, vt svjjra, II. («) 
Schumann, I. C. G. Die g.chte Methode Ratke's ; pp. 64 Is. &d. 8° Hanover 76 

ElCHTEE, Jean Paul [1763-1825]. Levana ; or, the Doctrine of Education 

[tr.] 3s. ^d. 08° Bohn's Lib. 76 

Levana ; for English readers, tr. and ed. Susan Wood; 

3s. cS" Sonnenschein 87 

Extracts, with running commentary and elucidatory links. 
"WiETH, G. Richter als Piidagog [with extracts from his writings] Is. 'ad. 8° Brandenhurg 63 
EOSENKEANZ, K. The Philosophy of Education, tr. Anna C. Brackett 

[Hegelian] ; pp. 148 ^1.50 IS" St. Lords [72] 86 

ROSMINI, Ant. Serbati Method in Education, tr. [fr. Ital.] Mrs. "VVm. Grey; 

pp. 363 ;^1.75 cS'' Boston 87 

Rousseau, J. J. [1712-1778]. Emile, or concerning Education, tr. [in extracts] 

w. notes Ju.les Steeg 85c. c8» Boston 85 

GiEARDiN, St. Marc. Rousseau : sa vie et ses ouvrages, 2 vols. 1 8° Paris 75 

Quick, Rev. R. H. in Ms Essays on Educational Reformers, ut s^ipra, II. (a) 
SCHNEIDER, C. Rousseau und Pestalozzi Is. 8° Bromberg 67 

A comparison between French and G erman idealism, in two lectures. 



SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN 545 

SCHLBIERMACHEE, F. [1768-1834]. Padagogische Schriften, hrsg. C. Platz 5s. 8° Langensalza 76 
DiLTHEY, W. Leben Schleiermacher's, vol. i. 9s. 8° Berlin 70 

EiSBNLOHR, Th. [ed.] Die Idee der Volksschule nach d. Schriften Schleier- 
macher's Is. 8° Stuttgart 69 
Schumann, Dr. J. C. G. Lehrbuch der Padagogik, 2 vols. 83-84 
SCHUTZE, F. W. Evangelische Schulkunde ; pp. 800 8s. 8° Leijnig [70] 76 
Schwartz, F. H. C. [1766-1837]. Allgemeine Erziehungslehre [standard]; pp. 

448 8° Leipzig [02-13] 80 

— Schul-Brziehungslehre ; pp. 740. 8° Leipzig [ ] 82 

*Spencee, Herbert. Education : intellectual, moral, and physical 2s. Qd. f8" Williams [61] 83 

in his Essays : scientific, political, and speculative, 

ser. i-ii. 16s. ; ser. iii. 8s. 08° Williams [58, 74] 83, 80 
Leitch, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut supra, II. (a) 
Quick, Rev. H. R. in his Essays on Educational Reformers, ut siqjra, II. (a) 
Spuezheim, J. G. [1776-1832]. Education : its elements, princ. founded on nature 

of man, tr. w. appl. by S. R. Wells [Am.] ; pp. 334 ^1.25. 12° ]Ve7v York 47 
Stow, David. The Training System in Glasgow Model Schools ; pp. 569, 

op. \j}ub.6s. 6d.'] 8° Longman [36] 59 
Leitch, J. Muir, in his Practical Educationists, ut sujjra, II. (a) 
Sturm, Joh. 

Laas, E. Die Padagogik des Johannes Sturm ; pp. 126 2s. 8° Berlin 72 

Thaulow, G. Philosophic der Padagogik [Hegelian] ; pp. 212 4s. 8° Berlin 45 

Thring, Rev. Edw. The Theory and Practice of Teaching ; pp. 256, 4s. Qd. c8° Camb. Press [83] 85 

Education and School Qs. cS" Macmillan [67] 67 

Vernaleken, T, Anf ange der Unterrichtslehre and Volksschulkunde [psycho- 
logical] ; pp. 192 2s. Qd. 8° Vienna 74 
Vico, G. B. [1668-1744]' [Life and Works of] by R. Flint [Philos. Classics f. 

Eng. Readers] 3s. 6^. f8'' Blackwood 84: 

ViVES, J. L. Ausgewahlte padagogische Schriften, hrsg. R. Heine; 

pp. 424 4s. 8° Leipzig 81 

Waitz, Th. Allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 552 7s. 8° Brunswick [83] 83 

Herbartian ; by the eminent anthropologist. 
WiLDERSPiN. System of Education [tr.] ; pp. 487 o.p. 8° London 70 

Infant Education [tr.; poor children; to 7 years old] ; pp. 183 75 

Leitch, J. Muir, in Ms Practical Educationists, ^vt supra, II. (a) 

Wyss, F. Padagogische Vortrage zur Fortbildung der Lehrer; pp. 175 8° Vienna 84 

V. Zeschwitz, Gerh. Lehrbuch der Padagogik ; pp. 292 8° Leipzig 82 

ZiLLER, T. Grundlegung zur LehrevomerziehendenUnterricht; pp. 557,10s. 8° Leipzig [65] 84 

In 2 parts — i. on relation of instruction to government and discipline ; ii. on the aim of instruction. Herbartian. 

— — . Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Padagogik ; pp. 443 5s, <6d. 8° Leipzig 76 

In 3 parts— i. School government ; ii. Instruction, laws, methods ; iii. Discipline, character, culture. 

V. pedagogical '^ssc^olog:^. 

Generally. 

COMPAYRE, Prof. G. Notions. 61ementaires de Psychologie Paris 87 

Frohlich, G. Die wissenschaftliche Padagogik in ihrenGrundlagen; pp. 164 Vienna 83 

Hass. Die Psychologie als Grundwissenschaft der Padagogik Leipzig 85 

Heebart, J. F. Briefe iib. d. Anwendung d. Psych, auf d. Padag. 8" Leipzig [ ] n.d.. 

Hoffmann, U. J. The Science of Mind applied to Teaching; ill. ; pp.400 $\.^^. 0,%" JSew York 85 
Maas, B. Psychologie in ihrer Anwendung a. d. Schulprasis ; pp. 84 Breslati 85 

Pfisterer, G. F. Padagogische Psychologie ; pp. 340 6s. 8° Giitersloh 80 

An application of the ' newer psychology ' [post-Herbartian] to pedagogy. 
Stumpell, L. Psychologische Padagogik [Herbartian] ; pp. 368 8° Leipzig 80 

* Sully, James. Outlines of Psychology ; with special reference to education ; 

12s. &d. 8» Longmans [84] 85 

* Teacher's Handbook of Psychology [on basis of above] . Qs.Qd. c8° Longmans 86 

*Ward, Prof. James, article Psychology [generally] in Encyclo. Britannica \^th edition~] 

Children generally— «)i<?e also The Kindergarten 

*BuLOW, Baroness Marenholtz. The Child and Child Nature, tr. by Alice 

M. Christie 3s. cS" Sonnenschein [79] 87 

. N N 



546 SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY : MODEEN 

Children generally — cont. 

DuPANLOUP, Fel. A. P. The Child, tr. by Kate Anderson [Am.] ; pp. 300 ^1.50. cS" Boston, 75 

A Roman Catholic view of child-nature, hy a well-known prelate. 

*EG-&EK, Emile Observations et Eeflexions sur le developpement de Tintel- 

ligence et du langage chez les enfants ; pp. 102 2f. 50c. .8° Pans 81 

Genzmeb, A. UntersuchuDgen iiber die Sinneswahrnehmungen des neu- 

geborenen ilenschen Halle 73 

Hebzog (H.) + Schiller (K.) Das Kind: Anleitungen zurrationellenphysischen 

Erziehungsweise und Winke zur Entfaltung des Seelen- 

lebens der Kinder; pp. 144 5s. 8° Pesth 68 

Johnson, J. Eudimentary Society among Boys in Johns Hopkins Univ. 

Historical Studies [repr. fr. Overland Mail, Oct. S3] 8° 

*Ktjssmattl, a. Untersuchungen iiber das Seelenleben des neugeborenen 

Menschen ; pp. 40 Is. 8" Leipzig 59 

*Perez, Bernbard. The First Three Tears of Childhood, tr. by Alice M. 

Christie 4*'. Qd. c8° Sonnenschein 85 

The most valuable general book on Infant Psychology ; well translated. 

L'Education des le Berceau : essai de pedagogic esperi- 

mentale ; pp. 302 5f , 8° Pari^ 80 

Ploss, H. Das Kind in Branch und Sitte, 2 vols. ; pp. 394, 478 [anthropolog.] 125. 8" Berlin 82 

Das kleine Kind, vom Tragbett zum ersten Schxitt ; pp. 120 

[anthropological] Is. &d. 8° Berlin 81 

Preyer, W. Die Seele des Kindes, 2 vols. • 8° [82] 86 

. The Senses and the Will, tr. H. W. Brown [part, of 

above] 7s. M. 8» New TorTt 88 

' Observations by a physiologist, chiefly on his own children : pt. i. development of the senses ; ii. of the will (impulsive, 
reflex, instructive, imitative, expressive, &c.) ; iii. of the understanding (especially language). 

Schultze, F. Die Sprache des Kindes ; pp. 46 Is. 8° Leipzig 80 

Warner, Dr. Francis. The Children : how to study them [lectures] Is. Qd. 8" Hodgson 88 

.Esthetics — vide also VI. (jb), s.r. Art, Drawing 

Meyer, B. Aus der asthetischen Padagogik; pp. 256 5s. 6d. 8° Berlin 73 

Six lectures on language, literature, music, art, art industry, and pedag. practice. 

Apperception. 

Lange, K. Ueber Apperception : eine psychologisch - padagogische 

Monographie ; pp. 112 Is. 6d. S° Plauen 79 

Attention. 
Oehlee, C. Die Aufmerksamkeit der Kinder beim Unterricht ; pp. 30 

Class Teaching and Private Study. 

Krier. Das Studium und die Privat-Lectiire ; pp. 291 

Schebfig, F. E. Der psychische Wert des Etnzel- und Classenimterrichts [sug- 
gestive] ; pp. 56 

Concentration of Study. 

RiCHTER, A. Die Concentration des Unterrichts in der Volksschule ; pp. 92 Is. 8° Leipzig 65 

Schnell, F. Grundriss der Concentration und Centralisation des Unter- 

richts [Zillerian] ; pp. 160 Is. 6rf. 8° Langensalca 60 

Habit. 
Radestock, Dr. Paul. Habit and its Importance in Education, tr. F. Caspari 

[empirical] 65c. c8° Boston, U.S. 82 

Imagination. 

*Klaibee, J. Das Marchen und die kindliche Phantasie ; pp. 44 1 s. 8" Stuttgart 66 

LoHB. Ueber Pflege der Phantasie in der Volksschule Danzig 85 

ilABKEL, G. Die Einbildungskraft und ihre Bedeutung fiir Unterricht 

und Erziehung ; pp. 34 2s. 8° Bobeln 78 

Intercourse. 

Earth, E. Ueber den Umgang; pp. 110 Is. M. 8° Langensalza [70] 82 

Interest. 

Walsemann. Das Interesse : sein Wesen und seine Bedeutung fiir den Unterricht Hanover 85 

Memory. 

Coleridge, S. T. Method of Mnemonics 5s. 08° Griffin [49] 

Obanville, Dr. J. Mortimer. Training of the Memory [Health Series] Is. 16° W. H. Allen 81 



Qd 


. Leipzig 


76 


8° 


Luxenibnrg 


85 


Is. 


8° Leipzig 


82 



SYSTEMATIC PEDAGOGY: MODERN— METHODS 547 

Orebn, F. W. E. Memory : its logical relations and cultivation 6s. c8° Bailli^re 88 

Kay, David Memory, and how to improve it ' 6s. c8° Paul 88 

Order of Studies. 

Hill, Dr. T. [Am.] The True Order of Studies |fl.25. 12« New Yorh 82 

Scholar, The. 

FiCHTE, J. G. On the Nature of the Scholar, and its manifestation in Ms 

Popular Writings, tr. W. Smith, 2 vols. 21s. pS"" Triibner [46-49] 88 

Sex. 
Clarke, Dr. [Am.] Sex in Education ^$'1.25. 12° Boston 

Stimulus. 

SiDGWiCK, A. On stimulus, in Three Lectures on Education 2s. 12" Camb. Press 83 

Temperament. 

DiTTMAR, H. Temperament und Erziehung ; pp. 58 Emden 85 

Will. 

WiBSE, Prof. L. Die Bildung des "Willens ; pp. 87 Is. 6<Z. 8° Berlin [57] 79 



VI. ^Uci^obs of gttsfrucfion, according fo ^ub|ecfs. 

For General Works vide II. passim. By far the best comprehensive work is Kehr's ' Geschichte der 
Methodik,' but it is limited to German Methods of Elementary Education. 

(a) HOME, KINDEEGAETEN, AND PEIMAEY SCHOOL EDUCATION: GENERAL WORKS. 
Vide also V. : Children. For Special Subjects vide the next § passim. 

Home Education — v. also Peabody and Shirreff, infra 

* Abbott, Dr. E. A. Hints on Home Teaching 3s. c8«SeeJ[ey [83] 83 

Beaun, Prof. Th. Le Livre des Meres 8° Brussels 63 

Kennedy, J. [Am.] The School and the Family : ethics of school relations ; 

pp. 205 ^1. 16" New York 78 

Klencke, H. Die Mutter als Erzieherin ihrer Tochter u. Sohne Leipzig [ ] 72 

Mann (Mary) + Peabody (Eliz. P.) [Ams.] The Moral Culture of Infancy ; ^1.25. Mw Tork [69] 74 
Martineau, Harriet. Household Education ; pp. 866 2s. Qd. 12<> Smith & Elder [49] 76 

Mason, Charlotte M. Home Education [A course of lectures to ladies] 3s. 6d. c8» Paul 87 

Meyer, Bertha. Aids to Family Government : from the cradle to the school 

[tr. ; Froebelian] ; pp. 108 50c. f 8« JVew York 79 

Eenan, Ernest. La Part de la Famille et de I'Etat dans I'Education 50c. 12" Paris 69 

Eosen, K. Die Kindererziehung, mit Eiicksicht auf d. Charakterbildung ; pp. 181 85 

Schultz, F. Die hausliche Erziehung in Zusammenhang mit der Schule 6d. Schweinfurth 76 

Taylor, Isaac. Home Education 5s. cS" Bell [38] 67 

Kindergarten. 
Bibliography. 
Walter, L. Die Frobel-Literatur ; pp. 198 3s. 8" Dresden 81 

List of KG-, books since 1838, classified both clironologically and by standpoint of writers. 
Theoretical, &c. 
*BuL0W, Baroness Marenholtz. The Child and Child Nature, tr. Alice M. 

Christie 3s. 08° Sonnenschein [79] 87 

— Hand-work and Head-work : their relation to 

one another, tr. A. M. Christie 3s. c8° Sonnenschein 83 

■*Froebel, Fr. Gesammelte padagogische Schriften, hrsg. W. Lange, 3 vols. 8" Berlin 74 sqq. 

i. Autobiographie ; ii. Mensctenerziehung ; iii. Piidagogik des Kindergartens. 

Autobiog. of, tr. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. cS" Sonnensch. [86] 88 

— The Education of Man, tr. W. N. Hailman ;^1.50. 12'' New York 87 

Letters of, W. H. Keatley Moore + Emilie Michaeiis 3s. c8» Sonnenschein 89 

*BUL0-W, Baroness Marenholtz, Eeminiscences of Froebel, tr. Mrs. Horace 

Mann ^1.50. 08" Boston 77 

HANSCHMANN, a. B. Fr. Froebel : die Entwickelung s. Erziehungsidee in 

s. Leben ; pp. 480 4s. 8» Bisenach [74] 76 

N N 2 



us METHODS: KINDERGARTEN— SPECIAL SUBJECTS 

Kiadergarten — Theoretical — amt. 

Shirreff, Emily A. Froobel : n Sketch of Ms Life ; with his letters to his 

wife [tr.] 2.x. cS» Chapman [77] ST 

Feoebel Society. Essiij-s on the Kindergarten delivered before the Fi\->ebel 

Society 3.*. oS*^ Sonnenschein [SO] 8T 

By Faixily Shirreff, Ami;* Biioklaiiil. Mrs. Hog^n. H. Koatloy Itooro, Elotuwr Heerwivrts &o. 
Peabody, Eliz. P. [Am.] The Home, the Kindergivrten, and the School, with 

introd. by Eliz. A. Manning ; pp. 200 S*. cS" Sonnenschein S7" 

Pestalozzi. J. H. —('/</<• IV. (J>) 

DE PoETrCrALL, ilmo. Synoptical Table of the Kindergarten, ah roUt^m ; 2.>f. C\tl. f* Sonnenschein 79 
Shikkeff, Emily. The Kindergarten : principles of Fvoebel's system, Is, id. cS' Sonnenschein [76] 87 

Home EducntioT\ and the Kindergiirteu l.<. M. 12>' Chapman 84 

The Kindorg^irten at Homo ik*. 6tf. cS" Hughes 84 

Practical. 
GOLDAMMER, H. The Kinderg-arten : a guide to FroebeVs svsteni. tr. AV. 

Wright ; 120 pp. of ilJ. " 10*\ G<?. 8'^ Berlin 83 

Haioiax, W. X. [Am.] Kinder-gurten Culture in the Family and Kindexgai-ten : 

pp. 1-0 [diietly for mothers] 75c. 12'' Ci>ici»nati 73 

jACOBjs. J. F. llanviol pratique des Jaixlins d'Enfants ; plates sq 8" Brusgt>U SO 

*KoHLEE, A. Die Y^i\xis dcs Kindergtirtens, 3 vols.. 60 pi. 8" Wnmtir [70] 78 

Thesame,tr. MajyCurney.pt. i. [First Gifts] ; ill., 2j?. tW. 12^' Myers 77 

KeATJS-Boelte (Miu-ia) + Kraus (John) [Ams.] Kindergarten Guide; ill.; 

vol. i. [The Gifts] ' ^2. 8<' -Ttvr Tori 77-80 

Ft. i. 1st n«a Siui Gifts, pp. 30. S5e.: ii. Srvi to 6th Gifts, pp. IIS, 70o.; iii. Ttt Gift, pp. 93, 5iV.; 
IT. Sth to ISth Gifts, pp. 215, rOc. 

*Ltsphix$KA, Mary. Principles of the Kindorgtirten ; ill. i.*. (ui. s-l" Isbister [80] S& 

*^ViEr>K. Prof. E. The Paradise of Childhood : a manual of instruction and 

practical guide to Kindergartnei-s : 74 pi., 10,<. 6d. i" Sonnenschein [ ] 88 
Songs and Games. 

*Bekry (Ada~) + MiCHAi:Lis (Em.^ Kinderg-arten Song's and Games 1.*. tW. cS" Myei-s [ ] 
Froebel. Friedrich. Mothers' Songs and Gan\os. tr. Francos E. Lord : Is. inl. 8" Eiee [85] 88 
Hailmax, E. L. [Am.] Songs. Games, and Khymes for Kinderg^xrten i\N\ 12>' SjfH/uifield 88 
Heekwaet. Eleanor. Music for the Kindergarten 2.«. tW. 4" Boosey 77 

Hubbard, Clara r>. [Am.] ilerry Song-s and Games [for Kindcrg-artens] i?o. 8''' ^¥. Zouh 81 
*MULLEY (Jane) + TABRAir (M. E.) Song-s and Games for our Little Ones 

1*'. cS'' Sonnenschein [81] 84 
SiNGliETOJf, J. E. Occupations and Occupation Games Ss. cS'' J.^rrold 85 

Primary : General "Works. 

'FORSTEK, Oswald. Has erste Solmljahr; pp. 270 2*. 6d. S" Lt'ij):ii/ 82 

<^ll'i', J. The Art of Teaching Young Minds to Observe and Think; 2s. 12'' Longmans 72 

*KLArEX. A. Das ei-ste Sclmljahr " LtijKtff 78 

Objivt-K^ssons, spesvlviujr, ilrtwvinjr, writiug, reading, memory, singuig, couutiug. 
Laxjrie. Pivf. S. S. Primary Instruction in relation to Education; pp. 233 

2s. Gd. 08" Stewart [73] 74 

Education and Primary Instruction 3*\ 6rf. 08" Thin, Edin. 84 

Mallesox, Mrs. Frank. Kotes on the Early Training of Children 

[sound and practical] 1.*. cS'' Sonnenschein [84] 86 
Quick, Eev. E. H. Thoiights and Sugg-estions about Teaching Childnm— *« 

//i>Ess:iys os. 08'' Author, iJ^'rf/u// [68] 85 

Eein (W.) I PiCKEL (A.) + SoHELLER (E.) Das erste Schuljahr: theoretisch- 

praktischer Lehrg-ang ; pp. 178 8<" J^scnai'h n,d. 

Continued for tho first six school yeai-s ; e.-ioh in ouo TOhimo, o;i. 1.*. 

SCHIK0LEE. L. . Theoretisch-praktischos Handbuch fiir den erston Schul- 

unterricht. 2 vols.; pp. 320. 3;U? ea. 5.-t. S* i>i>.% 76-77 

Wbbes, a. Die viex ei-steu Schuljahre in Yerbindung mit e. Kindorg-tirten ; pp. 70 Is. (rotha n.d, 

(h) SPECIAL SUBJECTS— in one alphabet, 
Agriculture. 

Eenard. p. L' Agriculture dans les Ecoles ; pp. ISO [vine culture] Paris Si 

Wrightson, Prof, J. Principles of Agricultvu-e as an instructional sxibjcct 5s, cS" Chapman 88 



METHODS: ARITHMETIC— DEAF-MUTES 549 

Arithmetic — vide Number, infra 

Army, Education for the — vide Military, infra 

Art : Generally — vide also Drawing, infra 

€hesnau, E. The Education of an Artist [tr.] ; ill. ; pp. 327 .5s. cS" Cassell 86 

CouGNY, G. L'Enseignement professionnel des beaux-arts dans les ecoles de Paris 5f . 8" Paris 88 
Davidson, Thos. [Am.] The Place of Art in Education ; pp. 44 24c. 12° Boston 87 

Hennig, G. a. Die iisthetische Bildung in der Volksschule ; pp. 72 Is. 8° Leij>zig 74 

Menge, E. Der Kunstunterricht im Gymnasium Langensaha 80 

Biology — i-ide Science, Natural, infra 

Blind, The. 

Anagos, M. [Am.] Education of the Blind [historical sketch] Boston 82 

Blanchbt, a. Les Ecoles speciales pour les Aveugles et les instituteurs primaires Paris 59 

Blanchet, a. Traite pratique de I'Bducation des Aveugles 

Campbell, Dr. J. F. — article Blind in Bncyclop. Brit., 9th edit., vol. iii. 30s. 4° Black 76 

DuFAu, P. A. Des Aveugles : leur etat physique, moral et intellectuel 7f . 50c. 8°P«m [36] 50 

Entlicher, F. Das blinde Kind ; pp. 72 [psychological] Is. &d. 8° Vienna 72 

Blinden-Anstalten Deutschlands u. der Schweiz ; pp. 61 [report] Vienna 76 

Gall, J. The Education of the Blind [chiefly of hist, interest now] o.]}. 8° Edinburgh 37 

Gaudet, J. De la premiere Education des Enfants Aveugles Paris 58 

Hebold, E. Das Blinde im elterlichen Hause und in der Volksschule Berlin 82 

Levy, W. Bhndness and the Blind 7s. M. c8» Chapman 72 

Moon, W. System of Reading for the Bhnd 6s. c8° Longmans 73 

Sightfor the Blind; pp. 180 080 Longmans 79 

Pablasek, M. Die Fiirsorge f iir die Blinden von der Wiege bis z. Grabe 3s. Vienna 67 

SCHEEBE, F. Die Zukunft der Blinden Berlin 63 

ViNCE. Education and Management of Blind Children Is. 6<j!. 12° Simpkin 76 

Laura Bridgman (Blind, Deaf, and Dumb) 

Howe, G. S. [Am.] Eeports on Laura Bridgman. WasMngton, v.y. 

■*Lamson, [Mrs.] Mary S. [Am.] Life and Education of Laura Dewey Bridg- 
man $l.&0.\2^ Boston\l%']%\ 

Elizabeth Gilbert. 

Maetin, Frances. Elizabeth Gilbert and her Work for the Blind 6s. c8° Macmillan 87 

botany — vide Science, Natural, i7ifra 

Chemistry — vide Science, Natural, infra 

divil Service. 
America. 

COMSTOCK, J. M. [Am.] The Civil Service in the United States [w. exam. 

papers] ; pp. 620 $2. 12° New York 85 

England. 

Catton, J. Morris [C. S.] A B C of the English Civil Service at Home 

and Abroad 2s. c8° Sonnenschein 87 

*Ceawley, W. J. C. Handbook of Competitive Examinations 2s. M. c8° Longman [80] 85 
EwALD, A. C. Guide to the Civil Service 3s. &d. c8° Warne [6-] 69 

Johnson, E. Guide to the Civil Service 3s. Qd. c8° Longmans [71] 78 

Deaf-Mutes. 

Aenold, T. Method of Teaching the Deaf and Dumb ; pp. 156 15s. 4° Smith & Elder 81 

Beitrage zur Geschichte und Statistik d. Taubstummen-Bildungswesen [in 

Prussia] ; pp. 276 Berlin 

Bell, A. M. Visible Speech : the Science of Universal Alphabetics ; pp. 

1,58 15s. 4° Simpkin 67 

Haetmann, a. The Education of Deaf-Mutes c8« Bailliere 88 

Hill, M. Der gegenwiirtige Zustand d. Taubstummen-Bildungswesen 

in Deutschland ; pp. 326 • 8° Weimar 86 

Die neuesten Vorschlage zur Forderung d. Taubstummen- 

Bildungswesen ; pp. 148 ^s. 8° Weimar 71 

E.INSEY, A. A. Report on the International Congress on the Education of 

the Deaf 5s. 8° W. H. Allen 80 



550 METHODS : DEAF-MUTES— GEOGRAPHY 

Deaf-Mutes — co7it. 

Laege, a. ■ — article Deaf and Dumb in Encyclop. Brit., vol. vii. 30s. 4° Black 78- 

Oehlwein, C. Die natiirliche Zeichensprache der Taubstummen ; pp. 44 Is. Weimar 67 

V. Praagh, W. Lessons for Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Children 

pt. i. 2s. M., ii. Is. &d. 12° Triibner 84 
SCHOLTLE, U. K. Lehrbuch der Taubstummen-Bildung ; pp. 372 JEsslingen 74 

Scott, Dr. W. K. TheDeafandDumb: their EducationandSocialPosition;7s.6fZ. 8° Bell [ ] 70 
Seiss, Dr. J. A. [Am.] Children of Silence [pop. ace. of deaf, w. methods of 

educ] ^1. 12° PMladelpUa 8& 

Laura Bridgman — v. Blind, supra 

Drawing — vide also Art, siqii'a 

CONZ, G. Der Zeichenunterricht an der hoheren Madchenschule Is. 8° Stuttgart 77 

Deeesen, G. Wegweiser f iir den Zeichenunterricht in der Volksschule 2s. Flenslurg 77 

Flinzee, F. Lehrbuch des Zeichenunterrichts ; pp. 211 [theoret. & pract.] 6s. Leipzig [76] 82 
Le Mang, G. Das Volksschulzeichen im Dienste der Piidagogik Is. M. 8° Leipzig 77 

Moody, F. W. Lectures and Lessons on Art [with diagrams] 3s. ^d. c8° Bell [173] 80 

PeeeYjW. S. [Am.] Teaching of Drawing in Public Schools ; ditto in Grammar Schools Boston 
Eein, W. Das Freibandzeichnen im Seminar [Padag. Studien] Is. 8° Vienna 78 

Spaekes, J. C. L. Schools of Art : origin, history, work, influence ; pp. 152 

[Health Exhib. Beport] Is. 8° Clowes 84 

V. Stadbn, J. Der erste Unterricht im Zeichnen 4s. 8° J?a;i<?wer [76] 80 

StuhlmAjSTN, Dr. A. Leitfaden f. d. Zeichenunter. in d. preuss. Volksschulen Berlin 88. 

i. \s.. Atlas 16^. ; ii. l.s. 6(Z., Atlas 16i. ; iii. Is, 6d., Atlas 16«. 
Weishaupt, H. Das Elementar- Freibandzeichnen in der Volksschule, 3 pts. 6s. 8° Mimick [78] 82 

Theorie und Praxis des Zeichenunterrichts, 2 pts. 3s. M. 8° Weimar [ ] 79 

WlHAN, E. Methodik des Zeichenunterrichts; pp. 76 [systematic] Is. 8° Trautenau 79 

Elocution. 

Bell, A. M. The Principles of Speech and Elocution op. [puh. 6s. M.'] 8° Hamilton 49 

Visible Speech : the science of universal alphabetics 15s. 4° Simpkin. 67 

Delaumosne, Abbe. The Art of Oratory [system of Delsarte], tr. F. A. Shaw; 

iU. ;pp. 170 $2 12" Albany 82 

Diesteeweg, F. a. W. Beitrage zur Begrundung d. hoheren Leselehre Crefeld 59 

KiRBY, F. N.' [Am.] Vocal and Action Language ; pp. 167 op. 12° Boston 65 

English Language and Literature : Generally — vide also Elocution, Essays, Reading 
Abbott, Dr. E. A. Teaching of Eng. Lit.— m Lects. on Educ. before Coll. of 

Preceptors op. 8° Longmans 71 

—Bain, Prof. Alex. On Teaching English [with detailed examples] 2s. Qd. c8° Longmans 87 

HUFFCUT, E. W. [Am.] English in the Preparatory Schools [Monographs on 

Education] 25c. c8° Boston 88 

Maech, F. A. Method of Philological Study of the English Language . 12° New York 

Woodward, F. C. [Am.] English in the Schools [Monographs on Education] 25c. c8° Boston 88 
Essays. 
Cholevius, L. Praktische Anleitung zur Abfassung deutscher Aufsatze 2s. &d. Leipzig [ ] 78 

- _ Dispositionen und Materialien zu deutschen Auf satzen ; 2 v. 4s. Leipzig [ ] 80 

*FoEBES, A. W. Holmes. Practical Essay- Writing Is. &d. c8° Sonnenschein 88 

*Laas, B. Der deutsche Aufsatz in den oberen Gymnasialklassen, 2 vols. 7s. Berlin 11-i^ 

Female — vide Women, infra 

French Language : Generally— i^wZe also Reading. 

Berger, B. Conferences Pedag. sur I'Enseign. de la Langue Maternelle ; pp. 36 Paris 84 

*Gbeicke, a. Der franzosische Unterricht [Rein's Padag. Studien] ; pp. 26 Is. Eisenach 78 . 

SCHAPPEE Die vermittelnde Methode Berlin 86. 

Transactions of the Modern Language Association Baltimore 84 sg[q^.. 

Geography. 

Catalogue of Exhibition of Appliances used in Geograph, Educ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. 8& 
Ceockee, Lucretia. [Am.] Methods of Teaching Geography [notes of lessons] ; 60c. 12° Boston [83] 84 
Dblitsoh, O. Beitrage zur Methodik des geograph. Unterrichts Is. 8° Leipzig [ ] 78 



METHODS: GEOGRAPHY— GYMNASTICS 551 

DiEECKE, C. Geograph. Schnlatlanten und Karten— m Kehr's Methodik, vol. i. pp. 153 sq^g. 

*Geikie, Prof. A. The Teaching of Geography : principles and methods ; 2s. 12° Macmillan 87 
*Geistbeek, M. Geschichte der Methodik des geograph. Unterrichts — in 

Kehr's Methodik, vol. i., siipo'a 
Jolly, W. Kealistic Teaching of Geography ; pp. 66 [its principles] Is. 129 Blackie 87 

Keltie, J. S. Report to the Council of Eoy. Geograph. Soc. in Suppl. Papers of R. G. S. 1886, pt. iv. 
Lehmann, Dr. R, Lectures on Geographical Apparatus and Methods [tr.] 8° Philip in prep. 

LtJDDE, J. S. Geschichte der Methodologie der Erdkunde Leijizig 79 

Matzat, H. Methodik des geographischen Unterrichts 8° Berlin 85 

Obeklandee, H. Der geograph. Unterricht [Ritterian ; histor. and system.] ; pp. 280 4.?. [69] 79 
Pulling, Prof. F. S. The Teaching of Geography and History 82 

*Richtee, J. W. O. Der geograph. Unterricht ; pp. 50 [esp. in higher schools] Is. 8° Vienna 77 
SONNENSCPIEIN, A. [ed.] Regulations for Teaching Geography in the Prussian 

Cadet Corps — in Ms Foreign Codes, i\ III. 
Teamplbe, R. Die constructive Methode des geograph. Unterrichts ; pp. 82 Is. &d. 8° Vienna 78 

Wenz, G. Das Kartenzeichnen in der Schule [systematic] 2s. 8° Munich 78 

German language : Generally — vide also Elocution, Essays, Reading 
Engelien, a. Geschichte des deutsch-sprachlichen Unterrichtes, vol. iii. 

pp. 50-87 of Kehr's Methodik, supra 
*Kehe, C. DerdeutscheSprachunterricht imersteuSchuljahre; pp. 211 ds. 8" Cfotha [82] 

Historical and theoretical. 
Kellnee, L. Praktischer Lehrgang fiir den deutschen Sxsrachunterricht, 

2 pts. 4s. 6^. Altenlurg [ ] 75 

Laas, E. Der deutsche Unterricht auf hoheren Lehranstalten 5s. 8° Berlin 72 

RiCHTEE, Albert. Der Unterricht in der Muttersprache ; pp. 144 Is. <od. 8° Leipzig 72 

Gymnasia : German — vide also Realschule 

Baenaed, H. [ed. ; Am.] Classical Gymnasia — in Ms Natioial Education in 

Europe 12s. m8<' Hartford 70 

Feick (0.) + RiCHTEE (G.) Lehrproben u. Lehrgange d. Gymn. u. Realsch. ; 7 pts. 8° Halle 84-86 
HiEZEL, C. Vorlesungen iiber Gymnasial-Padagogik 6s. 8° TuMngen 76 

LOEENZ, O. Ueber Gjonnasialwesen, Padagogik und Fachbildung 2s. 8° Vienna 79 

V. Nagelsbaoh, C. F. Gymnasial-Padagogik, ed. G. Autenrieth 2s. &d. 8° Erlangen [ ] 79 

PiDEEiT, A. Zur Gymnasial-Padagogik [47 lectures] ; pp. 438 5s. 8° Giiterslohll 

Rappold, J. Unser Gymnasium : Erwagungen und Vorschlage 2s. Qd. 8° Vienna 81 

Roth, K. L. Gymnasial-Padagogik ; pp. 472 6s. 80 Stuttgart [65] 74 

*ScHEADEE, W. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre fiir Gymnasien und 

Realschulen ; pp. 590 10s. 6^. 8° Berlin [68] 82 

The fullest and best general work. i. Introduction ; ii. General Theory of Education ; iii. Special Branches. 
SCHWAETZ, W. Der Organismus der Gymnasien 4s. 8° Berlin 76 

Gymnastics and Physical Education generally. 

Albxandee, a. Healthful Exercises for Girls ; ill. 2s. 6d. cS" Philip 86 

Aenim, Anna Leffler. Health Maps : prescribed exercises, 5 parts, ea. w. 12 

full-length ligures ea. 5s., or 21s. the set Sonnenschein 17 

1. General Exercises ; ii. For the Liver and Spleen ; iii. Por Weak Lungs ; iv. For Imperfect Digestion ; 

V. For Bad Circulation. 

Beendicke, H. Grimdriss zur Geschichte der Leibesiibungen ; pp. 175 2s. Gd. 8° Kothen 82 
Haetwell, E. M. [Am.] Physical Training in American Colleges and Universi- 
ties ; pp. 183 [Govt, pub.] WasMngtoji 86 
Hieth, G. Das gesammte Turnwesen ;■ pp. 806 9s. 8° Leipzig 66 
Hoolb, H. Science and Art of Training [for athletes] 3s. M. 8° Triibner 88 
Ling. Swedish Gymnastics for Schools Is. Qd. 4° Hachette 86 
LoPViNG, Concordia. Physical Education and its Place in a system of Education 

Is. &d. 0,8" Sonnenschein 82 
JAGEE, O. H. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen ; pp. 336 8s. 8° Stuttgart 81 

*Kloss, M. Die weibliche Turnkunst ; ill., pp. 445 9s. 8° Leipzig [62] 75 

Anleitung zur Ertheilung des Turnunterrichtes 2s. %d. 8° Dresden [ ] 73 

MacCaethy, Serg. T. Easy System of Calisthenics and Drill Is. Qd. 12° Allen 81 

*Maclaebn, A. A System of Physical Education ; theoretical and practical 

7s. M. c8° Clar. Press [68] 87 
. Training in theory and practice 6s. Gd. c8° Clar. Press [66] 74 



552 METHODS : GYMXASTICS— LANGUAGES, ANCIEXT 

Gymnastics and Physical Education generally — cont. 

PuRiTZ. Code-Book of Gj-mnastic Exercises London S3 

Roth, Dr. M. Gymnastic Exerc. without Apparatus ; ill. [Ling's syst.], Is. S" Myers [G4] 87 

On Neglect of Physical Education and Hygiene 2s. cS" Balliere 89 

Walkek, Donald. Manly Exercises : pp. 261 [rather antiquated] 5s. cS" Bohns Lib. [3i] 78 

Watsox, J. M. [Am.] Handbook of Calisthenics and Gymnastics $-■ cS" Xetv York [6-] 79 

History. 

Acxox, Lord. Arficle German Schools of History, in U)i<jlis7i HisUuncal 

Jierie?i', part 1 5s. S" Longmans 86 

Adams, Prof. H. B. [Am.] Methods of Historical Study, ;;t Johns Hopkins 
Univ. Studies, ser. ii. 

The Study of History in the United States [Govt. Keport] Wa^hinffton 87 

Prof. C. K. [Am.] — in Iiis Manl. of Hist. Liter, are suggestions as to 

methods and courses ^'2.50. sS" JVetv York 82 

BLUiTE, E. Geschichtsunterricht auf den Seminarien [Rein's Studien] 

DiESTERWEG, F. A. ^X. Instruction in History [tr. from his Wegweiser] Boston 85 

*Drotsen, J. G. Grundi-iss der Historik 2s. S" Leipzig [68] 75 

Ebekhaedt, K. Zur Methode u. Technik des Geschichtsunterricht Is. 8" Eisenach 74 

Fkedekicq, Prof. P. Study of History in England and Scotland [tr.] Is. 6d. 8° Baltimore 88 

Freeman, Prof. E. A. The Unity of History, appended to his Comparative 

Politics o.p. [pub. lis.'] S" Macmillan 73 

* Methods of Historical Study [Oxf. lects. 85-86] ; 10s. Gd. S" Macmillan 86 

Article On the Study of History— «» Fortnightly Iterien', 

May 81 2s. Gd. S" Chapman 81 

Froude, J. A. Arts. Science of Hist, and Scient. Meth. appl. to Hist., in Ms 

Short Studies, vols. i. ii. ea. 6s. c8" Longmans [67] 82 

*Hall, Prof. G. S. [Am. ; ed.] Methods of Teaching and Studying Hist. ;§1.30. 12° Boston [83] So 

Ai-ticles by Dr. A. B. Hai-t (Amer. Hist.>. Prof. E. Emertou (Higher Hist. lustructionV Dr. R. T. Ely (Pol. Econ.\ Pres. 

A. D. ^Yhite (Course of Hist, and Pol. Science ■), J. T. Clai-ke (Plea for Ai-clia?ol. lustruction). Prof. H. B. Adauis 

( Special Methods). Prof. G. S. Morris (Philos. of State and of History). Prof. J. K. Seelev (Teachiutr of History— fvjjr. 

/>. Journ. o/£duc. ^'ov. 84), Prof. C. K. Adams, Prof. J. VT. Bui-gess. T. W. Higgiusou, JProf. W. F. Allen. &c. 

Keieger, F. Der Geschichtsunterricht in Yolks- u. Biirgerschulen, &c. 2s. JViirnlterg 76 

MoRisox, J. Cotter. Article History in Encyclop. Britann., ninth ed. vol. xii. 30s. 4° Black 81 

*SEELEy, Prof. J. R. Article Teaching of History in Jourti. ofEduc, itt supra,s.v. 

HaU — advocating the scientific and sociological in lieu of the 

chronological and purely literary method' 
Smith, Prof. Goldwin. Lectures on the Study of Hist. [Oxon. lects., 59, 61] ; 3s. Gd. sS" Parker [61] 65 
Idiots, Feeble-minded, &c. 

Brady, C. The Training of Idiotic and Feeble-minded Children, o.^. S° Duhlm 64 

Duncan, E. M. The Method of Drill and Gymnastics used for Idiots, &c.,o.p. London 61 

Duncan + Millard Manual for Classification, Training, and Education of 

Idiots, &c. o.p. London n.d. 

Raubee, a. Homo sapiens ferus : Zustiinde der Verwilderten [biological] Leipzig 85 

Scott, W. R. Remarks, theoretical and practical, on the Education of 

Idiots, &^c. o.p. c8" Lo)idon 47 

Sequin, E. [Am.] Idiocy, and its Treatment by the Physiological Method ; pp. 

457 [standard] " 21s. 8'' Neiv York 86 

Sengelmann, H. Idiotophilus : systematisches Lehrbuch der Idioten-Heilpflege Nbrden 85 

Languages: Ancient. 

Ada:ms, Prof. C. F. [Am.] A College Fetch [Greek; an address] ; pp. 71 25c. 8° Boston [S3] 84 
Bursian, C. Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland 

Fechner, H. Gelehrsamkeit oder Bildung ? pp. 80 Is. Gd. S" BresUu 79 

Freund, W. Wie studirt man Philologie^' [for students]; pp. 158 Is. Gd. 8" Leipzig [ ] 80 

Greenwood, Pre. J. G. On Study of Langs, of Greece and Rome [Owens 

Coll. Lects.] " o.p. 8° London 52 

Hale, Prof. W. G. [Am.] Aims and Methods of Classical Study 12" Boston 

HoFMANN, A. W. [Am.] Question of a Division of the Philosophical Faculty ; 

PP- 77 ■ 25c. Boston [83] 83 

A Report, incorporating the opinions of many German professors. 
MiJLLER, L. Geschichte der klass. Philologie in den Niederlanden ; pp. 250 5s. 8" Leipzig 69 

Schmeding, F. Die klassische Bildung in der Gegenwart ; pp. 204 Berlin 85 



METHODS: LANGUAGES— MORAL EDUCATION 553 

Tayloe, S. H. [Am.] The Method of Classical Study ^1.25. 12° Boston 61 

Classical Study [value ill. by selns. fr. wrtgs. of Scholars] ; pp. 381 ; $2. l2''Andover 70 

A reply to Youman's 'Culture demaudecl by Modern Life.' 
Latin. 

Abbott, E. A. Latin Yeise— in Three Lects. on Teaching, by Eve + Sidg- 

wicJs + Abbott 2s. cS" Camb. Press 82 

Hale, W. G. [Am.] The Art of Reading Latin : how to teach it 25c. s8° Boston 87 

Morris, Prof. E. P. [Am.] The Study of Latin in the Preparatory.Course ; 25c. cS" Boston 87 
Thompson, Darcy W. Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster [very suggestive] 

5s. 08° Douglas, Edin. [64] 65 

Languages and Literature, Modern : Generally — vide also English, French, German 

Bieebaxjm, J. Die Reform des fremdsprachlichen Unterrichts ; pp. 136 Cassel 86 

BREYMANif, Prof. H. Bearing of Study of Modern Languages on Education, o.p. 8° Manchester 71 

Sprachwissenschaft und neuere Sprachen [a lecture] Is. 8° Municli 76 

COLBECK, C. On Teaching Modern Languages : in theory and practice; 2s. 12° Camb. Press 87 

Comfort, G. F. [Am.] Modern Languages in Education Syracuse 86 

GouiN, F. L'Art d'enseigner et d'etudier des Langues ; pp. 589 12° Paris 86 

KoRTiKG, G. Gedanken iiber das Studiumderneueren Sprachen; pp. 84 Is. 6<Z. Heilbronn 82 

Keinhartstottnbe. Gedanken iiber das Studium der modernen Sprachen Munich 82 

Legal Education. 

Ball, W. W. Rouse. The Student's Guide to the Bar. 2s. Qd. c8° Macmillan [78] 88 

MtJNRO, J. E. C. The Study of Law in Greece, Rome, and England ; pp. 29 Manchester 82 
Napier (T. B.) + Stevenson (R. N.) A Practical Guide to the Bar 2s. %d. c8° Cox 88 

Libraries, School. — xide Reading, infra 
Mathematics — vide also Number, infra 

Safford, Dr. T. H. [Am.] Mathematical Teaching and its Modern Methods ; 25c. c8° Boston 87 
Whewell, Dr. W. Thoughts on the Study of Mathematics as part of a 

Liberal Education [1835] — in his Discussions on Philosophy 
Wittstein, J. Die Methode des mathematischen Unterrichts Hanover 79 

Medical Education. 

Blenkinsop, W.H. Student's Handbook of Medical Education ; pp. 800 8° Cambridge 81 

Haedwicke.H. J. Medical Education and Practice in all Parts of the World ; lO.v. 8° Churchill 82 
HELMHOLTZ,Prof.H. On Thoughts in Medicine— iw ^is Popular Scient. Lectures [tr.] Longmans 81 
Huxley, Prof. T. H. Connection of Biological Sciences with Medicine — in his 

Science and Cultm-e 10s. &d. 8° Macmillan 82 

On Medical Education — in his Critiques and Addresses 

10s. Qd. 8° Macmillan 73 
Keetley, C. B. Student's Guide to the Medical Profession 2s. Qd. c8° Macmillan 78 

WOOTON, E. A Guide to the Medical Profession 2s. M. c8° Upcott Gill 83 

Jlilitary Education, 

Barnard, H. [ed. ; Am.] Military Schools and Courses of Instruction in France, 

Germany, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, &c. ; pp. 400 ^^3.75 8° Hartford 62 
How we Educate our Officers 2s. &d. c8° W. H. Allen 84 

Report of Director-General of Milit. Educ. on Army Schls. and Libraries [Blue-bk.] f° Eyre & Sp. 77 

Mineralogy — vide Science, Natural, infra 

Moral Education — v. also Home Education, snjjra ; and Self-Culture, infra 
Abbott, J. [Am.] The Teacher : moral influences employed, &c. ; pp. 293 ^1.75 ISiem York 
Bryant, Dr. Sophie in her Educational Ends : ideal of personal development 6s. c8° Longmans 87 
Buchanan, J. R. [Am.] Moral Education : its laws and methods; pp. 396, ^1.50 

12° New York [82] 83 

*Grube, a. W. Sittliche Bildung der Jugend [first 10 years] ; pp. 344 Leijjzig 85 

Lessing, G. E. Education of tlie Human Race, tr. Rev. F. W. Robertson 2s. &d. f 8° Paul [72] 83 

Practical Notes on Moral Training [Roman Catholic] 2s. 6^. c8° Burns & Oates 

Quick, Rev. E. H. Remarks about Moral and Religious Education — in Essays 

5s. c8° Author, Redhill [68] 85 
4STOW, David. Moral Training and the Training System in Glasgow; 

pp. 408 O.J). 8° Longmans 41 



554 



METHODS: MUSIC— READING 



Music and Singing. 
Brandt, M. G. W. 
CuRWEN, John. 
Death, T. 
Helm, J. 



Hennbs, a. 
HULLAH, John. 
Nbrelich, C. G. 
Prentice, Eidiey. 



Die erziehliche Bedeutung des Gesanges [a lecture] &d. 8° Haiiovei' 75 

Teacher's Manual of the Tonic Sol-fa Method ; pp. 392 5s. 4° Curwen [75] 87 
Der Gesanglehrer und seine Methode • 2s. 8° Berlin [65] 7& 

Die Entwickelung des Gesangunterrichts, vol. ii., pp. 204 sqq. ; 

cf. Kehr's Methodik 
Die Musik und die musikalische Erziehung Is. 8° Berlin 78 

Time and Tune in the Elementary School ; pp. 188, 2s. &d. 12° Longmans 74 

65 



Die Gesangkunst [gssthetically and pedagogically] Leiinig 

The Musician: a guide to pianoforte students; 6 Grades, 

each 2s. 16° Sonnenschein 83- 86 
* Rib MANN, H. Musikalische Logik [physiologically and psychologically] Leijjzig 

Seeing, F. W. Die Kunst des Gesanges in der Blementarschule, &c. 3s. 8° Leipzig 

'- Rationelle Behandlung des Gesangunterrichts Is. ^d. Leijjzig 

*Steinitzer, M. Ueber die psychologischen Wirkungen der musikalischen 

Formen ; pp. 130 Munich 

WiDMANN, B. Die Methode des Schul- und Chorgesangunterrichts 2s. 8° Leij)zig 

Number — vide also Mathematics, supra 

BOHME, A. Anleitung zum Unterricht in Eechnen ; pp. 387 [elaborate] ^iS.%''Berlin [ 

BtJTTNBE, A. Der Eechenunterricht in der Elementarschule 8° Stall) [ 

Anleitung zum Unterricht in der Volksschule Leipzig [ 

DlESTBEWEG- + Heuser. Handb. f. d. Gesammtunterricht in den Eechnen; 2 v. 

ea. 4s. Giltersloh [ 

GoPFEET, E. Der Eechenunterricht in den drei ersten Schuljahren Is. 8° Eisenach 11 

*Geube, a. W. Leitfaden fiir das Eechnen in der Elementarschule ; pp. 



] 77 

■171 

] 78 

] 66 



2s. 8° Berlin [ ] 82 
$\. 12° New York 8S 
in 

30c. 8° Chicago 78 
Is. 8° Gotha 80 



138 [' heuristic ' method] 
Seeley, Levi [Am.] Grube's Method explained and illustrated 
SoLDAN, Lewis [Am.] Grube's Method: 2 essays on elem. instr. 
mathem. ; pp. 44 
Janicke, E. Der Eechenunterricht in der Volksschule 

Geschichte des Eechenunterrichts, vol. i. pp. 780 sqq. o/'Kehr's Methodik, supra 

Schmidt, W. Der Eechenunterricht in der Volksschule 4s. M. 8° Wittenberg [70] 76 

Sonnenschein, A. Number Pictures : 14 col. sheets, with pamphlet ; 07i rollers 

Is. Qd., on boards 16s. f° Sonnenschein [77] 87 
*VILLICUS, F. Zur Geschichte der Eechenkmist; 25111. and 2 tables; pp.100 Vienna 83 

Describing the number-signs and sj'stems of the ancients, and the various kinds of apparatus used for teaching. 
Object Lessons. 

Baenard, H. [ed. ; Am.] Object Teaching and Oral Lessons ; pp. 434 12s. m8° Hartford 80 

Calkins, Norman A. [Am.] Manual of Object Teaching, with illustr. lessons $1.25.12" New York 82 
DiJssiNG, G. Der Anschauungsunterricht von Comenius bis zur Gegen- 

wart ; pp. 152 [liistorical] Frcmhenberg 85 

FuHR (J. H.) -f Ortmann( J. H.) Der Anschauungsunterricht in der Volksschule ^s.Dilleiiburg [65] 76 
Heinemann, L. Handb. f . d. Anschauungsunterricht u.d. Heimatskunde ; 4s. &d. 8° Brunswick 75 
Morrison, T. Object Lessons and how to teach them Is. Qd. 12° Collins 87 

RiCHTER, K. Der Anschauungsunterricht in den Elementarclassen ; pp. 

214 [prize essay] 3s. 8° Leipzig [ ] 75 

ElCKS, G. Object Lessons, and how to give them ; 2 series, each 3s. 6^. p8° Isbister [85] 87 

Natural History Object Lessons : a manual for teachers, 4s. Qd. c8° Isbister 88 

ROOPER, W.-fH. A Manual of Object Lessons; ill. 3s. M. c8» Sonnenschein [83] 87 

Schmidt, P. V. Die Geschichte des Anschauungsunterrichts, vol. ii. pp, 
254-327 o/'Kehrs Methodik, supra 
Der Anschauungsunterricht [theoretical and practical] Is. %d. 8° Milnster 79 
Denzel's Entwurf des Anschauungsunterricht &s. 8° Altona [ ] 79-80 

— vide Science, Natural, infra 



Treuge, J. 
Wrage, C. 
Physiology 

Ragged School Education — v. Reformatory, infra 
Reading : Primary.— /t)r Spelling Reform v. infra. » 

*B6hmb, a. Anleitung zum Leseunterricht Is. &d. 8° Berlin [72] 82 

BiJTTNBR, A. Der erste Schreib- u. Leseunterricht in Elem. Schulen Is. 8° Berlin [6-] 76 

*Fechner, H. Die Methoden des ersten Leseunterrichts ; pp. 304 Qs. Gd. 8° Berlin [ ] 82 

Historical. Based on a study of originals, with facss. of old primer pages, pictures of reading-machines, &c. 



METHODS : READING— REFORMATORY 555 

GOLTZSCH, E. T. Anweisung z. Lese- it. Schreibunterricht Is. 8° Berlin [ ] 71 

Hall, Prof. G. S. [Am.] How to Teach Reading and What to Eead in Schools ; 25c. c8° Boston ■ 87 

Jacobi, F. Der Lese-Unterricht [historical and systematic] Nurnherg 51 

Jutting, W. Kritische Geschichte des ersten Leseunterrichts LeijJzig 72 

*SCHAFEE, F. Ue.ber die wichtigsten der heute herrschenden Leselehrmethoden. Is. Franltf. 76 
Reading: Higher. 

Herzog, D. G. Stoff zu stilistischen Uebungen in der Muttersprache 3s. 8° Brwiswicli [ ] 79 

Kbhe, C. Theoret.-prakt. Anweisung z. Behandlungdeut. Lesestiicke. 4s. 8° <9oiJ/ia [ ] 78 

*LAAS, E. Der deutsche, Unterricht auf hoheren Lehranstalten 5s. 8° Berlin 72 

LANGE, 0. Das deutsche Lesebucli als Mittepunkt der Lehrstoffe und Lehrkunst 

Legotjve, Ernest. L'Art de la Lecture 12° Paris 

MiJLLEE, J. Die Auswahl des Lesebuchstoffes %d. 8" Plaueii 78 

EUDOLPH, L. Prakt. Handb. fur d. Unterr. in deutschen Btilubungen.lls. 8° Berlin [59-61] 82 

Choice of Books for Schools, and Use of Libraries 

Adams, H. B. [Am.] Seminary Libraries and University Extension Is. &cl. 8° Baltimore 88 
BowEN, H. C. Historical Novels Is. <od. S" Stanford 82 

FiSHBE, K. [Am.] The Proper Use of School Libraries ; pp. 12 Sacramento 81 

Green, S. S. [Am.] Libraries and Schools ; pp. 126 50c. 16° New York 8B 

Hall, Prof. G. Stanley [Am.] School Reading : how and what ? 25c. c8° Boston 87 

Hewins, C. M. [Am.] Books for the Young : a guide for parents and 

children 25c. 32° JVew York 82 

Journal of Education for 1886 contains a list of 100 best children's books ; 4° Rice 86 

SOUTHWOETH, Prof. G. C. S. [Am ] Six Lectures introductory to Study of 

English Literature Cambridge, U.S. 88 

WiNSOK (J.) + Robinson (0. H.) [Ams.] College Libraries as Aids to Instruction 

Kealschule — v. also Gymnasia, and Languages, Ancient, sic2)ra 

Kramer. Historischer Blick auf den Realschulen Deutschlands Hamiurg ' 70 

Kreissig. Eealismus und Realschulwesen Berlin 72 

Keiess, G. F. Das Realschulwesen- nach seiner Bedeutung und Entwickelung. Stnttgart 63 
Laas, E. Gymnasium und Realschule : alte Fragen . . . historisch 

beleuchtet ; pp. 96 [Zeit- u. Streitfragen] Is. 8° Berlin 75 
ROLLESTON, Prof. G. Relative Value of Classical and Sclent. Training — in 

his Scientihc Papers, vol. ii. pp. 716-22, 2 vols. 24s. 8° Clar. Press 84 

Steack, N. Das Schulwesen Italiens, besonders die Realschulen ; pp. 80. 2s. 8° Leiinig 78 

Walsee, E. Entwickelung des Realschulwesens Is. 8° Vienna 77 

Reformatory and Ragged School Education, and Educational Work among the Poor. 

Baenaed, H. [Am. ; ed.] Reformatory Education [of Eur. and U.S. : miscel- 
laneous papers by various writers] ; p]p. 361 7s. %d. 8° Hartford 57 
Fry, Elizabeth 

Pitman, [Mrs.] Emma R. Elizabeth Fry [Eminent Women Series] 3s. 6<Z. 8° Allen 84 

Carpenter, Mary. Reformatory Schools, o.'p.; Juvenile Delinquents o.f. 8° Gilpin 51, 53- 

Reformatory Prison Discipline as devel. by Sir W. Crofton 

[Irish Prisons] ; pp. 143 2s. M. 12° Longmans 79 

Gaepenter, Bev. J. E. The Life and Work of Mary Carpenter ; port., 6s. c8° Macmillan [79] 82 
« Dora, Sister ' = Dorothy Wyndlow Pattison [sister of Rev. Mark Pattison] 

Lonsdale, Margaret. The Life of Sister Dora ; portrait 2s. M. c8° Paul [80] 86 

Hill, Florence. Children of the State [Engl, and Irish systems of training 

pauper children] 5s. 12° Macmillan 68 

Hill, Octavia. Homes of the London Poor 3s. <od. 12° Macmillan 75. 

Jones, Agnes Elizabeth 

HiGiNBOTHAM, Josephine M. Una and her Paupers, with intro. by Flor. Nightingale 71 

Memorials of Agnes Elizabeth Jones. By her Sister ; portrait 3s. 6^. s8° Nisbet [72] 81 

Peirce, B. K. [Am.] A Half- Century with Juvenile Delinquents [N.T. House 

of Refuge] New York 69 

<■ Pearl Fisher.' Harvest of the City and Workers of To-day 3s. lad. c8° J. F. Shaw 84 

Pike, G. H. Pity the Perishing [Ragged School wk. at sever, centres] 8s. %d. 8° Clarke 83- 

Saving to the Uttermost [wk. in St. Giles' and among 

thieves] '^s- 6<^- c8° Hodder 85 



556 METHODS : REFORMATORY— MINERALOGY 

Eeformatory and Eagged School Education — and Educational Work among the Poor — cont. 
POXJNBS, John. EecoUections of. By H. Hawkes. 45. &d. c8° "Williams 84 

Eeports on Eeformatory and Industrial Schls. [Blue-bks.] f" Eyre & Sp. 78, 83, 85 

Vaux, E. [Am.] Short Talks on Crime- Cause and Convict Punishment PJdladel/phia, 82 

Wines, B. C. [Am.] The State of Prisons and Child-saving Institutions in the 

Civilised World; pp. 720 25s. 8° Canibridge, U.S. 80 

Religious Education — vide also Moral, sujjra, and Sermons, infra 

Abbott, E. A. in Hints on Home Teaching is an admiraltle chapter 3s. cS" Seeley [83] 83 

Arnold, Matthev7. The Great Prophecy of Israel's Eestoration : Isaiah, chaps. 

xl.-lxvi. [for school use] ; pp. 65 5s. c8° Macmillan 75 

Behbends, a. J. F. [Am.] What Place, if any, is Eeligion entitled to in Pubhc 

Education ? pp. 28 Boston 82 

DiEKMANN, C. Der biblische Geschichtsunterricht in der Volksschule Is. 8° Leipzig 78 

Feothingham, 0. B. [Am. Unit.] Child's Book of Eeligion [suggestive] ; $\. 16° New Torli [66] 76 
Xehe. Die christliche Eeligionsunterricht in der Oberclasse, 2 vols., ea. 3s. 8° Gotha 70 

KiRCHNEE, F. Zur Eeform des Eeligions-Unterrichts [Zeit- und Streitfragen] Is. Berlin 77 

Manititjs, H. a. Ueber religiose Bildung im Vaterhause [with bibliography] Halle 70 

Mehl, H. Gedanken iiber die sittlich-religiose Bildung Qd. 8° Vienna 79 

Salzmann. Die wirksamsteu Mittel Kindern Eeligion beizubringen ; pp. 200 Is. 8° Berlin 70 

Wangbmann, L. Handreichung beim Unterrichte der Kleinen in der Gottes- 

erkenntniss; pp. 336 8" Leipzig 82 

Wiedemann, F. Wie ich meinen Kleinen die biblische Geschichte erzahlte ; Is. M. Dresden 81 

Sciences, Natural. 
Generally. 

Du Bois Eeymond, E. Culturgeschichte und Naturwissenschaft ; pp. 60 2s. 8° Leipzig I'ii [78] 

Harris, W. T. [Am.] How to teach Natural Science in Public Schools 15c. 16" Syracuse [71] 87 

Huxley, Prof. T. H. im, Ms Science and Culture ; and Ms Lay Sermons — v. IV". (&) 

LOEW, E. Stellung der. Schule zur Naturwissenschaft ; pp.58 Is. ^'' Berlin 74 

MiJHLBERG, F, Natural Science in Secondary Schools [Govt, pub.] WasMngton 82 

Eeport of the Committee on Science Teaching of Amer. Assoc, for Adv. of Sc. 80 

Eeport of the Eoyal Commission on Scientiiic Instruction. 1870 sqq. f° Eyre and Spottiswoode 

Wilson, Eev. J. M. On Teaching Natural Science in Schools 

YouMANS, Eliza L. [Am.] Culture demanded by Modern Life : the claims of 

scientific education $2. 12° JVew Tnrk 67 

Biology. 
BXJRGESS, E. S. [Am.] Syllabus of Courses in Botany and Zoology [at Washing- 
ton High School] WasMngton 84 
Haeckel, Prof. E. B^reedom in Science and Teaching [his reply to "Virchow, infra'] 5s. 8° Paul 79 
Eolleston, Prof. G. Biological Training and Studies — in Ms Scientific Papers, 

vol. ii. pp. 846-879 ; 2 vols. 24:S. 8° Clar. Press 84 

YiECHOW, Prof. E. Freedom of Science in the Modern State 2s. f8° Murray 78 

A protest against the teaching of Evolution in lower-grade schools. Replied to by Haeckel, ut supra. 

Botany — vide also Biology, siqjra 

Beal, W. J. [Am.] The New Botany : a lecture on teaching Lansing 82 

Henfbey, Prof. A. The Study of Botany — in Youmans' ' Culture demanded by 

Modern Life,' ut sujira 
LOEW, E. Der botanische Unterricht an hoheren Lehranstalten, 3 pts. 5s. Bielefeld 75-7^ 

LtJBEN, A. Methodischer Unterricht in der Pflanzenkunde 9s. 8° Halle [ ] 79 

*YouMAi^S, Eliza [Am.] First Book of Botany, designed to cultivate the Observ- 
ing Powers in Children ; ill. 2s. Qd. c8° Paul [81] 82 
Chemistry. 
Aeendt, E. Ueber den Unterricht in der Chemie Is . S" LeijJzig 68 
CJlaeke, p. W. [Am.] Eeport on the Teaching of Chemistry and Physics in 

U.S. [Govt, pub.] WasMngton 81 

Eedmann, 0. L. Ueber das Studium der Chemie Is. 8° Leipzig 61 

Frankland, E. How to Teach Chemistry; ill. [6 lectures, 1872] 3s. 6d. c8° Churchill 75 

Eemsbn [Am.] Organic Chemistry [of value f. methods of teaching] 12° PMladel^jMa 85 

Mineralogy. 

CrROTH, Prof. P. Ueber das Studium der Mineralogie auf Hochschulen Is. 8° Strassiurg 76 



METHODS : PHYSIOLOGY— SINGING 557 

Physiology and Anatomy. 

DU Bois Eeymond, E. Der physioiogische Unterricht sonst und jetzt; pp. 32 Is. 8° Berlin 78 
Huxley, Prof. T. H. Elementary Instruction in Physiology — in his Science and 

Culture 105. 6d. 8" Macmillan 82 

Mann, Horace [Am.] On the Study of Physiology in Schools ; pp. 152, 25c. 24° Sijraoiise [69] 72 

Pflugee, E. Wesen und Aufgaben der Physiologie ; pp. 36 &d. 8" Bonn 78 

Waldeyee. Wie soil man Anatomic lehren und lemen ? pp. 41 \s. 8° Berlin 84 

Physics. 

GeuGER, J. Die Physik in der Volksschule Leipzig 76 

Netoliczka, E. Methodik des physikalischen Uuterrichts; pp.181 2s. 8° Vienna 79 

Tyndall, Prof. J. Importance of the Study of Physics [Roy. Inst. Lectures] 85- 

Zoology — vide Biology, supra 

Self- Culture. 

Beard, Eev. J. E. [Unit.] Self-Culture : what, how, and when to learn ; 3s. ^d. c8° Ilancs. [60] 75 

*Blackie, Prof. J. S. On Self-Culture, intellectual, physical, and moral ; 2.<?. %d. 

12° Douglas, Edin. [73] SS 
*Beyant, Dr. Sophie. Educational Ends : the ideal of personal development 6s. c8° Longmans 87 
*Claeke, Dr. J. Freeman [Am. Unit.] Self-Culture : physical, intellectual, and 

moral /1. 50. 12° Boston [80] 86 

Foster, John. Essay on the Improvement of Time 3s. %d. c8° Bohn's Lib. [ ] 52 

Hameeton, P. G. The Intellectual Life 10s. 6<Z. cS° Macmillan 73 

HiME, M. C. Self -Education : relation of the teacher and the taught c8° London 81 

Hood, Rev. E. Paxton [Cong.] Self-Formation 2s. M. 12° Clarke [5-] 83 

LiJBEN, A. Anweisung z. e. meth. Unterr. i. d. Thierkunde 4s. M. 8° Leipzig [ ] 79 

Samson, Dr. G. W. [Am. Bapt.] A Guide to Self-Education 86 

Watts, Dr. Isaac. The Improvement of the Mind [still well worth reading] ; 3s. &d. 

Vl" Edinburgh [1741] 68 
Sermons for Schoolboys. 

Arnold, Dr. Thos. Sermons [preached at Eugby] ; 3 ser., ea. 3s. M. c8° Eeeves & Turner [45 &c.] 77 
Benson, Abp. E. W. Sermons preached in Wellington College Chapel o.p. 8° London 59 

Boy Life : its trials, its strength, its fulness [Wellington 

Coll. Sermons] 7s. <od. c8° Macmillan 74 

Butler, Dn. H. M. Sermons preached at Harrow ; 2 vols., ea. 7s. ^d. c8° Macmillan 61-69 

Faeeae, Archd. F. W. ' In the days of thy Youth ' [Marlbro' Sermons] ; 9s. c8° Macmillan [76] 77 
Harvard Vespers [addresses to students by preachers, 1886-88] 5s. 16° Boston 88 

James, H. A. School Ideal [Eossall School Sermons] 6s. c8° Macmillan 87 

Thring, Eev. Edw. Sermons at Uppingham School ; 2 vols. 12s. c8° Bell 86 

Vaughan, Dn. C. J. Memorials of Harrow Sundays 10s. M. cS" Macmillan [59] 85 

Welldon, Eev. J. E. C. Sermons preached to Harrow Boys [1885-86] 7s. 6rZ. c8° Eivington [87] 88 
WiCKHAM, Eev. E. C. Wellington College Sermons 6s. c8° Macmillan 87 

Shorthand. 

Bibliography. 
Eockwell, J. E. [Am.] ut infra [limited to works in English ; pp. 122] 
*Westby-Gibson, Dr. J. The Bibliography of Shorthand [of English language 

only] ; pp. 246 5s. 8° Pitman 87 

History, &c. — (Books on the various current systems are omitted here, as being too numerous) 
Anderson, Thos. History of Shorthand, with review of its present con- 
dition in Europe and America 12s. 'od. 8° W. H. Allen 82 

[ed.] Shorthand Systems [a discussion by various experts] 

Is. c8° Upcott Gill n.d. (83) 
Levy, Matthias. The History of Shorthand Writing ; pp. 194 6s. 8° Triibner 62 

Pitman, Isaac. History of Shorthand [repr. fr. P7to?te(!^ic «7ottr«ffiZ of 1884]. Pitman ininep. 

Eockwell, J. E. [Am.] Teaching, Practice, and Literature of Shorthand 

[Government pub.] 8° Washington [84] 85 

On systems of shorthand in foreign countries, in U.S. ; bibliography of British and Amer. books, with clironolog. list of 
483 writers and folding plate of 122 alphabets. 

Upham, W. p. [Am.] Brief History of the Art of Stenography $\. r8° Salem, Mass. 77 

Singing — vide Music, snjM'a 



558 METHODS : SPELLING REFORM— TECHNICAL 

Spelling Reform. 

Bell, A. M. Faults of Speech : self -instructor and teacher's manual 2s. 6<-Z. 18° Triibner 80 

Ellis, A. J. A Plea for Phonetic Spelling 8° 1848 

Pitman, Isaac. A Plea for Spelling Reform [phonographic pt. of view] 

Sweet, Henry. Handbk. of Phonetics and Princ. of Spelling Reform 4.s. Qd. f 8° Clar. Press 77 

Sunday School. 

History. 
BuLLAED, Rev. Asa [Am.] Fifty Years with the Sabbath Schools [American] ; 

pp. 346 ^1.75 12° Bosto7i 76 

Candler, Rev. W. A. [Am.] The History of Sunday Schools [American] ; pp. 150. 12° Nejv York 80 
Duncan, Rev. R. S. [Am. Bapt.] History of Sunday Schools [American] ; ^^1 12° Mempliis 11 
Geat, Rev. Jas. C. The Sunday School World : encyclopedia of facts and 

principles 4s. &d. c8° Stock 71 

Raikes, Robert. A Biography, by Rev. E. Paston Hood 8° 80 

Vincent, Rev. J. H. [Am.] The American Sunday School 3s. &d. c8° Sunday School Union 87 

Principles and Practice. 

Beard, Rev. F. [Am.] The Blackboard in the Sunday School: practical guide ; ^1.50. 12° New Yorkll 
Grafts, Rev. W. F, [Am.] Plain Uses of the Blackboard and Slate ^^1.25 12° New York 81 

Steel, Rev. Robert. The Christian Teacher in Sunday Schools ; pp. 247, Is. 6d. 12° Nelson 67 
Teumbxtll. Rev. H. C. [Am.] Teaching and Teachers [Sunday School ; systematic] ; 

pp. 390 • 5s. c8° Hodder 86 

The Sunday School [origin, mission, methods, &c.] 7s. 6d. 8° Philadel]}lda 88 

Tuck, Rev. R. New Handbook of Sunday School Addresses ; pp. 276 83 
Vincent, Rev. J. H. [Am.] The Church School and its Officers 7oc. 16° New York 72 
Sunday School Institutes and Normal Classes ; 7oc. 16° Neyv York 72 

Technical Education — vide also Gymnasia, supra. For Architecture of Technical Schools v. VII. (c) 
Baenaed, H. [ed. ; Am.] Scientific Schools in France ; pp. 130 12s. m8° Hartford n. d. 

— — — ■■ Scientific and Industrial Education in Europe [Government 

Report] ; pp. 784 1 2s. m8° WasJiington 70 

Bartley, G. C. T. Schools forthe People; plates; pp. 582 [o/"wop'rm^i'aZ?<e], 21s. m8° BeU 71 

Beabazon, Ld. [Earl of Meath]. Prosperity or Pauperism [ess. on phys. 

industr. and techn. training] 5s. c8° Longmans 88 

BuLOW, Baroness Marenholtz. Hand-work and Head-work [chiefly in Kinder- 
garten ; tr.] 3s. c8° Sonnenschein 83 
Clarke, J. B. [Am.] Industrial and Art Education in U.S. [Government pub.] Washington 85 
Cousin, Victor. Education in Holland [working classes and the poor ; tr.] London 78 
de Cuypee, C. L'Enseignement technique superieur d'AUemagne ; pp. 348 [Report] 8° Liege 75 
Deseilligny, a. p. De I'lnfluence de I'Educ. siir la moralite des classes lahor. Paris 68 
Edgewoeth, Maria. Treatise on Practical Educ. [written w. her father] o.j>. 12° London [1798] 
Felkin, H. M. Technical Education in a Saxon town 81 
Galloway, R. Education : scientific and technical 10s. Qd. 8° Triibner 81 
Gelbe, T. Handfertigkeitsunterricht ; pp. 112 Dresden 85 
Genauck, C. Die gewerbliche Erziehung durch Schulen, Lehrwerkstatten, 

&c. ; pp. 213 Is. 8° TieicTienberg 82 

GODDARD, J. G. George Birkbeck, the pioneer of popular education 

[Mechanics' Institutes] 5s. c8° Bemrose 84 
Ham, Chas. H. [Am.] Manual Training : the solution of social and industrial 

problems ^1.50 12° New York 86 

Huxley, Prof. T. H. Technical Education — in his Science and Culture ; 10s. &d. 8° MacmiUan 82 
Krause, F. W. D. Die Geschichte des Unterrichts in d. weiblichen Handar- 

beiten —in Kehr's Methodik, vol. iii. — vide II. {V), s.v. Germany 
*Leland, C. G. [Am.] Practical Education ; pp. 280 6s. c8° Whittaker [88] 88 

Treating of the deTelopment of memory, increasing quickness of perception, and training the constructive faculty. 

*McArthur, Arthur [Am.] Education in relation to Manual Industry ; 7s. 6d. c8° New Ym'k 86 
*Magnus, Sir Philip. Industrial Education [incl. the two following] 6s. 8° Paul 88 

Technical Instruction in Elem. and Intermed. Schools M. 8° Trounce 83 

Introd. Address at the Opening of Finsbury College &d. 8° Longmans 83 

m'ticle Technical Education in the Encyclop. Britann. vol. xsiii. 30s. 4° Black 88 

Nichols, G. W. [Am.] Education as applied to Industry 21s. 8° New York 11 



METHODS: TECHNICAL— UNIVERSITY 559 

■♦Report of the Eoyal Commissioners on Technical Instruction [Comm.'Sl] f" E3Te & Spottiswoode Si 

Pive Blue-books, of groat value. The report covers the whole of Europe. 
Report on Weaving and other Technical Scliools of the Continent 2s. cS" Rivington [76] 77 

RisSMANX. Geschichte des Arbeits-Unterrichtes in Deutschland Is. Gd. S" IrotJui 82 

Russell, J. S. Systematic Technical Education for English People 9s. 8" Bradbury 69 

Slagg, J. Technical Teaching [address to working men] Gd. 8" Manchester 84 

Stetson, C. B. [Am.] Technical Education: what it is and "what Amer. Pub. 

Schools should teach; pp. 28i ^S'1.25 12° Boston [73] 76 

StoBBE, U. Lehrbuch fiir den Handarbeit-Unterricht ; 12 plates, pp. 84 Leipzig 82 

Technische Unterricht, Der, in Preussen ; pp. 313 [laws, &C.] Berlin 79 

Thompsox, S. P. Technical Education : apprenticeship schools in France S" London 81 

"*TwiNlX6, T. Technical Training : system of Industrial Instruction ; 12,*. 8° Macmillan 74 

Waeeen, S. E. [Am.] Notes on Polytechnic or Scientific Schools in the United States. 8° Kem York 
WoODWAKD, C. M. [Am.] Manual Training School [aims, metliods, &c.] 10s. 8° Boston 88 

Sloyd. 

Chapman, [Miss] C. Sloj-d ; or, handwork as a factor of Education Rice 

Lord, Emily. ' Slcijd ' as a means of teaching elements of Educ. Gd. f 8" Cassell 88 

Eauscher, F. E. Der Handfertigkeits- Unterricht 85 

University Education — for History of Universities ride II. {h) ; for Student Life vide II. (c) 

General. 
Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] Universities and Instits. of superior instr. in diff. 

countr. 12s. 8° Hartford 73 

von Bollinger, J. I. J. Universitjiten sonst und jetzt Is. 8° Munich [67] 67 

EiiERSON, R. W. [Am.] Universities— i;i his English Tracts 5s. c8° Macmillan [56] 86 

Hamilton, Sir Wm. article University Reform in his Discussions on Philosophy ; 

21s. 8° Blackwood [52] 66 
V. Hoffmann, F. Ueber die Idee der Universitiiten Wili-zhmy 75 

Huxley, Prof. T. H. Universities : actual and ideal — in his Science and Cul- 
ture 10s. Gd. 8» Macmillan 82 
Johnston, W. P. [Am.] The Work of the University in America ColuinMa 84 
Morris, Prof. G. S. [Am.] Universitj' Education — in his Philosophical Papers, 

ser. i. pp. 1-40 Ann Arhor 81 

Mullinger, J. Bass. — article Universities in the Encyclop. Brit, xsiii. 30s. 4° Black 88 

Newman, Card. J. H. The Idea of a University deiined and illustrated ; pp. 527 

7s. p8° Longmans [73] 85 

The Office and Work of Universities ; pp. 384 6s. 12° Burns & Gates 56 

Lectures and Essays on University Subjects 6s. 12° Burns & Gates 59 

The Scope and Nature of Universitj^ Education 

The Rise and Progress of Universities [historical] ; 6s. c8° Burns & Gates 72 

Cf . also Ills article ou ' University Curricula ' in Fraser's Magazine, 1875. 
Organisation of Univ. Education [Intern. Health Bsliib. 84] Is. 8° Clowes 84 

*Paulsen, F. Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichtes Leipzig 85 

Pfleiderer, E. Zum Wesen der Universitiit und ihrer Aufgabe ; pp. 57 Tilbingen 84 

Whewell, Dr. AV. On the Principles of University Education ; pp. 190 o.p. 8° Parker [37] 38 

AVordsworth, Bp. C. Studies at English Universities in XVIIIth Century ; 10s. 6<^. Camb. Press 77 
Cambridge. 

Sedgwick, Rev. A. A Discourse on University Studies [Cambridge] o.p. 8° London [34] 50 
Whewell, Dr. W. Of a Liberal Education, w. partic. reference to studies 

at Cambridge ; 3 pts. op. [pub. 10s.] 8° Parker [45 50 52] 50 50 52 

i. Principles and recent history, pp. 23G ; ii. Dissensions and changes, pp. 144 ; iii. Revised statutes, pp. 100. 
Oxford. 

Rogers, Prof. Tlaorold. Education in Oxford : its methods, aids, and 

rewards ; pp. 266 6s. c8° Clar. Press 61 

Smith, Prof. Goldwin. The Reorganisation of the University of Oxford ; pp. 67, 2s. c8° Parker 68 

University Extension Education. 

Adams, H. R. [Am.] Seminary Libraries and Univ. Extension Is. Gd. 8° Baltimore 88 

Moulton (R. G.) + Stuart (J.) The University Extension Movement [account of] ; pp. 61 85 

Stedman, A. M. M. [ed.] article in his Oxford : its life and schools, 7s. Gd. c8° Bell 87 

France: Paris. 

Thurot, C. De I'Organisation de I'enseignementdans I'Univ. de Paris aumoyen-dge; pp. 213. Paris 50 



560 METHODS: UNIVERSITY— SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 

University Education — cont. 

Germany, Austria, and Italy. 
Q-£^Qi L. La Kiforma Universitaria [oomp. of Gemi. and Ital. methods] Borne 85 

COLLAUD, F. Trois Uaiversites AUemandes an point de VLie de la philologie 

classique ; pp. 357 Louvain 79-82 

WuKTZ, A. Les Hantes Etudes daus les Univ. d'Allemagne et d'Antriche-Hongrie ; pp. 123. Pai-is 82 

Women, Education of. 

Bkackett, Anna [ed.; Am.] The Education ox American Girls; pp. 401 ^'1.50. 12'^ JS'ew York 74 

A symposium of twelve ladies ; evoked by Dr. Clarke's 'Sex in Eilucation." 
BucHNER, AY. Gegenwart und Zuknnft der hoheren Miidchenschulen ; 

pp. 34 [Rein's Pild. Stud.] 1$. S" Eisenach 76 

Buckle, H. T. article Influence of Women onFrogress of Knowledge— /« 

Jiis Miscell. Works, 2 vols. '2ls. cS'' Longmans [72] 85- 

BUTLEK. Josephine E. Woman's Work and Woman's Culture [essays] ; pp. 367 

10s. 6(1. S" Macmillan 69 
Claeke, E. H. [Am.] Sex in Education : or, a Fair Chance for Girls ; pp. 181, ^1.25. 16° Boston 74 
Cloustois, T. S. Female Education [medical aspect] ; pp. 48 Edinburgh 82 

COBBE, Frances Power. Essays on the Pursiiits of Women 2s. cS" Faithful! [63] 66 

Dammajt, a. Zur Eeform des hoheren Madchenschulwesens ; pp. 88 S^' Leipzig 83 

DtrPANLOTJP, Bp.[E.-C.] L'Education des Filles ; pp.549 4f . cS" Pai-is [78] 79 

Female Schools and Education IrejMnt from Amer. Journ. oi Educ] Hartford 75 

Geey cm G ) + Shiekeff (Em.) Thoughts on Self-Culture ; addressed to women ; pp. 379 

4.*. M. 08" Simpkin [71] 72 
Hennell, Sara. Comparative Ethics, pp. 289-380 : Moral Principle in regard 

to Sexhood [educational] 83 

HiGGiNSOX, T. W. [Am.] in his Common Sense about AVomen l.s-. 8" Sonnenschein [82] 84 

HODGSOS, Prof. W. B. The Education of Girls and Employment of Women ; 05. 6^?. cS" Triibner [69] 69 
HOFFMAI^, M. Das Weib und seine Erziehung ; pp. 142 2.^. 6^. 8° Leipzig 73 

Pfeiffee, Emily. Women and Work [relation of health to higher education] 6s. 08" Triibner 88 
EOUSSELOT, P. Histoire de I'Edv^cation des Femmes de France ; 2 vols., pp. 

443, 468 Paris S3 
Pedagogie feminine extraite d. princ. ecriv. depuis le 16" siecle Paris 81 

*Shikeeff, Emilv. Intellectual Education and its Influence on Women ; pp. 

2J6 6s. c8» Smith & Elder 62 

, Principles of the Kindergarten, and their bearing on the 

Higher Education of Women Is. id. cS" Sonnenschein [76] 89 

Stanton, E. C, cfc. [eds.] in The Woman Question in Europe [by 24 contribu- 
tors, Brit, and Amer.] 12s. 6<?. 8° Low 84 
Steack, K. Geschichte der weiblichen Bildung in Deutschland ; pp. 163, 2s. Gd. Giitersloh 79 

"Writing — v. also Eeading : Primary, siqjra. 

Betteeidge, F. Handwriting : collective lessons, German Time-writing, &c.; 2s. ^od. i" Griffith 87 
Dietlein, H. E. Wegweiser fiir den Schreibunterricht 3s. 8" Leipzig [74] 76 

Feebees (J. H.) + NiENHAXTS (H.) Anleitung zur Ertheilung eines griindlichen 
Unterrichts in Schon- und Schnellschreiben [' Taktschreib- 
methode '] I5. 6d. 8° Berlin [72] 81 

Hesse, K. A. J. Der Schreibunterricht [based on psychology] Is. Gd. 8° Schweidnitz 69 

Hillaedt, F. K. Der Schreibunterricht [dot-method of guidance for script 

writing] ; pp. 28 1^. 8" flenna 73 

Kaplan, H. Katechismus des Schreibunterricht es; pp. 131 Is. 8" Lei_pzig [76] 77 

VII. §d)Ool ^ilaitagemcnf, Pisctptwc, c^a^^"*^? *-^''-'- 

(a) THE TEACHER. 
Teachers' Guides : General. 

Alden, Jos. [Am.] Outlines on Teaching 25c. 12<' JVeiv York 72 

BALDWIN, J. [Am.] The Art of School Management S'1-50 12" ^^en' York 81 

*Blakiston, J. A. The Teacher : hints and school management 2s. 6d. cS" Macmillan 79 

Beooks, E. [Am.] Normal Methods of Teaching ^-'.25 12'^ Philadelphia 79 

Caldeewood, Prof. H. On Teaching : its ends and means 2s. 6d. f 8° Macmillan [74] 81 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND HYGIENE 561 

Fakrar(F. W.) + Poole (R. B.) General Aims of the Teacher, and Form 

Management [two lectures] Is. Qd. 12° Camb. Press 83 

Gill, J. School Management, 3s. ; Introd. Text-bk. to School Educ. 12" Longmans 81, 82 

Gladman, F. School Work : Control and Teaching, 7s. Qd, ; Organisation 

and Principles 4s. c8" Jarrold, JVorwlch 8(5 

Holbrook, Alfred. [Am.] Methods of Teaching ^1.50. 12« JVew York [7.5] 70 

Joyce, P. \V. Handbook of School Management and Methods of Teaching ; 

3s. iid. 12° Simpson [63] 87 
*Landon, J. School Management; pp. 376 [Education Library] fis. c8" Paul [83] 88 

Prince, J. J. School Management and Method in Theory and Practice ; 

3s. (jd. c8° Heywood, Manchester [79] 8(> 
RiCKARD (J.) + Taylor (A. H.) Notes of Lessons : their preparation, &c.; 2s. Gd. c8° Bell [ ] 86 

Manual of School Methods; pp. 188 18° 

Robinson, R. Teacher's Manual of Method and Organisation 3s. 6d. c8° Longuians [63] 84- 

WiGGiN (H. R. R.) + Graves (A. P.) Elementary School Manager os. c8° Lsbister [79] 83 

Curriculum. 

Payne, Prof. Joseph. Curriculum of Modern Education — in his Lects. on Science 

and Art of Teaching 14s. 8" Longmans [80] 83 

Discipline. 
*BoHM, J. Die Disciplin der Volksschule Nordlingen [76] 8/5 

Die Lehre von der Schuldisciplin [Rein's Piidag. Studien] Is. 8° Eisenach 77 

Frohlich, G. Gestaltung der Zucht . . . einer erziehenden Schule [Rein's 

Studien] Is. 8° Eisenach 78 

Holbrook, Alfred. [Am.] School Management [discipline] ; pp. 272 ^1.50. 8° New York 70 
Jewell, F. S. [Am.] School Government : facts, principles, and application ; 

pp. 308 $\.m 12° New York ^^S^S 

Kehr, C. Die Praxis der Volksschule ' 3s. 8° Gotha [68] 70 

Raub, Alb. N. [Am]. School Management [discipline] ; pp. 285 50c. 12° New Haven 80 

SiDGWiCK, Prof. A. Form Discipline [lectures to Teachers' Trg. Synd. Camb.] 

Is. 6rZ. 8° Rivington [86] 87 
Zerrenner, C. C. G. Grundsiitze der Schul-Disciplin ; pp. 158 [standard] Magdeburg 26 

Examinations. 

Latham, H. On the Action of Examinations as a means of selection ; pp. 

544 10s. <6d. c8° Bell 77 

Murray, David. [Am.] The Use and Abuse of Examinations Syracuse 80 

Rolleston, Prof. G. The Examination System— i/i his Scientific Papers, vol. 

ii., pp. 907-915 2 vols. 24s. 8° Clar. Press 84 

Inspection. 

*Fearon, D. R. [H.M.I.] School Inspection ; pp. 93 2s. Gd. 12° Macmillan 76 

Marking. 

SIDGWICK, A. Marking — in Three Lects. on Teachg., by Eve + Sidgwick 

+ Abbott 2s, c8° Camb. Press 82 

Training of Teachers— /or Self-Culture, v. VI. (&). 

Dienhardt, H. Ueber Lehrerbildung und Lehrerbildungsanstalten Vienna [ ] 71 

Dittes, Prof. F. Das Lehrer-Padagogium der Stadt Wien [account of] ; pp. 60 Is. Gd. 8° Vienna 73 

Laurie, Prof. S. S. The Training of Teachers, and other papers ; pp. 370, 7s. Gd. 8° Paul 82 

Perry, C. C. Reports on German Elementary Schools and Training Col- 

leges OS. c8° Rivington 87 

Richter, K. Reform der Lehrerseminare [prize essay] 4s. 8° Leipzig 74 

Stow, David. The Training System in Glasgow, incl. Normal Seminaries 

for Training Teachers; pp. 569 o.p. \_inih. Gs. Gd!\ 8° Longmans [36] 59 

Stoy, Prof. K. V. Organisation des Lehrerseminars ; pp. 104 2s. Gd. 8° Leipzig 69 

{h) SCHOOL HYGIENE. 
Generally. 

Baginsky, a. Handbuch der Schulhygiene ; 104 pi. ; pp. 620 8° StuttgaH [73] 83 

Contains elaborate bibliograpliies, topically classified. 

Carpenter, Dr. A. The Principles and Practice of School Hygiene; ill., 4s. Gd. c8" Hughes [86] 87 
Construction and Maintenance of School Infirmaries and Sanatoria [Medic. 

Off. School Assoc] ; 13 plates Is. 8° Churchill 88 





562 SCHOOL HYGIENE, ARCHITECTURE, FURNITURE 

Dukes, Dr. C. Health at School: consid. in mental, moral, and physical 

aspects 7s. &d. 08° Cassell [86] 87 

Faequharsox, Dr. R. School Hygiene and the Diseases of School Life; 7s. &d. c8° Smith & Elder 85 
Hunt, Dr. Ezra M. [Am.] The Principles of Hygiene for the School and the 

Home ; ill. $1 08° New York 87 

JAVAL Hygiene des ecoles primaires et des ecoles maternelles ; pp. 140. 8° Pans 84 

*Newsholbie, Dr. A. School Hygiene : the laws of health in relation to school 

life ; ill. 2s. <od. cS" Sonnenschein [87] 88 

PiiAXT, A. Hygiene Scolaire ; pp. 400 8" Paris 82 

Eyesight, 

Calhoun, A. W. [Am.] Effects of Student Life upon the Eyesight ; pp. 29 

[Govt, pub.] Washington 81 
COHN, H. Untersuchungen iiber die Augen [Engl. tr. by W. P. Turnbull in 1883] 3s. 8° Leipzig 67 
LiEBRiCH, Dr. R. School Life : its influence on sight and figure Is. 8" Churchill [77] 78 

Over-Pressure. 

Browne, Dr. Crichton. Report on Over-Pressure [Govt, blue-bk.] Eyre & Spottiswoode 85 

BtJXTON, Sydney. Over-Pressure and Elementary Education Is. cS" Sonnenschein 85 

Hasemann, p. Ueberblirdung der Schiller in d. hoheren Lehranstalten 

Deutschlands ; pp. 30 Strassiurg 84 

Hasse, Dr. P. Ueberbiirdung unserer Jugend auf hoheren Lehranstalten ; pp. 92, 2s. Brunsrv. 80 

*Hertel, Dr. Over-Pressure in the High Schools of Denmark [tr. fr. 

Danish] ; pp. 148 3s. &d. ci" Macmillan 85 

Based on a study of several hundred cliildi-en; w. valuable iutro. by Dr. Crichton Browne. 
Sonnenschein, A. The Truth about Elementary Education &d. 8° Sonnenschein 86 

WiESE, Prof. L. Padagogische Ideale und Proteste ; pp. 139 p8° Berlin- 84 

(c) SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE, FURNITURE, APPLIANCES, &c. 
Architecture. 
Barnard, H. [Am. ; ed.] School Architecture ; 300 ill. [miscellaneous papers 

by various writers], pp. 46-8 12s. r8" Hartford [54] 63 

BiCKBLL, A, J. [Am.] School-House and Church Architecture ; ill. 15s. 4° Triibner 77 

EvELETH, S. F. [Am.] School-House Architecture : designs, plans, &c. ; 67 plates; $6. 4<> New York 
JOHONNOT, J. [Am.] School-Houses, w. architect, designs by S. B. Hewes ; ^3 8° New York [71] 72 
Robins, E. C. Technical School and College Buildings ; 64 ill. ; pp. 250, 50s. 4° Whittaker 87 
*ROBSON, E. R. School Architecture : planning, designing, building, &c. ; 

ill. 18s. rS" Murray [74] 77 

By the architect to the London School Board. 
Furniture and Appliances. — vide also VI. (&) s.v. Geography. 

Bagnaux -—in art. on School Desks in Conferences faites a Paris '78 3f. 50c. 08° Paris [78] 79 
*Fahrner, Dr. Das Kind und der Schultisch Is. 8° Zurich [65] 65 

FiTCH, J. G. The Schoolroom and its Appliances— iw his Lectures on 

Teaching, pp. 64-89 5s. cS" Camb. Press [80] 82 

Gardening in Schools. 

Georgens, J. D. Der Volksschulgarten und das Volksschulhaus ; pp. 190 4s. 8° Berlin 73 
Obbnteaut, a. R. Die Schule im Dienste der Landeskultur ; ill., pp. 106 2s. 8° Vienna 75 
*SCHWAB, E. Der Schulgarten ; with 4 plans ; pp. 68 Is. M. 8" Vienna [70] 76 

Library — vide also s.v. Choice of Books 

Barnard, H. [Am.] School, District, Town, and Village Libraries ; pp. 150 

[organ, and managt.] Gs. 8° Hartford 54 

Museum, Scliool, 

Le Musee Pedagogique : son origine, son organisation, son objet; pp. 122 8" PaHs 84 



Spottiswoode & Co., t^rinters. New-street Square, London, 



